V

ROYAL BOTANIC GA RDENS,
KEW.

MUSEUM LIBRARY.

X

y

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PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL

AND

TRANSACTIONS.

SECOND SERIES.

VOLUME VI.

18G4-65.

LONDON :

JOHN CHURCHILL AND SONS,

NEW BURLINGTON STREET;

MACLACHLAN & STEWART, Edinburgh ; and EANNIN & Co., Dublin.

1865.

PRINTED LY

JOHN EDWARD TAYLOR, LITTLE QUEEN STREET,
LINCOLN’S INN FIELDS.

CONTENTS

SECOND SERIES, VOL. VI.— 1864-5.

No. I.

The Conditions of Membership, 1 — The Minor Examination, 4 — Legislation affecting
Pharmacy, 5.

Transactions of the Pharmaceutical Society : Meeting of Council, 5 — Benevolent
Fund, 6 — List of Members, Associates, and Apprentices ( continued ), 6.

Original and Extracted Articles : Lectures on the British Pharmacopoeia — On the
Relation of the British Pharmacopoeia to Pharmacology. Lecture II. Dr. John
Attfield, E.C.S {concluded), 7 — On the Amount of Alkaloids in the Cinchona Trees
cultivated in Java. Dr. J. E. De Try, 15. — On the Use of Quinovic Acid (Cin¬
chona Bitter) in Medicine. Dr. J. E. D. Try, 18 — On the Root-Bark of the Cin-
chonse. J. E. Howard, F.L.S., 19 — The Pharmacopoeia Process for Citrate of Iron
and Quinine. Mr. E. Fleurot, 21— Tyson’s Process for Blue Pill. Dr. Aldridge,
21 — On the Causes of Change in Seed-Oils. Mr. C. Tomlinson, 23 — The Leech-
Destroyer. Mr. R. G. Mumbray, 23 — Percolation and Maceration. Mr. J. C.
Pooley, 23 — Liquor Ferri Perchloridi. Mr. A. Utley, 24 — Pharmaceutical Le¬
gislation. Mr. John Tuck, 24 — The Proposed Pharmacy Act. Mr. E. B. Yizer,
26. Mr. F. Tibbs, 27. A Minor Associate, 28 — The Late Mr. Barry, 29 —
Memoir of Luke Howard, 34 — Note on an Alkaloid obtained from the Seeds
of Ricinus communis, or Castor-Oil Plant. Professor Tuson, 35 — Metric Weights
and Measiires Act of 1864, 36 — Miscellanea , 37 — Reviews: The Essentials
of Materia Medica. Alfred Baring Garrod, M.D. etc., 39 — A Companion to the
Pharmacopoeia. Peter Squire, E.L.S., 41 — The Prescriber’s Analysis of the British
Pharmacopoeia. J. Birkbeck Kevins, M.D. etc., 43 — Bootes Received , 44 — Cor -
re pondents , 44.

No. II.

Separate Examinations for Chemists already in Business on their own Account, 45.

Transactions of the Pharmaceutical Society : Meeting of Council, 47 — List of Mem¬
bers, Associates, and Apprentices {continued) , 47 — Benevolent Fund, 47.

Original and Extracted A Hides : On the Red Variety of Pitayo Bark. J. E. Howard,
F.L.S., etc. {with cuts), 48 — On the Determination of the amount of Alkaloids in
Cinchona Bark. Dr. J. E. De Vry, 50 — The Rice Paper of Formosa. Mr. Robert
Swinhoe, 52 — On Accidental Poisoning in connection with the Responsibilities of
Dispensing Chemists. Mr. Henry B. Brady, 53 — Tyson’s Process for Blue
Pill. Dr. Aldridge, 56 — Emplastrum Hydrargyri. Mr. T. Blunt, 56 — On the
Process of the British Pharmacopoeia for Preparing Linimentum Aconiti, and on

IV

CONTENTS.

the Medical Agency of the Linimentum so Prepared. M. Donovan, M.R.I.A., etc.,
57 — On Aconitia and its Physiological Effects. Mr. Ernest Hottot, 59 — On My-
roxylon Toluiferum, and the Mode of Procuring the Balsam of Tolu. John Weir,
GO — On the Properties of Silicic Acid and other Analogous Collodial Substances.
Thomas Graham, F.R.S., etc., 63 — Lighthouse Illuminating by Magneto-Electricity.
J. H. Gladstone, Ph.D., etc., 67 — On the Chemical History of Gun-Cotton. Pro¬
fessor Abel, F.R.S., etc., 71 — Report on the Industry of Manures, 83 — Action of
Iodine, Bromine, and Chlorine upon Sugar, 90 — Miscellanea, 91 — Boolcs Received ,
92 — Correspondents , 92.

No. TIL

Pharmaceutical Responsibility, 93 — British Pharmaceutical Conference, 99.

Transactions of the Pharmaceutical Society : — Meeting of Council, 97 — List of Mem¬
bers elected, 97 — Benevolent Fund, 97.

Provincial Transactions : Excursion of the Liverpool Chemists’ Association, 97 — -
British Pharmaceutical Conference, 99.

Original and Extracted Articles: Notes on the Cases of Poisoning by Calabar Beans,
at Liverpool. J. Baker Edwards, Ph.C., etc., 99 — Abstract of the Report of the
Committee of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society on Chloroform, 100 — On
Boiling Water. W. R. Grove, Q.C., F.R.S., etc., 106 — Gun-Cotton. John Scott
Russell, F.R.S., 111 — On Literary and Scientific Studies in connection with Medi¬
cine. J. JI. Balfour, M.D., etc., 119 — Professor Balfour on Botanical Science and
the Bible, 121 — Report on the Industry of Manures. A. W. Hofmann, Ph.D., etc.
{continued) , 123 — The Manufacture of Vegetable Oils, 127 — Accidental Poisoning
by Strychnine, 129 — Case of Poisoning by Strychnine : Action against the Chemists
for Damages, 133 — Poisoning by Calabar Beans, 134 — The Late Accident at Liver¬
pool, 137 — Legislation affecting Pharmacy, 138 — Miscellanea, 138 — Boolcs Re¬
ceived, 140 — Correspondents , 140.

No. IV.

The Sixth Report of the Medical Officer of the Privy Council, with Appendix, 141.

British Pharmaceutical Conference, 143.

Transactions of the Pharmaceutical Society : Meeting of Council, 143 — British Phar¬
maceutical Conference — Bath Meeting, 144.

Original and Extracted Articles : Professor Taylor’s Report on Poisoning, and the
Dispensing, Vending, and Keeping of Poisons, 172 — Report of the Medical Officer
of the Privy Council on Accidental and Criminal Poisoning, 184 — Pharmaceutical
Responsibility. Messrs. Clay and Abraham, 187 — Letter from “J. C.,” 190 —
The Supply of Cod-Liver Oil. Mr. R. Howden, 191 — A New Indian Vermi¬
fuge, 192 — Boolcs Received , 192 — Correspondents, 192.

No. V.

On the Duties and Responsibilities of the Chemist in Dispensing Medicines, 193.

Transactions of the Pharmaceutical Society : Meeting of Council, 196 — List of Mem¬
bers, Associates, and Apprentices ( continued ), 196 — Pharmaceutical Meeting — Do¬
nations to the Library and Museum, 197 — The Distribution of Prizes, 199 — A
Contribution to the History of Balsam of Peru. Dr. Attfield, 204.

Original and. Extracted Articles : Extraction and Preservation of Aromata. C. R. C. '
Tichborne, F.C.S., 206 — On Commercial Carbonate of Bismuth. Mr. C. Umney, 208.
— Pharmaceutical Application of Glycerine. Mr. F. Baden Benger, 209 — Applica¬
tion of Dialysis in Determining the Crystalline Constituents of Plants. Dr. Att¬
field, 212 — Purity of Foreign Iodide of Potassium. Mr. F. C. Clayton, 214 — On a

CONTENTS.

V

Test for Methylic Alcohol. Mr. J. Tuck, 215 — Report on Weights and Measures
used in Pharmacy. Mr. B. Proctor, 218 — On Microscopical Research. Messrs.
Beane and Brady, 232 — On the Purity of Sulphate of Quinine. Mr. Walter Stod-
dart, 241 — On Commercial Podophyllin. Mr. James Spearing, 244 — A Chemist’s
Holiday Jottings in France. Mr. Daniel Hanbury, 245 — On the Rancidity of
Fats. Thomas B. Groves, F.C.S., 249 — On the Processes for Preparing Tinctures.
Mr. W. D. Savage, 254 — On the Cultivation of Medicinal Plants. Mr. T. T. P.
Bruce Warren, 256 — On the Preparation of Concentrated Infusions. Mr. T.
Grundy, 259 — Note on Potentilla Torment-ilia. Mr. John Adams, 260 — On the
Calabar Bean. Mr. J. B. Edwards, Ph.D., F.C.S., 261 — On the Morphia Salts of
Commerce. Mr. W. E. Heathfield, 262 — On Commercial Phosphoric Acid. R.
Parkinson, Ph.D., 264— On the Assay of the Alkaloids. T. B. Groves, F.C.S., 268 — •
On the Purity of Commercial Powder of Opium, etc. Mr. Rimmington, 275 — On
an Improved Wine of Iron. H. N. Draper, F.C.S., and Mr. Whitla, 277 — On
Commercial Wine of Iron. Francis Stltton, F.C.S., 278 — Report on Citrate of
Iron and Quinine. Mr. J. C. Braithwaite, 280 — A Case of Attempted Criminal
Abortion at Brighton, 284, 291— Medical and Pharmaceutical Responsibility, 287 — •
290 — Dispensing Department. Mr. J. Leay, 289 — Test for Methylic Alcohol. Mr.
E. J. Reynolds, 292 — Medical Titles, 293 — Obituary: Thomas Herring, 294 —
Books Received, 295 — Correspondents , 296.

No. VI.

Separate Examinations for Chemists already in Business on their own Account, 297.

The Proposed New Pharmacy Bill, 298.

Transactions of the Pharmaceutical Society : Meeting of Council, 300 — Benevolent
Fund, 300 — List of Members, Associates, and Apprentices ( continued ) 300 — Phar¬
maceutical Meeting: Donations to the Library and Museum, 301 — Howell’s Safety
Poison Capsule, 302 — On the Production of Hydrocyanic Acid from Bitter Cassava
Root. By W. F. Daniell, M.D., F.L.S., etc., 302 — On some of the Extracts of the
British Pharmacopoeia prepared from the Dry Material. Mr. F. Haselden, 304.

Provincial Transactions : Liverpool Chemists’ Association, 310 — Leeds Chemists’
Association, 320.

Original and Extracted Articles : The Application of the Starch Test for Detecting
Iodide in Bromide of Potassium. Mr. W. Huskisson, jun., 322- — Commercial
Bromide of Potassium. Mr. C. Umney, 324 — State of Pharmacy in France. Mr.
Charles Ekin, 324 — State of Pharmacy in France : Extracts from the Report of
the Commission, etc., 326 — Pharmacy in- America. Mr. W. Wilmott, 328 — Phar¬
maceutical Responsibility. Mr. Henry Deane, 328— Death by Poisoning. Mr. R.
Goodwin Mumbray, 329 — Liquor Ferri Perchloridi. Mr. J. T. Miller, 331 — Poi¬
sonous Principle of Bitter Cassava Root. Mr. G. Mee, 332 — The Methylic Al¬
cohol Test. Mr. John Tuck, 333 — Fraud and Death. Mr. William Wysall, 334 —
On the Metal Indium and Recent Discoveries in Spectrum Analysis. Professor
Roscoe, 334 — -A Colourless Varnish, 33S — The British Pharmaceutical Conference
and the American Pharmaceutical Association, 339 — Miscellanea , 340 — Case for
the Benevolent, 343— Books Received, 344 — Correspondents, 344.

No. VII.

The Proposed Legislation affecting Pharmacy, 345 — The Benevolent Fund, 346.
Transactions of the Pharmaceutical Society : Meeting of Council, 348 — List of
Members, Associates, and Apprentices ( continued ), 348 — Pharmaceutical Meeting:
Donations to the Library and Museum, 349 — On the Botanical Origin of Gamboge.
Daniel Hanbury, F.L.S., 349— On some of the Extracts of the British Pharmaco¬
poeia prepared from the Dry Material ( continued ) : Extractum Kramerice. Mr. A.

VI

•CONTENTS.

F. Haselden, 351— On Nitrite of Soda. Mr. A. J. Roberts, 354 — Donations, etc.,
to the Benevolent Fund, 357 — Regulations of the Benevolent Fund, 360 — Pharma¬
ceutical Society, Edinburgh, 362.

Provincial Transactions : Leeds Chemists’ Association, 373 — Meeting of Chemists
and Druggists at Glasgow, 376— Meeting of Chemists and Druggists at Leicester,
379.

Original and Extracted Articles : The Extended Pharmacy Act. E., 380 — On the
Use of Alcohol as a Test for the Purity of Croton Oil. By Robert Warington,
F.R.S., etc., 382 — Note on Mr. Warington’s Paper, entitled ‘ On the Use of Alco¬
hol as a Test for the Purity of Croton Oil.’ By Professor Bentley, 387 — The
Methylic Alcohol Test. Mr. E. J. Reynolds, 389 — Poison Preventives. Mr. E.
W. Barnett, 389. Mr. T. Barling, 390 — Alleged Poisoning by Strychnia, 391 — Fatal
Explosion of Oxygen Gas, 391 — Books Received, 392 — Correspondents, 392.

No. VIII.

Progress made with reference to Pharmaceutical Legislation, 393.

Transactions of the Pharmaceutical Society : Meeting of Council, 395 — List of Mem¬
bers, Associates, and Apprentices ( continued ), 395 — Pharmaceutical Meeting : Notes
on the Chlorides of Iron, and the Methods of making Solution of Perchloride of
Iron of constant strength. J. Attfield, Pli.D., F.C.S., 396 — On a New Form of
Ointment of Stavesacre and its Application in certain Cutaneous Diseases. Bal-
manno Squire, M.B., F.L.S., 405 — Discovery of Theine in Eola Nuts, 407— On the
Purification of Essential Oil of Almonds. Mr. W. A. Tilden, 407 — Pharmaceu¬
tical Society, Edinburgh, 409.

Provincial Transactions : Liverpool Chemists’ Association, 416 — Leeds Chemists’ As¬
sociation, 417 — Bath Chemists’ Association, 422 — Chemical Discussion Association
of the Pharmaceutical Society, 425.

Meetings on Pharmacy Bill : Edinburgh Meeting, 425 — Meeting of the Liverpool
Chemists and Druggists, 426 — Meeting of the Chemists and Druggists in Not¬
tingham, 430- — Meeting of Chemists and Druggists at Southampton, 431.

Original and Extracted Articles : Notes on Conessine, alias Wrightine. R. Haines,
M.B., 432 — Cochineal Colouring. Dr. George Dickson, 434 — Sea-weed Wine.
Mr. R. W. Tamplin, 435 — Purified Oil of Bitter Almonds. Messrs. Preston and
Sons, 435 — Poison Bottles. Mr. T. H. Holloway, 435 — A Simple and Practical
S: ggestion for Preventing Mistakes and Accidental Poisoning. Mr. Henry Long,
436 — Accidental Poisoning. Mr. Henry Barnaby, 437 — Proposed Legislation and
the Benevolent Fund, 437 — The Meeting of Chemists at Glasgow. Mr. A. Kinin-
mont, 438 — The Chemists of Salisbury, 439 — Annual Meeting of the American
Pharmaceutical Association, 1864, 440 — Miscellanea , 441 — Reviews : Treatment of
Diseases of the Skin. Dr. W. Frazer, 442 — Skin Diseases. Tilbury Fox, M.D.,
442 — The Philosophy of Health. Southwood Smith, M.D., 443 — The Year Book
of Pharmacy. Messrs. C. H. Wood and C. Sharp, 444 — Obituary, 444 — Books
Received , 444 — Corespondents , 444.

No. IX.

Questions relating to the Pharmacy Bill, 445.

Transactions of the Pharmaceutical Society : Meeting of Council, 447 — List of Mem¬
bers, Associates, and Apprentices {continued), 447 — Benevolent Fund, 448 — Phar¬
maceutical Meeting : On the Kola-Nut of Tropical West Africa (The Guru-Nut of
Soudan). W. F. Daniell, M.D., F.L.S., etc., 450 — On the Food-Value of the Kola-
Nut — A New Source of Theine. John Attfield, Ph.D., F.C.S., 457 — On the Bo¬
tanical Origin of Savanilla Rhatany. Daniel Hanbury, F.L.S., 460 — Pharmaceu¬
tical Society, Edinburgh, 462.

CONTENTS.

Vll

Provincial Transactions: Liverpool Chemists’ Association, 465 — Leeds Chemists’ As¬
sociation, 468 — Meeting of Chemists and Druggists at York, 469.

Original and Extracted Articles : Tinct. Ferri Perchloridi. diaries Ekin, F.C.S.,
473 — The Pharmacy Bill. Mr. Barnard S. Proctor, 471 — The Pharmacy Bill. Mr.
W. Wilson, 447 — -The Proposed Legislation and the Benevolent Fund. “ G.,” 479
— On the Use of Litmus Tincture for Indicating the Point of Centralization of
Acids and Alkalies by Gras-light. Mr. C. M. Blades, 479 — The Preservation of
Leeches. Mr. C. F. Bevan, 479 — Some Curious Facts relating to the above, 480 — -
On the Discrimination of Organic Bodies by their Optical Properties. Prof. Gr. Gr.
Stokes, M.A., 481 — Uses of the Horse-Chestnut, 488 — Miscellanea , 489 — Boohs
Received, 492 — Correspondents , 492

No. X.

On the Pharmaceutical Society and Chemists and Druggists, 493 — The Two Bills for
Regulating the Qualifications of Chemists and Druggists, 495 — The Two Societies,
from which the Bills have emanated, 499.

Transactions of the Pharmaceutical Society .- Meeting of Council, 505 — List of Mem¬
bers, Associates, and Apprentices ( continued ), 505 — Financial Statement, 506 —
Botanical Prize, 507 — Pharmaceutical Meeting : Donations to the Library and Mu¬
seum, 507 — On the Phosphate of Ammonia of British Pharmacopoeia. Mr. John
Watts, 507 — On a Better Mode of Preparing Red Oxide of Mercury Ointment.
Alexander Balmanno Squire, M.B., etc., 512 — Note on Chinese Sal Ammoniac.
Daniel Hanbury, F.L.S., 514 — Pharmaceutical Society, Edinburgh, 515.

Provincial Transactions : Glasgow Chemists and Druggists’ Festival, 516.

Original and Extracted Articles .- The Bills to Regulate the Qualifications of Che¬
mists and Druggists, 516, 520 — Pharmaceutical Legislation. “ Opifex,” 525 — -
False Accusation against a Local Socretary, 527 — Pharmaceutical Legislation. J.
S. F. Richardson, F.C.S., 528 — Sale of Poisons. Mr. W. Wilkinson, 530 — Import¬
ance of the Appointment of Local Secretaries. A Country Member, 531 — New
System of Examinations, 532 — The Two Measures. Mr. B. Yizer, 532 — Fire In¬
surance. Mr. M. Carteighe, 533 — Detection of Methylic Alcohol. Mr. J. F.
Miller, 534 — The New Light. Mr. W. Willmott, 536 — Substitution of Corrosive
Sublimate for Steedman’s Powder, 539 — Effects of the Calabar Bean as an Antidote
to Poisoning by Atropia, 541 — On the Citrine Ointment of the British Pharmaco¬
poeia. Mr. M. Donovan, 541 — Magnesium : its Preparation and Properties. Mr.
E. J. Reynolds, 543 — Bismuthi et Ammoniae Citras. Mr. N. Gray Bartlett, 545 —
Cantliarides of the Argentine Provinces. Dr. Hermann Burmeister, 548 — On the
Preparation of Liq. Ferri Perchlor., P.B. Mr. William Jardine, 549 — Cochineal
Colouring, 552, 553 — Pharmacopoeia of India, 553 — Review : Manual of Practical
Therapeutics. Mr. E. J. Waring, 554 — Poisoning by Arnica Liniment, 555 — -
Boohs Received , 556 — Correspondents , 556.

No. XI.

The Proposed Legislation Affecting Pharmacy, 557.

Transactions of the Pharmaceutical Society : Meeting of Council, 560 — List of Mem¬
bers, Associates, and Apprentices ( continued ), 560 — Benevolent Fund, 561 — Phar¬
maceutical Meeting : Donations to the Library and Museum, 562 — Resina Jalapae,
P.B. Mr. A. F. Haselden, 563 — On the Construction of a Pharmacopoeia. Pro¬
fessor Redwood, 565 — Pharmaceutical Society, Edinburgh, 575.

Provincial Transactions : Leeds Chemists’ Association, 582 — Meeting of Pharmaceu¬
tists at Leeds, 583.

Original and Extracted Articles: Microscopical Researches on the Alkaloids, as
existing in Chinchona Bark. J. E. Howard. F.L.S., etc., {with plates), 581 — Phar¬
maceutical Legislation, 588 — Report of the Committee of the Medical Council on

Vlll

CONTENTS.

the Pharmacy Bill, 601 — Public Opinion on the Two Bills, 603 — Opposition to Free
Trade. Mr. W. Rayner, 610 — Letter from Mr. Buott, 610 — Action of Perman¬
ganate of Potash on Glycerine. Mr. George Mee, 613 — Preparation of Liquor
Bismuthi. T. P. Blunt, F.C.S., 613 — Cochineal Colouring. Mr. Robert Palmer,
615 — On the Arsenic-Eaters of Styria. Dr. Maclagan, 615 — Hooks Received , 620
• — Correspondents , 620.

No. NIL

The Proposed Legislation affecting Pharmacy, 621.

Transactions of the Pharmaceutical Society : Meetings of Council, 623 — List of Mem¬
bers, Associates, and Apprentices ( continued ), 623 — Conversazione, 624 — The
Twenty-Fourth Anniversary Meeting of the Pharmaceutical Society, 627 — Adjourned
Meeting : Election of Council, 639.

Original and Extracted Articles : Liquor Bismuthi. C. R. C. Tichborne, F.C.S., etc.,
640 — On Mr. Miller’s Method for the Detection of Methvlic Alcohol. Harry
Napier Draper, F.G'.S., etc., 641 — Spontaneous Oxidation of Amorphous (Red)
Phosphorus. T. B. Groves, F.C.S., 643 — Poisoning by Oxallic Acid and Strych¬
nine. Mr. E. Hollier, 643 — Chemists: Pains and Penalties. “ J. B.,” 645 —
Counter Practice. Mr. H. Clayton, 647 — Distillation by Steam. Mr. R. W. Giles,
647 — Unguentum Hydrargyri Nitratis. Mr. George Mee, 648 — On Magenta and
its Derivative Colours. Frederick Field, F.R.S., 650 — Cork and its Uses. Mr. John
R. Jackson, 652 — The Pharmaceutist as a Merchant. Mr. Frederick Stearns, 655
— Note on Caramania Gum. Mr. William Proctor, Jun., 658 — New Process for
making Fluid Extracts, 658 — Gullibility of the Public, 659 — Fatal Explosion in
Making Oxygen Gas, 659 — Pharmacy in Australia, 661 — Magnesium, 662 — Mysteri¬
ous Case of Poisoning at Dawlish, 662 — Miscellanea, 663 — British Pharmaceutical
Conference, 665 — Books Received , 668 — Correspondence , 668.

THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

SECOND SERIES.

YOL. VI.— No. I.— JULY 1st, 1864.

THE CONDITIONS OE MEMBERSHIP.

Since the period at which the Pharmaceutical Society was rising to the posi¬
tion of an established institution, there has never, we believe, been a more
general and anxious desire manifested for admission to membership than exists
at the present time. The question — “ What are the steps necessary for gaining
admission to the Society ?” — is so frequently addressed to the Secretary, that it
has been thought desirable to give in this form the information which is asked
for by many, and is no doubt wished for by a still greater number. The inquiries
to which we refer, do not emanate alone from young men who are studying with
a view to their establishment as Pharmaceutical Chemists, but also and espe¬
cially from chemists and druggists already engaged in business on their own ac¬
count. This affords satisfactory evidence of the soundness of the principles
upon which the decisions and established regulations of the Society have been
founded. The public discussion of questions relating to the constitution, the ob¬
jects, and operations of our Institution appears to induce an increased desire to
become connected with it, and the more firmly the application of a test of qua¬
lification is adhered to as a necessary condition to membership, the more is the
attainment of the object desired, and the more when attained is it appreciated.

It is a natural tendency of the human mind to try to escape from a pre¬
scribed task which interferes with the voluntary excursions of thought, and in¬
volves a daily or habitual application of the mental energies in a specified direc¬
tion. This prescribed work, although a wholesome discipline, essential to the
proper training of the mind in youth, is always more or less irksome, and it
becomes especially so to those who have passed from the age of pupilage and
entered upon the duties and distracting occupations of manhood. Yet it is quite
possible to give way to this feeling unduly, and no man will ever regret the re¬
sult of efforts made to stimulate the mind to increased activity, especially when
this is made the means of attaining to a higher social or professional position.
The more severe may be the mental discipline imposed, the greater will be the
satisfaction felt when the object sought for has been attained.

But we do not wish it to be thought that the ordeal imposed upon those who
are seeking to enter the Pharmaceutical Society, is such as any man with mo¬
derate abilities and powers of application need fear to encounter. In an article
following this the nature of an examination is described, and it will be found to
be truly practical, and calculated fully and fairly to test the fitness of the candi¬
date for the duties he proposes to undertake. No one, of course, would think

VOL. VI. B

2

THE CONDITIONS OF MEMBERSHIP.

of offering himself for examination without some previous preparation, and the
only difficulty that can attend the undertaking is to know how to set about this
preparation, and to find the time and application for its accomplishment. We
propose on some future occasion to devote an article to the subject of prepara¬
tion for the examinations. At present we have merely to point out what are
the steps to be taken to become registered as Pharmaceutical Chemists, Assistants,
and Apprentices, and for obtaining admission into the Pharmaceutical Society.

tSTo person can be placed upon the Register or admitted into the Society with¬
out passing an examination.

Any person, after passing the required ordeal and receiving a certificate to
that effect, is entitled, on payment of the specified fee, to be registered as Phar¬
maceutical Chemist, Assistant, or Apprentice, as the case may be. This gives
him the title and privileges resulting from registration under the Pharmacy Act,
but it does not make him in any way connected with the Pharmaceutical Society.

Those who have passed the examinations are entitled to registration, but they
are only eligible for admission into the Society. Hence Registration follows as
a necessary consequence of passing an examination, whereas admission into the
Society, although founded upon the same qualification, is the result of a distinct
application made afterwards, and it involves the payment of a separate subscrip¬
tion.

There appears to have been a good deal of misapprehension upon this subject,
and it may be well therefore to endeavour to make it as clear as possible.

An apprentice proposes to be registered under the Pharmacy Act ; he there¬
fore presents himself for the classical examination, and on passing it, and pay¬
ing a fee of two guineas, he is placed on the Register. If it be asked, what has
he gained by this ? it may be answered, that he has taken the first step, and
paid the first instalment of the fee, for becoming a Pharmaceutical Chemist.
But it may be asked, does he derive any immediate benefit, or anything in
return for the payment of the fee ? In reply to this it may be stated that he
has the benefit of calling himself a Registered Apprentice, which implies that
he possesses the first qualification for the higher position of assistant or phar¬
maceutist, but he has not yet entitled himself to anything more. If he desires
at once to enjoy the advantages of association with the Pharmaceutical Society,
he must apply to the Secretary for admission as a Registered Apprentice of the
Society. This he will receive as a matter of course, on presenting his certifi¬
cate, which implies the requisite qualification, but he will now have to pay a
subscription of half- a- guinea a year to the Society. In return for this subscrip¬
tion he will receive the 1 Pharmaceutical Journal’ without payment, he will be
admitted to the lectures provided by the Society on the payment of half the fees
otherwise charged, he will have free admission to the Library and Museum of
the Society, and be eligible to compete for the Bell Scholarships, besides enjoy¬
ing other advantages conferred by the institution.

At the end of his apprenticeship, or earlier it may be, he desires to take the
next step, and be registered as a qualified assistant. To enable him to do this
he must pass the Minor Examination of the Pharmaceutical Society. In pre¬
paring himself for this examination some amount of systematic study is neces¬
sary, and if he has the means of doing so, he will no doubt avail himself of the
instruction provided by the Society, and at the same time will reap the benefit
of his connection with the Society. On passing the Minor Examination, and
paying the fee (which, as he is a registered apprentice, will be three guineas,
otherwise it would be five guineas), he receives a certificate of qualification as
an assistant, and is registere 1 as such. lie has now taken the second step towards
becoming a Pharmaceutical Chemist, but in doing this he has ceased to be
a Registered Apprentice, having passed to a higher grade. His examination,
however, has only entitled him to registration as in the former case, and if he
wishes to belong to the Society, and continue to enjoy the resulting privileges,

THE CONDITIONS OF MEMBERSHIP.

3

lie must now apply to be admitted as an Associate. This would be granted,
as a matter of course, on his presenting his certificate of qualification, and pay¬
ing the annual subscription of half-a- guinea, — the same as he paid as a Regis¬
tered Apprentice. Associates, as well as apprentices or students, enjoy the
same privileges and benefits of the Society as members, excepting the right of
being present at the general meetings of the Society, or of holding office, or
voting in the Society.

The position and title acquired by passing the Minor Examination and being
registered as a qualified assistant are held under the authority of the Pharmacy
Act, and may be retained throughout the lifetime of the possessor. Not so,
however, the position of Associate of the Pharmaceutical Society, for as the
charter requires that associates shall be assistants to chemists and druggists, it
follows that they must cease to be associates when they go into business on their
own account. They must, then, become members or cease to belong to the
Society. This, at least, is the present state of the law and regulations of the
Society ; but it will be recollected that, according to the proposed new Phar¬
macy Bill, the Minor Examination will afford a qualification for men in busi¬
ness as well as for assistants.

Following out the case of the individual whose course we have traced from
the commencement of his apprenticeship, we may assume that he now desires
to take the highest grade, by passing the Major Examination. On presenting
himself for this examination, he must show that he is at least twenty-one years
of age, but no other condition is imposed upon him. It is not necessary that
he should have attended any lectures, or pursued any particular course of study ;
all that is required is that he should satisfy the examiners that he possesses the
requisite amount of knowledge on the subjects on which he is examined. On
passing the examination, he pays a fee, which, including what he has previously
paid, amounts to ten guineas, and he is registered as a Pharmaceutical Chemist.
He has now fulfilled all that the law requires. He may go into business, and
call himself a pharmaceutical chemist. But here again, as before, the registra¬
tion does not connect him with the Society, or make him a member. If he
wishes to be a member of the Pharmaceutical Society, he must apply for admis¬
sion, and pay the subscription of one guinea a year, or the life-member’s com¬
mutation fee of twenty guineas. But there is yet another condition essential
to membership, and that is, that he should either be or have been in business on
his own account. He may pass the Major Examination before going, or even
intending to go, into business. He may, therefore, be registered and have the
title of pharmaceutical chemist while he is yet an assistant, but he cannot yet
take up his membership in the Society ; and if he desires to retain his connec¬
tion with the Society, he must remain as an associate until he enters into busi¬
ness on his own account.

It will thus be seen that those who pass the examinations and are registered
as pharmaceutical chemists, assistants, and apprentices under the Pharmacy
Act, do not necessarily belong to the Pharmaceutical Society, although all who
belong to the Society are necessarily registered, and none can now be registered
without being examined. The register contains the names of all those who
possess the qualifications required by law as specified in the Pharmacy Act. It
comprises all the members, associates, and registered apprentices of the Phar¬
maceutical Society, but it also includes others who, having passed the examina¬
tions and thus become registered, have rested satisfied with these distinctions, and
have not sought the more prominent position acquired by connection with the
Society. The list which is published annually and is appended to the present
number of this Journal, contains the names of the members, associates, and
apprentices of the Society, but this list does not comprise all who are registered,
and those, therefore, who do not belong to the Society, although registered, will
not find their names in this list. Some of those who have stopped short at the

4

THE MINOR EXAMINATION.

point of registration have done so from ignorance rather than design, being
under the impression that having passed the examinations of the Pharmaceutical
Society, and paid the fees demanded on examination, they had thereby become
entitled to all the privileges and benefits the Society affords to those who be¬
long to it. A slight investigation of the circumstances of the case would show
how unreasonable such an expectation would be, and how impossible would be
its realization. The maintenance of an establishment in Bloomsbury Square
with all the means provided there for promoting the cultivation of pharmaceu¬
tical science, and the extension of pharmaceutical knowledge, including the gra¬
tuitous circulation of a scientific journal, are undertakings which could only be
accomplished by the combined efforts and special contributions of an extensive
association like that of the Pharmaceutical Society.

THE MINOR EXAMINATION.

Whatever differences of opinion may exist upon other measures connected
with Pharmacy, all seem to be agreed that an examination of some kind is ab¬
solutely necessary, both for the sake of the public and for the best interests of
pharmaceutists themselves. The Minor Examination has been specially brought
into notice of late, and as many persons may have imperfect or mistaken ideas
of its character, an account of it is subjoined from the pen of an eye-witness.

“ When a young man presented himself for the Minor Examination, the course
adopted was as follows : — He first took his seat with the examiner in prescriptions,
and a book was presented to him, full of those which had been actually made
up at the counters • of various dispensing chemists. They were not written to
puzzle him. but were the actual prescriptions pasted into the book ; those which
he might have had to make up if in a situation, or such as he might be required
to make up the next day. He was asked to translate them in full and at
length, to give the literal English, and to give also that translation of the
directions which he would write upon the label. He then passed to the dis¬
pensing-counter, when a prescription was handed to him, and he was required
to make it up, sealing, finishing, and directing, as he would to a customer. His
correctness and neatness and readiness in doing this were noted by the examiner,
with the order in which he mixed the ingredients, and every other particular
which marks a trustworthy and competent dispenser, and then he passed on to
the Pharmacy table. Here he was shown the tinctures, powders, extracts, etc.,
of the Pharmacopoeia, unlabelled , such as P. Rhei, P. Myrrhse, Pil. Ilydrarg.,
Pulv. Doveri, Ext. Hyoscy., Tinct. Opii, etc., and he was expected, by smell,
taste, and appearance, to recognize them ; he was questioned as to their composi¬
tion, the manner of preparing them, the proportion of opium, mercury, or
active ingredients in each, etc. ; and then he took his place to be examined in
Chemistry. Here he was shown the chemicals Hydrarg. Bichlorid., Alum, Potass.
Iodid., etc., and questioned in the same way about them. He next presented
himself at the Botany table. This was covered with fresh specimens of medicinal
plants in flower, Conium, Hyoscyamus, Digitalis, etc., and he was expected to
name them. Information as to the outlines of the science was sought, such as the
difference between exogenous and endogenous plants, the names of the various
parts, and the marks of some of the common classes. Then he went to the Ma¬
teria Medica, where roots, leaves, gums, etc., were spread out before him, and he
was expected to recognize them, and distinguish between different sorts, — Indian
and Alexandrian senna, Turkey and Egyptian opium, good and bad Gum
Arabic, etc., and to give some information about the countries and sources from
whence they came. This was the plan for all ; some began with one thing and
some with another, but all went through exactly the same course. .Each ex-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

aminer gave a number to the candidate, according to his merit : 10 was the
highest that could be attained ; some candidates received 8 for one thing and
5 for another, and 7 for a third, and so forth; but when all were added up, the
average must be 5, or the candidate was not passed.”

Now, we are bold to ask, if this examination be not a good practical one,
what examination can be so ? Is not this knowledge that which is required to
make a man a good sound pharmaceutist, such as the public may safely
trust, and such as they have a right to seek ? And is there anything in this
which an apprentice of ordinary talents and diligence ought not to be able to
pass with honour at the close of his apprenticeship? Of course the Major is
more difficult, more scientific acquaintance with all these subjects is sought ;
but nothing then is required from a young man which a few months’ study
will not impart.

Amongst those who present themselves, chemists already in business are fre¬
quently found ; and it is much to be desired that every facility should be offered
to those who are desirous of doing this. There are two hindrances which natu¬
rally influence the man in business ; he is unwilling to mingle with assistants
and juniors, and to be examined with them. This has frequently engaged the
attention of the Council, and there is no doubt that they would willingly arrange
an examination, either in the evening or at any other suitable time, which should
be for those in business only, if a sufficient number were to signify their readi¬
ness to avail themselves of it ; and then it is, no doubt, felt by those in busi¬
ness, that their time for technical study has gone by, and that however qualified
they may feel themselves for the practical conduct of their business, they might
be rejected because of their want of scientific knowledge. To this it may be
replied, that the ordering of the examination is with the Council, and that they
have both the will and the power to vary it, according to the persons to be ex¬
amined ; that the knowledge required of men in business would be very diffe¬
rent from that which would be sought from a young man fresh from his studies ;
and that the sound practical acquaintance with his business, which a respectable
chemist possesses, would be sure to satisfy (in his case) the examiners appointed
by the Council.

LEGISLATION AEEECTING TRADE.

The County Courts Acts Amendment Bill , which was introduced in the House
of Lords by the Lord Chancellor, and which, although containing some useful
provisions, would, if joassed in its original form, have injuriously affected many
tradesmen who have frequently to give long credit, was withdrawn on the 17tli
of June.

TRANSACTIONS

OF

TILE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

AT A MEETING OF THE COUNCIL, June 1st, 1864,

Present — Messrs. Bird, Bottle, Deane, George Edwards, Hanbnry, Haselden, Herring,
Hills, Morson, Orridge, Proctor, Sandford, Savage, Squire, Standring, and Waugh.

Being the first Meeting after the Anniversary, the following Officers of the Society
were elected : —

George Webb Sandford . President.

Thomas Hyde Hills . Vice-President.

Daniel Bell PIanbury . Treasurer.

Elias Bremridge . Secretary and Registrar.

6

TRANSACTIONS OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

The usual Committees and the Boards of Examiners for England and Wales, and for
Scotland were appointed. A Committee was also appointed to watch Parliamentary
Proceedings.

Local Secretaries, on the Report of the Scrutineers, were appointed on the same prin¬
ciple as adopted last year,* and the List was ordered to be published in the ensuing
number of the Journal and Transactions.

The following were elected —

MEMBERS.

Henry Archibald Hinton . London.

Roger Hughes . Denbigh.

John Hind Talbot, of Liverpool, having paid his arrears and his registration fee for
the current year, was Restored to Membership.

Giovanni Battista B. Delviniotti, Professor of Physics and Chemistry, Corfu, was
elected an Honorary and Corresponding Member.

The Secretary laid on the table a diploma granted by the Pharmaceutical Society of
Victoria to the President, for the time being, of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great
Britain, as “ a mark of acknowledgment to the Council for its many obligations, and for
its successful efforts in raising the science of Pharmacy.” A letter, accompanying the
diploma, from the Honorary Secretary, Mr. Joseph Bovisto, explained the several Aus¬
tralian Floras, of value in Pharmacy and in the arts, represented on the diploma.

BENEVOLENT FUND.

The following subscriptions to the Benevolent Fund were received during May : —

Allanson, Charles, Harrogate ...£0 5 0

A II T 1 Vi 4

Appleton, John Cass, 45, Curzon

Street . 0 10 6

Bond, Charles, Kidderminster ... 0 5 0
Coupland, Joseph, Harrogate ... 0 10 6

Hurst, John, Louth . 0 10 0

Randall and Son, Southampton 110

Rastrick, John Alfred, Woolwich£0 5 0

Rogers, William, Maidstone . 0 5 0

Rook, Edward, Sittingbourne ... 0 10 C

Sagar, Henry, Leeds . 0 5 0

Stathers, John, Notting Hill ... 0 10 G
Vizer, Edwin B., G3, Lupus St.,

Pimlico . 110

EXAMINATION, May 15 th, 18G4.
MAJOR (Registered as Pharmaceutical Chemists).

Chave, Wdlliam Francis . Uxbridge.

Mills, John . Derby.

Phillips, Jonathan . Godaiming.

Squire, Alfred Rook . London.

MINOR (Registered as Assistants).

Bennett, George . . . Chesterfield.

Goulden, Edward Baker . London.

REGISTERED APPRENTICES.

name. residing with. address.

Bardsley, William . . . Mr. Nicholson . Highbury.

Garside, Thomas . Mr. Garside . Southport.

Havard, Benjamin . Mr. Jones . Cardigan.

Jeffery, George J. C . Mr. Gulliver . Lutterworth.

Lewelyn, David . Mr. Jones . Cardigan.

Lewin, William J. C . Mr. Lewin . Plymouth.

Sambrook, William . Mr. Jones . Cardigan.

Wilson, Thomas Davison . Messrs. Dobinson and Son . Sunderland.

* See vol. v. p. 5.

LECTURES ON THE BRITISH PHARMACOPCEIA.

ON THE RELATION OF THE BRITISH PHARMACOPOEIA TO

PHARMACOLOGY.

Lecture II.

Delivered before the Members of the Pharmaceutical Society , April 20, 1864.

BY DR. JOHN ATTFIELD, F.C.S.,

DIRECTOR OE THE SOCIETY’S LABORATORIES.

(Continued from Vol. V., p. 636.)

Spiritus Ammonite Aromaticus. — Southall (Pliarm. Journ. vol. xviii. p.
550) made exactly the suggestions which, carried out, would result in an aro¬
matic spirit of ammonia, having all the improved characters of that now ordered.
He suggested the use of ammonia itself, as well as carbonate of ammonia ; the
rejection of those aromatics that caused the spirit to become coloured when set
by, and that it should be distilled ; precisely the three improvements on the Lon¬
don, Edinburgh, and Dublin spirits that have now been introduced into the pre¬
paration by the authors of the British Pharmacopoeia.

Spiritus. — Proctor’s remark concerning the old London spirits (Pliarm.
Journ. 2nd ser. vol. i. p. 2), that being little used, they might very well be re¬
placed by the stronger unofficinal essences, which were in far greater demand,
seems to have been acted on. It is greatly to be regretted, however, that the
name has not also been changed. The Dublin formulae having been introduced
into the British Pharmacopoeia, why not have retained the Dublin name “essen¬
tia”? All three Pharmacopoeias, however, had formulae for spirits, and this is,
possibly, the reason that the name “ essence’’ was rejected ; but the strength
having been so greatly altered, the consequence will be that in neither kingdom
will the word u spirit” mean what it used to mean, whereas the term “ essence ”
would have caused no ambiguity.

Spiritus Chloroformi is now a five per cent, solution of chloroform in spirit.
This strength was selected because the resulting liquid does not lose its chloro¬
form even when diluted by water containing much saline matter (Garrod, Med.
Times and Gaz. 1864, vol. i. p. 389). Before it was made officinal, this spirit,
then erroneously termed chloric ether, was well known to vary in strength from
five to twenty-five parts of chloroform in one hundred. Tate (Pharm. Journ.
2nd ser. vol. iii. p. 533) examined thirteen Liverpool samples, and found them
to contain from ten to twenty per cent, of chloroform, indicating the importance
of having its strength definitively and officially settled.

Succi. — Juices of medicinal plants were ordered in many of the Pharma¬
copoeias of the last and early part of the present century. Those of hemlock,
broom, and taraxacum are again introduced. A paper on these and several other
expressed juices, the result of experiments commenced so early as the year 1835,
by Squire, will be found in Pharm. Journ. vol. i. p. 94. He proposed them as
substitutes for tinctures which are made from the dried parts of plants, thus
obviating any deterioration from the exposure of Haves, etc., to the influences of
heat, light, and air. The process for Succus Tarcixaci is also that described by
Hills (Pharm. Journ. 2nd ser. vol. i. p. 401).

Succus Limonis described in the Materia Medica as the expressed juice of the
ripe lemon, may, according to Syme (Pharm. Journ. 2nd ser. vol. v. p. 161), be
preserved unaltered for at least twelve months by simply heating to the boiling-
point, and then, while still hot, bottling, corking, and securely sealing. He, in
short, recommended Alsop’s well-known method of preserving infusions (Pharm.
Journ. vol. i. p. 58). If bottled during the winter, the juice need only be heated
to 150°.

8

LECTURES ON THE BRITISH PHARMACOPEIA.

SuppOSiTORiiE — The basis of the suppositories is white wax and lard. Tanner
(Pharm. Journ. 2ndser. vol. iv. p. 514) demonstrated the great superiority of
cacao butter for these and similar preparations, and it is already extensively used
for this purpose in other countries (Med. Times and Gaz., 1864, vol. i. p. 374).
In the next edition of the Pharmacopoeia the formulae will possibly be altered.

Syrupi. — Syrupus Aurantii is now made by mixing the tincture of orange
peel with simple syrup, instead of dissolving sugar in an infusion of the peel, as
directed in all the old Pharmacopoeias. Savory (Pharm. Journ. vol. ii. p. 453)
pointed out the troublesome character of the syrup prepared from the peel ; and
Southall (Pharm. Journ. 2nd ser. vol. i. p. 12) suggested spirit instead of water
for extracting the orange peel, which was in effect recommending the tincture.
The new syrup will be found to be much superior to the old.

Syrupus Ferri Ioclidi. The strength of the new syrup is the same as that of
the last three Pharmacopoeias, — that is, about five grains of iodide of iron in one
fluid drachm ; but the proportion of sugar is much increased. Tichborne showed
(Pharm. Journ. 2nd ser. vol. i. p. 170) that the weaker the syrup the more
prone to decomposition, and suggested a preparation approaching perfect satura¬
tion with sugar. The present syrup is exactly such as recommended by Tich¬
borne. Evaporation of water from it must be carefully guarded against, or
some of the sugar will crystallize out. No process is given for estimating the
amount of iodide of iron in the syrup, which, according to E. Smith (Pharm.
Journ. 2nd ser. vol. i. p. 272), is liable to great variation. A volumetric method
however, by T. and EL Smith, is given in the ‘ Pharmaceutical Journal,’ 2nd ser.
vol. i. p. 353.

Syrupus Ferri Pliosphatis. The formula and process for the preparation of
this syrup is almost word for word that of Gale, as described in the ‘Pharmaceu¬
tical Journal,’ 2nd ser. vol. i. p. 497 : granulated instead of ordinary sulphate of
iron being employed, — quite an unnecessary piece of refinement. This is the only
syrup in which the product is said to “ measure ” instead of “ weigh ” a certain
amount. Gale described his product by measure, and the authors of the Phar¬
macopoeia have not, apparently, thought uniformity of expression sufficiently
important to induce them to take the trouble of translating the description.
Gale says that this syrup will be found to be definite in strength, permanently
bright, and easily made. Each drachm contains about one grain of phosphate
of iron, 3 Fe 0,P05, or rather more than one grain and a quarter of the hy¬
drated blue phosphate of iron, 3 FeO,P05 -j- 8 HO, with twenty-five minims
of diluted phosphoric acid.

Syrupus Jlemidcsrni. This, in the Dublin formula, is made by dissolving sugar
in an infusion of the hemidesmus. Bell recommended (Pharm. Journ. vol. iii.
p. 240) percolation of the hemidesmus to avoid loss of the highly volatile
flavouring principle, and suggested a syrup five times stronger than the one now
introduced.

Syrupus Mori. The process for this syrup would be improved if the mul¬
berry juice were heated to 212°, and strained before adding the sugar, as sug¬
gested by Southall (Pharm. Journ. 2nd ser. vol. i. p. 12). Heating after the
.sugar is added renders filtration difficult.

Syrupus Papaveris. The process by which syrup of poppies is now to be
made is that of Groves (Pharm. Journ. vol. xiv. p. 203) ; it is an improvement
on one previously suggested by T. and H. Smith (Pharm. Journ. vol. xii. p. 283),
and its chief feature is that of the addition of spirit to a concentrated infusion
of poppies, by which mucilaginous and fermentative matter is precipitated ; the
spirit being subsequently removed by distillation. Several pharmaceutists have
proposed processes for making syrup of poppies, but the products have, sooner
or later, been proved to be unsatisfactory. That now given is improvable, its
author admitting it to be “ somewhat troublesome.”

RELATION OP THE BRITISH PHARMACOPOEIA TO PHARMACOLOGY. 9

Syrupus Senna also, though, made by a new process, is stated by a writer in
Edin. Med. Journ., Feb. 1864, to be, like Syrupus Papaveris, improvable.

Syrupus Tolutanus is still made from the balsam, and not from the tincture
of tolu, as suggested by Finlay (Pharm. Journ. vol. ii. p. 138), and as it was
directed to be in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia. This is well, for Soubeiran
once submitted to the Society of Pharmacy of Paris some specimens of syrup of
tolu made with the tincture, but in comparison with others prepared directly
from the balsam, they were pronounced to be decidedly inferior. Soubeiran also
(Pharm. Journ. vol. i. p. 430), following out a suggestion previously made by
Deville (ibid., p. 290), that probably the same specimen of balsam might be used
over and over again in the preparation of syrup of tolu, found that this might
be done twice in the case of the formula of the French Codex, in which one part
of balsam to four of water and eight of sugar were used, but that with half this
quantity of balsam, that is, with one part of balsam to eight of water and
sixteen of sugar, the balsam could not be used a second time. Now in the Phar¬
macopoeia we are directed to use one part of balsam to thirteen of water and
twenty-six of sugar ; obviously, therefore, our balsam cannot possibly be used a
second time. Savory subsequently (Pharm. Journ. vol. ii. p. 453) confirmed
these results of Soubeiran. I refer to these investigations because some phar¬
maceutists are still of opinion that a diminution in the quantity of balsam can
be admitted, which is much the same as using a larger quantity more than
once.

Syrupus Zingiberis. Syrup of ginger is now made by mixing the tinc¬
ture with syrup. The London and Edinburgh Colleges ordered that it be made
directly from the rhizome. The last Dublin Pharmacopoeia, however, directed
it to be prepared from the tincture. Proctor and Southall also (Pharm. Journ.
2nd ser. vol. i. pp. 11 and 12) suggested this alteration.

Tincture. — The formulae and processes for the preparation of tinctures have
been so much altered, apparently without reference to any published investiga¬
tions on the subject, that some experience is necessary before they can be criti¬
cally examined in detail. Thirteen of the fifty-six are made by simply macerating
the ingredients in the spirit for the uniform period of seven days, — a period which,
even supposing the mixture has that occasional shaking which is not ordered, but
which will of course be practised, may be unnecessarily long, or not long-
enough. I say that agitation will, as a matter of course, be practised, because
experience has shown it to be necessary ; at the same time, it is obvious that the
authors of the Pharmacopoeia have thought it to be unnecessary, inasmuch as in
no one of these thirteen tinctures has this operation been prescribed, while in
every other tincture occasional agitation has been expressly ordered. Of the re¬
maining forty-three tinctures, four are simple solutions made in a few minutes.
The rest, thirty-nine in number, are for forty-eight hours mere mixtures of in¬
gredients and spirit macerating together, being shaken briskly now and then ;
the mixture is then transferred to a percolator, and when the fluid portion has
drained from the ^ingredients, the latter is treated to a little more spirit, and
finally pressed. This method of making these thirty-nine tinctures is certainly
partly a process of maceration, which however may or not be complete. The
latter half of the process may or may not be percolation, may or may not be
mere filtration, may or may not be simple displacement. It may be percolation
only, as in the case of a substance whose active principle not having been all dis¬
solved during maceration, nor by subsequent rapid percolation, still yields some¬
thing to the spirit which is finally put into the percolator ; it is even easy to
conceive a case in which active matter will after all remain in the marc, the
latter part of the process would then be maceration and partial percolation. Or,
the forty-eight hours’ maceration having extracted the whole of the active matter
from the ingredients, the other part of the process becomes one of mere filtra-

10

LECTURES ON THE BRITISH PHARMACOPOEIA.

tion and subsequent displacement of adhering tincture by the spirit finally placed
in the percolator. Thirdly, a substance having been partially exhausted of its
valuable constituents by the forty-eight hours of maceration, and then placed in
the percolator, the remainder of its active principles may be dissolved out by
the percolation through it of the semi-formed tincture, the final addition of
spirit displacing what tincture may be remaining adhering to the marc, subse¬
quent pressure recovering some of the spirit so added. This last case is doubt¬
less the model on which, theoretically, the processes for the thirty-nine tinctures
are constructed. How far they actually conform to it can only be determined by
experiment ; and such experiments, though not by any means difficult to per¬
form, — that is, so far as ascertaining the proportions of solid matter in a tincture
at various stages of its manufacture is concerned, — have not yet, so far as I am
aware, been conducted on any extensive scale. If one or several pharmacolo¬
gists would take up this subject, the probable result would be the discovery of
greatly improved processes for each tincture. Some would possibly be found
to require only short maceration ; others long maceration, shortened probably
in most instances by subsequent percolation ; and many perhaps be most advan¬
tageously prepared by percolation alone.

The only general series of experiments made with a view of improving the
processes for the preparation of tinctures are those of Burton (Pharm. Journ.
vol. v. p. 82). He examined the officinal tinctures of the London Pharmaco¬
poeia with the object of comparing the efficiency of the process of maceration,
in which the ingredients after agitation subside to the bottom of the vessel, with
that of maceration, in which the ingredients enclosed in a bag are suspended in
the upper part of the menstruum. Burton’s method of examination consisted,
first, in taking the specific gravity of the tinctures, it being assumed that a pro¬
cess was complete when a tincture ceased to acquire weight by further contact
with the solid materials. Specific gravity alone could not, however, always be
depended on, chiefly on account of the variation in the amount of moisture in
the ingredients ; it was therefore considered together with the weight of hard
extract obtained on evaporating a portion of the tincture in an oven, and ex¬
posing the residue to a temperature of 230°. In this way, operating upon dif¬
ferent portions of one sample of a drug, Burton ascertained the most desirable
period of maceration for each tincture. By the light of his researches we may
be able, to some extent, to judge of the efficiency of the new process given in
the British Pharmacopoeia.

Tinctura Aloes. This tincture, which cannot be easily prepared by percolation,
is to be made by maceration for seven days. Now Burton found (Pharm. Journ.
vol. v. p. 123) that so far as the aloes is concerned, exhaustion was complete in
forty-eight hours if the ingredients were suspended in the upper portion of the
spirit, but that the extract of liquorice was not perfectly dissolved at the end of
that time. Probably, therefore, the period of seven days might be much short¬
ened, especially if the extract of liquorice were previously rubbed down with
some of the water of the proof spirit.

Tinctura Assafceticlce. In preparing this tincture, the Pharmacopoeia orders
maceration of assafoetida in rectified spirit for seven days. According to Bur¬
ton, this period cannot be shortened.

Tinctura Calumbce. The triple operation of maceration, percolation, and ex¬
pression, ordered by the Pharmacopoeia, is according to Burton’s results unne¬
cessary. By his method of macerating, less than forty-eight hours is sufficient
to effectually exhaust calumba of everything soluble in proof spirit.

Tinctura Cascarillcc. Burton’s results show that if cascarilla be suspended in
proof spirit, two days’ maceration is ample time for perfect exhaustion. The
triple process of the Pharmacopoeia is not therefore the best that could have
been adopted.

. RELATION OF THE BRITISH PHARMACOPOEIA TO PHARMACOLOGY. 11

Tinctura Cinchona; Flavcc is probably one in which the forty-eight hours of
maceration ordered, only partially exhausts the bark ; the next operation in the
percolator being true percolation, and the final addition of spirit to the marc an
operation of displacement only, for the tincture made by Burton scarcely attained
its maximum density in less than three days.

Tinctura Conii. When made by maceration of the leaves in proof spirit,
Burton found tincture of hemlock to attain its maximum density in a day and
a half. If the fruits yield their active matter with equal readiness, the Pharma¬
copoeia triple process admits of improvement.

Tinctura Digitalis can be made by Burton’s maceration in forty-eight
hours. Here again, therefore, the process of the Pharmacopoeia can be much
simplified.

Tinctura Ferri Perchloridi. See Liquor Ferri Perchloridi.

Tinctura Hyoscyami will probably be found to be most advantageously pre¬
pared by the Pharmacopoeia process.

Tinctura Jalap ce also, even when the jalap is suspended in the proof spirit, does
not attain its maximum density till the third or fourth day of maceration (Burton),
so that the triple process will probably expedite its preparation.

Tinctura Kino. The Pharmacopoeia process for the preparation of this tinc¬
ture consists in macerating the powdered kino in rectified spirit for seven days.
The directions do not include occasional agitation, but shaken or not shaken,
the kino adheres to the bottom of the vessel it may be placed in, and is only de¬
tached by violent rotation of the liquid. If, however, Burton’s suggestion be
adopted, namely, that of suspending the kino in a bag placed just below the
surface of the spirit, exhaustion is perfectly effected in twenty ■•four hours, with¬
out any agitation whatever.

Tinctura Lavandula; Composita is the only one of the fifty-six tinctures in
which a quart instead of a pint is directed to be made in a single operation.

Tinctura Lobelia; and Tinctura Lobclice JEtherea. Why is an ethereal as
well as an alcoholic tincture of Lobelia included in the Pharmacopoeia ? They
are identical in strength, and both ether and alcohol are efficient solvents of the
active matter of Lobelia. (Bastick, Pkarm. Journ. vol. x. p. 540.)

Tinctura Lupuli. Coates showed (Pharm. Journ. vol. vi. p. 428) that Bur¬
ton’s suggestion of enclosing the hops in a bag during maceration, greatly facili¬
tated the preparation of the tincture, inasmuch as the hops could be pressed in
the same bag. Burton found (Pharm. Journ. vol. v. p. 126) that the tincture
when prepared in this way attained its maximum density in thirty hours ; yet
the authors of the British Pharmacopoeia tell us to macerate for forty-eight
hours, then to pack in a percolator, — an inconvenient operation, on account of the
bulky character of the hop, and moreover quite unnecessary ; next to displace
adhering tincture by pouring into the percolator some fresh proof-spirit ; and
finally to subject the contents of the percolator to pressure. Obviously the
first and last operations are alone necessary, namely, maceration and expression.

Tinctura Opii. This tincture is to be made by macerating opium in proof
spirit for seven days. Nor can it apparently be made by maceration in a shorter
time, for Burton states that it does not attain its maximum density till the end
of a week. Many pharmaceutists, however, prepare it in a few hours by per¬
colation.

Tinctura Qjuinicc Composita. This is a solution of one hundred and sixty
grains of sulphate of quinia in a pint of tincture of orange peel. Some pharma¬
ceutists have complained that the whole of the quinia will not dissolve (Southall,
Pharm. Journ. 2nd ser. vol. i. p. 12) ; but others have shown, however, that
if the quinia be digested (temp. 90° to 100°) instead of merely macerated for
seven da}^s, complete solution is effected (Hemingway, Pharm. Journ. vol. xi.
p. 68). Many again have stated that a deposit occurs in the tincture after seme

12

LECTURES ON THE BRITISH PHARMACOPOEIA.

time, though this statement has also been contradicted. Mr. Hemingway now
tells me that a precipitate may or may not be formed, wdien the tincture is set
by, and that the cause is the variable nature of the peel used in making the
tincture of orange. If peel sufficiently good cannot now be obtained, it may be
found necessary, in a future edition of the Pharmacopoeia, to include a small
quantity of sulphuric acid in the formula for this tincture.

Tinctura Rhei. The formula for this tincture is new. It will replace the
Tinctura Rhei Composita of the London and Dublin, and the Tinctura Rhei
of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias. I am told that, in this instance, the triple
process ordered is a most excellent one. Liquorice is no longer a constituent of
tincture of rhubarb, an omission suggested by Proctor (Pharm. Journ.2nd ser.
vol. i. p. 11).

Tincturse Valeriana. According to Burton, valerian is readily deprived of
its soluble constituents by maceration in proof spirit for forty-eight hours. Sub¬
sequent percolation therefore, as directed in the Pharmacopoeia, is unnecessary.

Tinctura Zingiberis. Tincture of ginger is now nearly twice the strength of
the old London and Edinburgh preparations, — a change in accordance with a
suggestion of Proctor (Pharm. Journ. 2nd ser. vol. i. p. 11), who urged as
reasons for an increase in the strength, that the stronger tincture, called Essence
of Ginger, was more in demand, and could be used for preparing Syrup of
Ginger.

From these notices of about one-third of the whole number of tinctures con¬
tained in the British Pharmacopoeia, it is obvious that the processes for their
preparation are in only a few instances the best that could have been devised.
The manufacture of tinctures is peculiarly the province of chemists and drug¬
gists, — a class whose confidence in the Pharmacopoeia would have been greatly
increased had the volume contained good evidence that the published researches
of members of their own body and other gentlemen had had that attention
they deserved.

The remaining two-thirds of the tinctures still need investigation, such as was
brought to bear on them by Burton.

Trochisci. — Medicated lozenges were not mentioned in the London and Dub¬
lin Pharmacopoeias. The Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia contained formulae for ten
lozenges; three of these, namely, Trochisci Morphia , Trochisci Morphia et Ipeca¬
cuanha, and Trochisci Opii , have been retained in the British Pharmacopoeia ;
and three new ones, namely, Trochisci Acidi Tannici , Trochisci Bismutlii, and Tro¬
chisci Catechu, introduced. Each tannin lozenge contains half a grain of tannic
acid ; each bismuth lozenge, two grains of white bismuth ; each morphia lozenge,
one thirty- sixth of a grain of hydrochlorate of morphia ; each morphia and
ipeeacuan lozenge, one thirty- sixth of a grain of hydrochlorate of morphia and
one-twelfth of a grain of ipeeacuan ; and each opium lozenge, one-tenth of a
grain of extract of opium.

Unguenta. — Owing to the amalgamation of the old London cerates with the
ointments, and the great discrepancies between several of the London, Edin ¬
burgh, and Dublin formulae for the ointments, this class of preparations has un¬
dergone considerable change. So far as can be seen at present, most of these
changes are improvements.

TJnguentum Aconitia is now officinal. Unguent-urn Atropice is also new to
the Pharmacopoeia, but is not introduced to supersede Unguentum Belladonna ,
which is still retained, though the process of making it is slightly modified ac¬
cording to the suggestion of several pharmaceutists. Unguentum Cantharidis
is apparently a compromise between the London Ceratum Cantliaridis , the
Edinburgh Unguentum Infusi Cantharidis , and the Unguentum Cantharidis
of the three Pharmacopoeias. Unguentum Cetacei is the London preparation
with almond oil in the place of olive oil, as suggested by Deane and others

RELATION OP TI1E

BRITISH PHARMACOPOEIA TO PHARMACOLOGY.

13

(Pharm. Journ. 2nd ser. vol. ii. p. 353). TJnguentum Creasoti is of the Dublin
strength, that is, twice as strong as the London, and three times the strength
of the Edinburgh ointments.

TJnguentum Hydrargyri. This is still made by rubbing metallic mercury
with lard and suet. According to Tyson (Pharm. Journ. vol. i. p. 452), it is
best made at once from black oxide of mercury, and he recommends a formula
for its preparation in that manner. Donovan, Guibourt, and Watt (Pharm.
Journ. vol. iii. p. 400) also believe the efficacy of mercurial ointment to be due
to the black oxide of mercury always present in it. Finally, Yon Bserensprung
proved by many experiments (Journ. fiir Prakt. Chem. 1850, no. 9, and
Pharm. Journ. vol. x. p. 554) that metallic mercury, either in the finely divided
or gaseous state, is not capable of permeating dead or living animal membranes ;
that on triturating mercury with various substances a small quantity of black
oxide of mercury is formed, and that this is the sole active constituent of blue
ointment and several other preparations ; that the action of blue ointment is
uncertain, because the quantity of oxide contained in it varies according to its
age and mode of preparation ; and lastly, that a more uniform and effective
preparation can be made from the pure protoxide. These conclusions of Von
Bserensprung have never, to my knowledge, been questioned, and yet the old,
irrational process of making the officinal mercurial ointment is still adhered to.

TJnguentum Hydrargyri JYitratis. The mixture of solution of nitrate of
mercury, oil, and melted lard, is now to be heated until the strong chemical
action indicated by brisk effervescence has ceased. The resulting ointment
will be an improvement on the old London form. The process is that of the
London and Dublin Pharmacopoeias, and is apparently that originally sug¬
gested by Duncan. Alsop, however (Pharm. Journ. vol. i. p. 100), came to
the same conclusions after making many experiments. He at first proposed
the use of almond oil in the place of the olive oil of the London formula, but
on repeating his experiments before publishing a paper on the subject, he
found that the superiority of the ointment he had obtained on using almond
oil was due to the increased heat he had accidentally employed, and was in¬
dependent of the variety of oil.

TJnguentum Hydrargyri Oxidi Jiubri. This ointment differs from the okl
varieties in containing almond oil. Possibly this alteration will afford a more
permanent preparation. Keffer (Chem. News, vol. ii. p. 258) made the oint¬
ment with castor oil instead of lard, and at the end of two years found it to
be without rancidity or loss of colour.

TJnguentum Iodi Compusitum. The iodine and iodide of potassium of this
ointment are now. directed to be mixed together by the help of a little proof
spirit. Rectified spirit was formerly employed, but, according to Proctor
(Pharm. Journ. 2nd ser. vol. i. p. 11), water is better than either.

Ver atria. — The process for the preparation of this alkaloid appears to be
good, but requires the use of a large amount of rectified spirit. Thompson
suggested (Pharm. Journ. 2nd ser. vol. ii. p. 54S) a modification of the pro¬
cess now adopted, which was far more economical.

Vina. — The wines, like the tinctures, are to be made in quantities of one
pint. But as in the tinctures, so in the wines, there is one exception to this
rule, that of Vinum Aloes, of which a quart is to be made at one operation.

Vinum Ferri was formerly made by digesting iron wire in sherry wine for
a month, the metal being gradually dissolved by the agency of the acid salts
naturally present. When made with wine of uniformly good quality, the
preparation was a satisfactory one, but the amount of iron in it necessarily
varied -with the proportion of acid salts present in the sherry. An attempt
has now been made to introduce a “steel wine ” of constant strength, by dis¬
solving eight grains of tartarated iron in every ounce of sherry. But a deposit

14

LECTURES ON THE BRITISH PHARMACOPOEIA,

soon occurs in the new preparation, and hence the formula is even more un¬
satisfactory than before. Proctor recommended (Pharm. Journ., 2nd ser. vol.
i. p. 10) the employment of ammonio-tartrate or ammonio-citrate of iron, rather
than the potassio-tartrate or tartarated iron now ordered ; and Soubeiran
(Pharm. Journ., vol. iii. p. 544) suggested the use of acid tartrate of the pro¬
toxide of iron, giving formulas for the preparation of both the salt and the
wine. Soubeiran’s wine has the advantage of resembling the old preparation
so far as containing a protosalt of iron, but it is more acid. Obviously a for¬
mula that shall give a wine of iron of constant strength and appearance, is
still much needed. A well-lmown pharmacologist is, however, now working on
the subject (Pharm. Journ., 2nd ser. vol. v. p. 492) ; we may therefore hope to
have a more satisfactory preparation in a future edition of the Pharmacopoeia.

Thus, gentlemen, have I endeavoured to bring before you the actual cases
in which the authors of the British Pharmacopoeia have taken advantage of the
published researches, and adopted the suggested improvements of Pharmacolo¬
gists. I also have not hesitated to point out the many instances in which this
course has been neglected. We are told in the preface to the British Pharma¬
copoeia, that in preparation of that work the General Medical Council of the
United Kingdom found themselves committed to four difficult tasks, namely,
“ to supersede three Pharmacopoeias, each of them long held in great repute, —
to reconcile the varying usages, in pharmacy and prescriptions, of the people
of three countries, hitherto in these respects separate and independent, — to
consult the prepossessions of three important public professional bodies, which
have ruled long and ably over this branch of medicine, — to represent accurately,
yet with caution, the advancement made in chemistiy and pharmacy during
the thirteen years which have elapsed since the iast edition of any of the
Pharmacopoeias of the Colleges of Physicians was published.” To what extent
the old Pharmacopoeias have been superseded is not for the pharmaceutist
to determine. He only knows that he must dispense what the physician pre¬
scribes, and he finds that so far from having to “ alter or destroy all pharma¬
ceutic preparations made according to previous, and now altered formula},”
(Preface, Brit. Pharm. p. xx.,) he will have to keep double stock for an inde¬
finite period. Still less can he decide on the manner in which the authors
of previous Pharmacopoeias have been conciliated. But with regard to the
removal of phannacopoeial discrepancies by blending the three books, and
the extent to which the volume has been made the exponent of modern
pharmacy, he can pronounce decided opinions. The fusion of the three
Pharmacopoeias into one is an object to which the attention of therapeu¬
tists and pharmaceutists has long been directed, and the necessity of which
was forcibly demonstrated in a paper read before the Pharmaceutical So¬
ciety by Squire, in the year 1845 (Pharm. Journ., vol. v. p. 200), and again
in the volume with which that pharmacologist subsequently enriched the
literature of pharmacy. The accomplishment of this object in the publication
of the British Pharmacopoeia cannot but command the congratulations of phy¬
sician, pharmaceutist, and patient, and the manner in which discrepancies
have been adjusted may be pronounced to be, on the whole, most satisfactory .
But that the compilers of the Pharmacopoeia have either accurately or cau¬
tiously represented the advancement made in pharmacy during the past thir¬
teen years, is open to serious question. A review of the six lectures which
have been delivered before you by request of your Council, and of the critical
notices which have been published by the various medical, chemical, and
pharmaceutical journals, must bequite sufficient to show that while the Materia
Medica portion of the book is, on the whole, a success, that which relates to
the preparations and compounds is to an equal extent a failure. Hor is this
result astonishing when it is remembered that the British Pharmacopoeia has

ALKALOIDS IN JAVANESE CINCHONA.

15

for the most part been constructed by physicians, gentlemen whose post
of duty is the bedside of the sick, not the pharmaceutical laboratory. The
physician best knows what natural and artificial medicinal agents are admis¬
sible into the Materia Medica, but the pharmaceutist best knows how those
materials are to be prepared and compounded. It is as irrational to delegate
the compilation of a Pharmacopoeia to one class only as to the other. It is true
that the British Pharmacopoeia contains better evidence of the labours of
pharmaceutists than any previous Pharmacopoeia, but had the work been
thrown open to comment before, instead of after its publication, or the opinions
of pharmaceutists been elicited in some other way, a work might have been
produced which should bear favourable contrast with the Pharmacopoeia of any
other country, and have commanded the confidence of all interested in its pages.

ORIGINAL AND EXTRACTED ARTICLES.

ON THE AMOUNT OP ALKALOIDS IN THE CINCHONA TREES

CULTIVATED IN JAVA.

BY DE. J. E. DE VEY.

A. Cinchona Call say a.

The materials of which the analytical results are contained in the annexed
Table were the following : —

No. 1. A tree grown in the open sunshine, on a very bad volcanic subsoil, at
Tjibodas, 4500 feet above the sea. The tree, which was six years old, had died
from disease.

No. 2. A tree six years and a half old, grown in the same locality and under
the same circumstances. Before its death it bore llowers and ripe fruits.

No. 3. A tree six years and a half old, transplanted four years ago from the
above-mentioned locality to the dense shade of the forest on the slope of the
mountain Gede. Was nine feet high when it died.

No. 4. A tree seven years old, grown at Tjiniroean, 4820 feet above the sea,
on the mountain Malabar, in the light shade of Erytlcrina indica. Died with¬
out known cause.

No. 5. A tree seven years old, grown and transplanted like No. 3. It had
two stems, of which one died by disease and was cut off, whilst the remaining
stem is still alive.

No. 6. A tree seven years and a quarter old, grown and transplanted like
No. 3. Died from disease.

No. 7. A tree seven years old, grown in the open sunshine , iii a very bad
volcanic subsoil, at Tjibodas, 4500 feet above the sea. Died strongly infected
by mycelium.

No. 8. A tree three years and a half old, grown from a cutting in the dense
shade of the forest near Gedongbanteng, on the mountain Malabar, 5800 feet
above the sea. Died infected by mycelium.

No. 9. A thick branch from the oldest tree in Java, imported from Paris in
April, 1852. The tree growing at Tjibodas in the straw" berry -*garden of the
Governor-General is now more than twenty feet high.

No. 10. A thick branch from a tree eighteen feet and a half high, growing
in the dense shade of the forest on the slope of the mountain Gede, 4700 feet
above the sea.

No. 11. A tree seven years old, grown in the plantation Tjkoekoer, on the
mountain Malabar, 5600 feet above the sea. Died from disease.

1G

ALKALOIDS IN JAVANESE CINCHONA.

Ho. 12. The top of a tree growing in the plantation Ivebon Pahud on the
mountain Malabar, 5800 feet above the sea. The top had been broken off by
the wind, but the tree is still alive.

Ho. 13. A tree grown in the plantation Kebon Pahud on the mountain
Malabar, 5800 feet above the sea. The amount of the bark of the stem of
this tree was only 22 grammes, and that of the bark of the root only 8 grammes,
so that both were combined for chemical investigation.

ISTo. 14. A tree grown in the same locality. The root was so small that it
produced only 4 grammes of bark, which were not analysed.

P. Cinchona lanclfolia.

Ho. 1. A tree four years old, grown in the plantation Gedongbadak on the
mountain Malabar, 6200 feet above the sea, almost without shade.

C. Cinchona jpahudiana.

Ho. 1. A tree seven years old, transplanted four years ago from the bad
volcanic subsoil at Tjibodas, in the dense forest on the slope of the moun¬
tain Gede, 4700 feet above the sea. Was sixteen feet high when it died.

Ho. 2. Avery thin tree, seven years old, from the same locality. Although
it was eighteen feet high, it produced only 148 grammes of dry bark.

Ho. 3. A tree seven years old, grown in the open sunshine in a bad volcanic
subsoil at Tjibodas, 4500 feet above the sea. Was in perfect health, and had
borne abundance of flowers and ripe fruits. The circumference of the stem at
the base wras 25'5 centimetres.

Ho. 4. A tree seven years and three- quarters old, grown and transplanted
like Ho. 1. Its height was 356 centimetres, with a circumference at the base
of 24‘5 centimetres. Was in perfect health.

Ho. 5. A tree twro years and a quarter old, grown at Tjiniroean, on the
mountain Malabar, 4820 feet above the sea, in the shade of the forest, from
Javanese seed. The fibrous root produced 46 grammes of dried bark.

Ho. 6. A tree five years old, grown in the plantation Gedongbadak, on the
mountain Malabar, 6400 feet above the sea. It was 253 centimetres high,
with a circumference at the base of 18 centimetres.

Ho. 7. Six trees, four years old. The tallest was 342 and the shortest 234
centimetres high. Only the roots of these very thin trees w^ere anatysed.

Ho. 8. One hundred young trees two years and a half old, grown in dif¬
ferent localities on the mountain Malabar between 5000 and 6500 feet above
the sea. These very healthy plants produced together 1670 grammes dry
bark of the stem, 12966 grammes dry stemwoocl, 870 grammes dry bark of
the roots, and 1911'54 grammes dry wood of the roots.

Ho. 9. Pour thin trees four years old, grown in the plantation Gedongbadak,
on the mountain Malabar, 6300 feet above the sea, from which the tallest was
530 and the shortest 153 centimetres high. The roots were so small that they
produced together only 56 grammes of dry bark.

Ho. 10. A very healtlry tree four years and a half old, grown in the planta¬
tion Gedongbadak, on the mountain Malabar, 6200 feet above the sea, in the
forest, but almost without shade. It was 500 centimetres high, with a cir¬
cumference at the base of 5’9 centimetres.

Ho. 11. A few^ hundred very young seedlings between six and eight inches
long, which had died shortly after their being planted out in the forest. Their
roots produced 100 grammes of dry bark.

Ho. 12. The top of a still living tree growing on the mountain Malabar,
5900 feet above the sea.

Ho. 13. Avery healthy tree, five years old, grown in the plantation Gedong¬
badak, on the mountain Malabar, 6300 feet above the sea, in the forest, but

Material.

Alkaloids

in 100 parts.

Quinine

in 100 parts.

Qtiinicline

in 100 parts.

Cinchonine

in 100 parts.

Cinchonine and

Cinchonidine

in 100 parts.

Cinchonidine

in 100 parts.

Quinovic Acid

in 100 parts.

A. Cinchona Calisaya .

1. a. Bark of tlie stem .

1-750

b. Bark of the root .

0-820

2. a. Bark of the stem .

5-000

3-148

0-387

1-465

1-441

b. Bark of the root .

1-323

0-655

0241

0-427

0-765

c. Bark of the thick brandies

2-600

1-184

0-436

0-980

0-640

3. Bark of the stem .

1-040

X

y

0-620

4. Bark of the stem .

0-648

X

y

0-386

5. Bark of the stem .

2-941

1-685

0-868

0-388

6. Bark of the stem .

1-770

1-515

0-255

7. a. Bark of the stem .

3-443

0-444

2-834

0-165

•

0-036

b. Bark of the root .

2-877

0-305

2-492

0-080

0-670

c. Bark of thick branches . . .

1-046

0-420

0-550

0-076

0-195

S. Bark of the stem .

0-200

X

y

0-325

9. Bark of a thick branch .

1-942

0-910

0-772

0-260

0-465

10. Bark of a thick branch .

1-416

1-070

0-346

0-210

11. a. Bark of the stem .

1-190

0-125

0-441

0-624

0-155

b. Bark of the root .

3-325

0-500

1-717

1-108

0-300

c. Bai’k of the branches ...

0055

X

y

0"055

12. Bark of the stem .

2-255

1-036

0-183

1-036

0-691

13. Mixed bark of the stem and

root .

2-920

1-550

0-490

0-880

0-587

14. Bark of the stem .

2-760

1-394

0-234

1-132

0-610

B. Cinchona lancifolia.

1. a. Bark of the stem .

4-130

2-300

1-830

trace

b. Bark of the root .

2-910

1-900

1-010

0-180

c. Bark of the branches ...

0-180

X

y

trace

C. Cinchona pahudiana.

1. Bark of the stem .

0-165

X

y

2. Bark of the stem .

0-700

0-700

3. a. Bark of the stem .

0-500

0

0-500

0-050

b. Bark of the root .

0673

X

y

0-383

4. a. Bark of the stem .

1-274

0

1-274

0-073

b. Bark of the root .

2-S18

1-849

0-969

0-312

5. a. Bark of the stem .

0-090

0

0-090

0-200

b. Bark of the root .

1-941

1.576

0-365

1-080

6. a. Bark of the stem .

trace

0-190

b. Bark of the root .

1-270

0-730

0-540

0-500

7. Bark of the root .

0-948

X

y

0-465

8. a. Bark of the stem .

0

0095

b. Bark of the root .

2-330

1-400

1-930

0-570

9. a. Bark of the stem .

0-310

0-310

0-193

b. Bark of the root .

0-900

0-900

0-560

10. a. Bark of the stem .

0-469

0-385

0-084

0-067

b. Bark of the root .

4-244

2-987

1-257

0-360

11. Bark of the root .

0-785

0-785

0-377

12. Bark of the stem .

0-110

0-110

trace

13. a. Bark of the stem .

0-684

0684

b. Bark of the root .

2-142

1-672

0-470

0-265

14. Bark of a branch .

trace

0-180

15. Bark of a branch .

0-584

0-214

0-370

0-064

YOL. YI. €

18

ON THE USE OF QUINOVIC ACID IN MEDICINE.

almost without shade. It was 455 centimetres high, with a circumference at
the base of G‘7 centimetres. It bore some fruit.

No. 14. A thick branch from a still living tree growing in the open sunshine
on the bad volcanic subsoil at Tjibodas, 4500 feet above the sea. The largest
circumference of this branch was 16 ’5 centimetres.

No. 15. A thick branch from a still living tree growing in the dense shade
of the forest on the slope of the mountain Gede, 4700 feet above the sea.

Although the discrepancy in the amount of alkaloids and quinovic acid is so
great that it is quite impossible to derive any general conclusion, there are, never¬
theless, a few facts which deserve special attention. The result of the investi¬
gation of the bark of Cinchona Calisaya, marked No. 2, proves that when the
bark of a tree grown in such a bad soil contains such an amount of alkaloids,
this species will produce the best results in Java if properly managed. The
result of the investigation of the bark of Cinchona lancifolia, No. 1 sub. B, is
equally satisfactory. It is true that the amount of alkaloids in the stem-bark
of Cinchona pahudiana is much smaller than that in the bark of any other
species in Dutch and British India which I have examined ; but I consider it
nevertheless large enough to allow the admission that the bark of this tree
will prove to be not without some value. The large amount of alkaloids in the
roots of this species shown by the results of the bark noted No. 10, sub. C, also
deserves attention, and if compared with the results of the bark noted No. 11,
sub. C, it proves that the roots of this species produce quinine even in the
first stage of their existence. There are some who condemn Cinchona pahu¬
diana because of the excessive thinness of its bark, which they consider too
thin to be peeled. The exaggeration of this statement has been proved by
Mr. M‘Ivor, who presented me with perfect peeled bark of plants of this
species only eleven months old. This gentleman, whose skilful management
of the cinchona cultivation on the Neilgherries I have so much admired, gave
me the following statement upon this subject: — “ The Pahudiana, when culti¬
vated in the open sunshine , yields a bark of average thickness ; but when grown
under dense shade , the bark is so thin that it cannot be removed from the
stem.” I conclude by quoting with great sympathy the following words of
Mr. Clements II. Markham “ There is much to be learnt which practice
only can teach ; and it is surel}^ better for us all to recognize this fact, and
not to allow such difference of opinion as we may feel respecting a prospect as
yet uncertain to interfere with courteous communication of sentiment, and co¬
operation as far as possible.”

The Hague , April 22nd, 1864.

ON THE USE OF QUINOYIC ACID ( CINCHONA BITTER) IN

MEDICINE.

BY DE. J. E. DE VEY.

When I found, in 1859, that all parts of the different species of Cinchona
growing in Java contained quinovic acid, of which I detected in the wood of
the roots of C. Calisaya so much as 2 ’57 per cent., it appeared to me very
probable that the tonic properties of some preparations of bark, particularly
of an aqueous infusion, such as the Infusum Corticis JPeruviani cum Magnesia,
' frigide paratum, which formerly was frequently prescribed by many Dutch
physicians, might be at least partially ascribed to quinovic acid. I therefore

* Pliarm; J ournal, April, 1833, p. 441.

THE F H AHM A C OP(EI A PEOCESS FOE CITEATE OF QUININE.

19

employed the wood of several dead cinchona plants at my disposal for the pre¬
paration of this acid, which, by order of the Governor-General, was, at my
request, experimentally tried by the medical staff of the Army. The official
report on these experiments was so favourable, that the chief of the medical
staff, Dr. "Wassink, requested a further supply, in order to continue the experi¬
ments on a larger scale. As I had no more material at disposal with which
to prepare quinovic acid, I wrote to my friend Mr. A. Delondre, at Havre de
Grace, who was kind enough to send me not less than five kilogrammes of
the crude acid from his manufactory of quinine. Although my laboratory in
J ava was perfectly adapted for all kinds of chemical researches, the purifica¬
tion of such a quantity of a substance famous for its bulky volume gave me
not a little trouble, but at length I succeeded in preparing two kilogrammes of
quinovic acid sufficiently pure for medical use. This quantity was used by
the medical staff of the Army for experiments on a larger scale in the hospitals
of Java and Sumatra. The general report on these experiments, the result of
which was very favourable, has been sent by the chief of the medical staff*,
Major-General Dr. G. Wassink, to the Governor-General of Dutch India,
under date 5th March, 1863. It appears from this report that the quinovic
acid has been used in the hospital of the west-coast of Sumatra in sixty-five
cases of intermittent fever with or without complications, and in the great
majority of cases with perfect success. In the hospital at Samarang, it has
been used with the same success in forty-five cases, and it is with great satis¬
faction that I quote the following passage from the report respecting the ex¬
periments at Samarang : —

“ The application of quinovic acid in diarrhoea and dysentery was made in
consequence of the observation of its physiological action in diminishing the
secretion of the intestines, which was attributed to a diminution of the peri¬
staltic motion. In this aspect also the results were very satisfactory, and it is
therefore a new property of the quinovic acid discovered, which agrees with
the tonic properties which have been ascribed to it by Dr. de Vry.”

It appears therefore not only that my suggestion about the tonic properties
of the quinovic acid is well founded, but also that it is a remedy against
intermittent fever. I therefore venture the suggestion to use the leaves of
cinchona in British India against jungle-fever, which is in many districts a
real plague. If the leaves are collected in the different cinchona plantations,
which can be done without great cost, a tincture could be prepared from them
with proof spirit, in which menstruum quinovic acid is easily dissolved, but
not chlorophyll and some other inactive substances. I have much expectation
that the proper use of such a tincture as a prophylactic would prevent many
cases of jungle-fever in the localities where they are endemic. As the manu¬
facturers of quinine throw away every year some hundred pounds of a sub¬
stance containing quinovic acid, there is abundance of material for further ex¬
periments. I have found besides that the so-called ncmcleic acid, discovered
by Mr. C. Bernelot Moens, military pharmaceutist at Batavia, in a species of
Nauclea, is identical with quinovic acid ; and as, according to my investiga¬
tions, all the species of Nauclea, which are plentiful in the forest of J ava, con¬
tain this acid in their bark, we have here another source whence an abun¬
dant supply could be obtained.

The Hague, April 23rd, 1864.

ON THE BOOT-BABK OF THE CHINCHONHh

BY J. E. HOWARD, E.L.S.

[ A letter from a gentleman owning a district in New' Granada, containing

c 2

20

ON THE ROOT-BARK OF THE CHIN CHON,®.

trees of Chinchona, lias been pat into my hands by Mr. Markham. It shows
very satisfactorily that the reprobation of the practice of extirpating these
trees, which has found utterance in England, is beginning to produce a salutary
effect in South America.

The letter is from Don Harciso Lorenzano, and is dated Bogota, March 4th,
1864. He writes to his correspondent ( — ■ Griffiths, Esq.) as follows : —

“ I have to thank you for having sent me a copy of the ‘ Edinburgh Review ’
of last year, in which I have had the satisfaction of reading the article on the
cultivation of the quina trees in the East Indies. Permit me to congratulate
you on the successful result of this undertaking, which partly ensures the supply
of so precious a drug for the future. It appears to me that the principal mo¬
tive which induced the government of India to commence this cultivation, after
overcoming so many difficulties, was the fear that the quina trees would be ex¬
tirpated, in consequence of the disorder and waste that is allowed in the woods,
where they are destroyed by the barbarous method of pulling up the roots.
Fortunately this destructive method, which, without any doubt, would extirpate
this precious plant in a few years, is only practised in the forests of Pitayo,
where it is due to the immoderate desire of making money which has taken
possession of the Indians who own the greater part of the land. But in none of
the other establishments for the collection of bark, in this country, has a similar
scandal been repeated. On the contrary, beneficial rules are observed for the
conservancy of the woods, more especially in those where I have a proprietary
interest. The method consists in leaving a part of the trunk, about three feet
in height, whence shoots may sprout, and in clearing away the surrounding
trees to enable the rays of the sun to penetrate. By this means most of the
trees that are cut down quickly shoot up, and the rays of the sun penetrating
to the cleared ground, the seeds which fall from the tree germinate freely.
Thus we have the satisfaction of seeing, in the forest worked on this principle,
that the trunks of cut trees send out new shoots, and that the young plants
grow vigorously. This result gives us full confidence that the good kinds of
quinas , which exists in the country, will be permanently preserved.

“ From the above considerations we may conclude that there need be no fear
that humanity will see itself deprived of this precious medicine, seeing that as
well in Bolivia as in Peru, Ecuador, and Hew Granada, the rule of cutting the
bark according to a fixed plan is observed, and care is taken that the woods are
replenished with increased numbers of plants of the best species, while some ex¬
periments have been made in forming plantations on land where the best con¬
ditions for their growth are found. From all this Ave hope that in a few years
we may see magnificent results.”

There can be but one opinion as to the inexpediency of continuing the
“ barbarous practice ” referred to, whatever comes of the question as to the com¬
parative produce of the root-bark. My observations apply to the root-bark of
the Calisaya as found in commerce accompanying that of the trunk and branches.
The low price which this brings, amid all the keen competition of the bark sales
here, is sufficient evidence of its inferiority. I have just examined a favourable
specimen, which is probably still unsold. This contains some better bark of the
trunk mixed with a preponderance of that of the root. Separating this last, I
found that it would be worth about half the price of flat Calisaya.

This question ought certainly to be set at rest, as it easily might be by the
sacrifice of some half-dozen trees out of the million plants of the Chinchona
JPahudiana which the Dutch possess in the island of Java. If, from the root-
bark of these a competent proportion of commercial sulphate of quinine can be
obtained to defray the expense of cultivation, then the important fact of their
value will be established ; but I believe this has not yet been done.

In time for the next number I hope to send a paper on the so-called “bark

tyson’s process for blue pill.

21

from the root of C. lancifolia ” which is really a very interesting new variety
of the C. Pitayensis — the Pitaya roja of commerce.

THE PHARMACOPOEIA PEOCESS EOE CITRATE OE IRON AND

QUININE.

TO THE EDITOR OE THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — Having unsuccessfully tried to prepare gome “ Citrate of Iron and
Quinine” according to the process described in the new British Pharmaco¬
poeia, and having, after repeated trials, come to the conclusion that the pro¬
cess was a fallacious one, allow me to ask you the favour of publishing in
the next ‘ Pharmaceutical Journal ’ the following receipt of mine, which not
only gives an elegant preparation, but also a product similar in every respect
to that found in commerce.

I am, Sir, yours obediently,

Mauritius , May Gth, 1864. E. Fleurot, M.P.S.

Ferri et Quinlze Citras.

Take sjp fluid ounces of a saturated solution of citrate of peroxide of iron,*
made of such a strength that this quantity shall exactly represent six drachms
of the anhydrous salt.

To such a solution, heated b}r the water-bath, add one drachm of citric acid
previously dissolved in one ounce of distilled water, and immediately after¬
wards add at once the quantity of quinia freshly precipitated by solution of
ammonia from two drachms of disulphate of quinia. Continue the applica¬
tion of heat, and stir the mixture constantly until all the quinia is dissolved.
Solution of ammonia (P.L.) is then added drop by drop in sufficient quantity
(about 2 fi. o z.) until the desired yellowish-green colour is obtained. The
mixture must be stirred up briskly after the addition of each drop of ammonia.

Great care should be taken not to add an excess of solution of ammonia ;
the solution must, on the contrary, be slightly acid to litmus paper. The
liquid is then left to evaporate on the water-bath until it acquires a syrupy
consistence, when it is spread with a brush on glass plates, and placed in a
stove to scale.

Note. — It sometimes happens that the solution of the salt in water has a
milky appearance ; this shows that there was not a sufficient quantity of
citric acid in the preparation ; it is obvious, then, to try a little of it previous
to its concentration. For this purpose, take a small quantity of the liquid,
dry it on a glass plate, and examine the salt as to its solubility and transpa¬
rence. If, on dissolving the salt in water, the solution is not found to be
quite clear, add to the preparation, while it is on the water-bath, a few grains
of powdered citric acid, and repeat the process of drying, etc. etc., until
you obtain a perfectly transparent solution.

TYSON’S PEOCESS FOE BLUE PILL.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — In reading over Dr. Attfield’s lecture, contained in the last number of
your Journal, I perceive that he quotes, approvingly, from Tyson, a process for

* The saturated solution of citrate of peroxide of iron is made by saturating at the heat
of the water-bath a solution of citric acid with freshly-prepared hydrated sesquioxide of
iron, until no more oxide is dissolved in the solution of citric acid. The excess of oxide of iron
is then removed by filtration, and the liquid evaporated to such a strength that every fluid
ounce must represent one drachm of anhydrous citrate of iron.

22

OX THE CAUSES OF CHANGE IN SEED-OILS.

making blue-pill, which. I happen to know by experience to be a very dangerous
one. After quoting Tyson to show that protoxide made a more certain (?) mer¬
curial pill than the metal, he proceeds : — u Tyson made his protoxide (black
oxide) of mercury from calomel, also by an ingenious modification of the usual
method. He says, ‘ But the great secret that remains, is to procure the slate-
coloured protoxide. Aqua Calcis will not do, as it produces an ash-colour from a
mixture of muriate of lime ; Liquor Potassse alone will not do, for it produces a
brownish-black powder, containg a portion of submuriate of mercury undecom¬
posed, and which no addition of Liq. Potassae will act upon, but by the addition
then of a small quantity of Liq. Ammoniac (as well as Liq. Potassae), the calomel
is completely decomposed, and the slate-coloured protoxide immediately pro¬
duced.’ I have quoted these observations of Tyson,” confines Hr. Attfield, u be¬
cause I believe they contain the basis of a method of preparing a much better
and more rational blue-pill than the officinal article ; I commend them to the
notice of therapeutists.”

How, Sir, it is some five-and-thirty years since, when I was an apprentice,
that I made a substitute for Hydrargyrum cum Greta by mixing the nearly black
precipitate obtained by the action of ammonia on calomel with chalk ; and what
was the consequence ? That I nearly poisoned some children in the n|iglibour-
hood. It purged and vomited violently.

The fact is, this black precipitate is not an oxide of mercury ; it is (as has
since been shown by Sir Bober t Kane) a chloro-amiduret of mercury, containing
half the electro-negative elements that are in the officinal “ white precipitate.” I
should not however have noticed the chemical error, only it might lead to dan¬
gerous practical consequences.

I am, Sir, yours respectfully,

John Aldridge, M.D.,

Pharmaceutical Beferee to the Pharmacopoeia Committee

of the Medical Council.

Lower SacJcville Street , Dublin, Lane 18, 1864.

[P.S. Perhaps I may be permitted to indorse Mr. Abbott’s statements at the
Leeds Association with respect to soap liniment, which I can thoroughly.]

OH THE CAUSES OE CIIAKGE IN SEED-OILS.

TO THE EDITOR OE THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — In your last number, Mr. Whipple objects to some statements of mine
contained in your Journal for April last, and inserted by way of appendix to
my paper “ On the Cohesion Figures of Liquids,” contained in your number
for March.

In using the terms “ gum and mucilage,” to account for the change that comes
over certain seed-oils, I wished to explain that it is owing to the separation of
some part of the matter of the seed with the oil, which by subsequent fermen¬
tation, or some similar change, induces or assists the acidification of a portion
of the oil. The gum and the mucilage may not form the whole of the impurity,
nor may they always be present ; but one, or both, is commonly present in the
oil obtained from the seed-presses. Woody fibre and albumen occur more or
less constantly. But woody fibre is less likely by its change to set up a putre¬
factive action than gum and mucilage ; the albumen would probably be sepa¬
rated more readily by settlement. A scientific friend connected with the oil
trade, to whom I am indebted for some of the information in my paper, speaks
of the “ oil foots” as containing a considerable proportion of gum or mucilage.
This refers more particularly to the olive-oil foots. Animal oils will, of- course,
contain a different series of impurities. My remarks referred chiefly to cro-

PERCOLATION AND MACERATION.

23

ton and castor-oils, both seed-oils, and it is possible they may contain less
gum or mucilage than olive- oil, which is from the flesh of the fruit. But of
the general fact there can, I think, be no doubt, viz. that if an oil be packed
while containing impurities, such as gum, mucilage, albumen, etc.., with water,
these would be liable to putrefactive change, and would probably set up or in¬
crease acidification in the oil itself. My informant states, that when palm-oil
is sent to this country dirty, it invariably contains a larger proportion of acid
oil than that which is sent clean and fairly dry. He also adds, “ that a con¬
siderable part of the foots of olive-oil is not soluble in alcohol, oil, or in turpen¬
tine, and has no property like spermaceti or adipocere. It is undoubtedly vege¬
table matter of some kind, and would repay examination.”

I remain, etc.,

King's College , June G, 1S64. C. TOMLINSON.

THE LEECH-DESTROYER.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Dear Sir, — I hope to be excused for reverting to this subject. Since the pub¬
lication of last month’s Journal, I have received several letters from members
and others, detailing their various experience : One gentleman suggests “the in¬
sect must be allied to the freshwater shrimps, of which he has hundreds in his
leech aquarium ; and they do not attack the leeches while living.”

I merely recommend a reperusal of the account ; it is the living leech that is
punctured, — in fact, the voracious little parasite turned from a dead leech when
placed beside it with apparent loathing, and would not again come in con¬
tact.

Another correspondent suggests that the insect is the larva of one of the
water-beetles, probably the Nepa, known as the water-scorpion; and refers to
Kirby and Spence as authority.

I have an impression that some years since the Journal contained a paper
from the French “ On the Enemies of the Leech,”* but not having all the back
numbers bound, I am unable to ascertain if memory serves.

I have for four months past been trying an experiment, with a view to the
perfect conservation of leeches, hitherto with complete success, and hope in due
course to report thereon.

I remain, Sir, yours faithfully,

R. Goodwin Mumbray.

PERCOLATION AND MACERATION.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — I am not one of those who seem to take pleasure in finding fault with
the British Pharmacopoeia, apparently ignoring the difficulties with which its
compilers had to contend. I see in it much to approve, and think it a step in
the right direction ; but having fairly tried it, the compromise between mace¬
ration and percolation does not, to me, appear to be a satisfactory process for
making tincures. It has however suggested to my mind a modification of the
old maceration process, which I have tried with satisfactory results.

I first procured a narrow-mouthed bottle holding exactly 80 fl. oz. to the
neck. I then weighed the ingredients for a half-gallon compound tincture of

* Vol. xii. p. 39, “ On the Enemies of the Medicinal Leech,” by Dr. Ebrard. — Ed.

24

PHARMACEUTICAL LEGISLATION.

cardamoms, reduced the dry articles to a uniform coarse powder passed through
a sieve of 20 meshes to the inch, put them into a 4-pint wide-mouthed bottle,
then cut and added the raisins. I then put in 3 pints of proof spirit, macerated
with occasional agitation for forty-eight hours, then with a covered funnel
filtered into the 80 fl. oz. bottle as much as would drain off. I then pressed the
marc and filtered the product. Having returned the marc to the wide-mouthed
bottle, I added the fourth pint of proof spirit, again macerated for twenty-
four hours, and pressed and filtered the product. I then added of proof spirit
sufficient exactly to fill the 80 oz. bottle, which was 5 fl. oz. I have tried the
same plan with compound tincture of senna, P.L., and with the same results,
excepting that the waste was oz. instead of 5 oz. of spirit. By this plan the marc
is practically exhausted, the process is easy, the result certain, the waste small,
and the time occupied short, requiring perhaps to be extended a little in one or
two instances, but not more. I have only a common screw- press, and my pupil
has been the manipulator. Considering the difficulties attending the percolation
process even under favourable circumstances, I am disposed to think the plan I
have suggested will prove more eligible. If you think it worth while, you
can publish this for the benefit of all whom it may concern.

I am, Sir, yours faithfully,

Bath, May 24, 1864. John C. Pooley.

P.S. — I trust that in the revised edition of the British Pharmacopoeia there
will be some more accurate adjustment of the title “ compound,” as it passes
my skill to divine why tincture of senna is not , if tincture of cardamoms is, a
compound.

LIQUOB EEBBI PEBCHLOBPDI.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — That the process given in the Pharmacopoeia for this preparation does
not yield a product which will answer the tests there given for its purity, few
who have tried it will, I think, deny, but, on the contrary, will agree with the
remark made by Mr. E. Davies, in his lecture on “ Iron,” as reported in the last
Journal, that u it gave a dark liquid containing protosalt and nitric acid.”

After various experiments, I have found that if twelve instead of ten ounces
of hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1T7) are used in the Pharmacopoeia process, add¬
ing the additional two ounces after the iron is dissolved and the liquid filtered,
then adding the nitric acid as directed, and evaporating to the bulk ordered,
that a liquor is obtained which will answer the tests given, and on the addition
of the requisite quantity of spirit, yield a tincture of elegant appearance, simi¬
lar in colour and taste to the Tinct. Ferri Sesquichlor. P.L.

To those of your readers who possess Mr. S. Darby’s translation of Wittstein’s
1 Practical Pharmaceutical Chemistry’ I need say no more, they will find the de¬
composition clearly and fully explained there ; and it may be sufficient to re¬
mind others, that profochloride of iron requires half as much more chlorine as it
already contains to convert it into perchloride.

I am, Sir, yours respectfully,

A. Utlear

4, Mount Vernon Road, Liverpool, June Gilt, 1864.

PHABMACEUTICAL LEGISLATION.

BY MR. JOHN TUCK.

There seem to be at the present time many erroneous notions abroad as to the
proposed Pharmacy Bill, and the influence it will have upon the various divisions

PHARMACEUTICAL LEGISLATION.

of the labourers in the field of Pharmacy. Throwing all special pleading aside,
and putting it in its simplest form, the present Bill proposes nothing more nor
less than the following : —

1st. All the present chemists and druggists in business to be registered, and
to have all of their existing rights and privileges, as before.

2nd. Members of the Pharmaceutical Society, and Pharmaceutical Chemists,
to enjoy their chartered rights and privileges as at present.

3rd. Chemists and druggists’ assistants actually employed as such before the
passing of this Act, to be registered as Assistants under the Pharmacy Act, with
power to commence business without examination.

4th. The Benevolent Fund is to be open to all, that is to say, past Members
and Associates' of the Society, Pharmaceutical Chemists, and registered chemists
and drugo-ists.

o c

5th. After the first day of January, 1865, no person to commence business,
unless he shall have received a certificate or certificates of qualification, from the
Examiners of the Pharmaceutical Society, either as a chemist and druggist, or
Pharmaceutical Chemist.

A more just and liberal measure to suit all parties could not I think be possibly
devised ; no reasonable man could desire anything more. The Pharmaceutical
Society is the recognized head of the profession of Pharmacy in Great Britain,
it obtained its Charter, its Act of Parliament, its exemption -from -jury privileges,
and will without doubt obtain this proposed Act.

I look upon the measure as one that chemists and druggists of all grades, whe¬
ther members of the Society from its foundation, Pharmaceutical Chemists by
examination, or simply chemists and druggists, should strive hard to get passed
into law ; no stone should be left unturned, no means left untried to effect this
desirable object, as it is for the common good of all. One great cause of the
success of this measure will be, that there is no reasonable ground of opposition
to it. It does not, like the proposed Medical Bill, inflict an injury, either
directly or indirectly, upon any section of the trade, on the contrary, all exist¬
ing rights are respected and guaranteed ; hence all reasonable source of opposi¬
tion (which by the bye would have strangled any measure in its birth) ceases to
exist.

It has been supposed and stated by some that a formidable opposition would
arise to it, on account of its not proposing to open the doors and admit the
“ outsiders ” to the title and privileges enjoyed by its examined and other mem¬
bers, but this opposition, which is more imaginary than real, is so obviously un -
just and unreasonable, that it may well be thought little of or cared little for ;
I affirm that the Council dares not, even if it would , to so deliberately breads
faith with the Government , the JMedical Profession, the public, and lastly and
more important than all , the examined members . An opposition would then
arise, and I for one should be glad to see it, such as never has been felt in
17 Bloomsbury Square before.

The Society is composed of three different classes : — 1. The founders, a body
worthy of all respect and consideration as the pioneers of progress in Pharmacy
in this country.

2. Those members admitted previous to the Pharmacy Act coming into
force ; and —

3. The examined Pharmaceutical Chemists, a body of men that stand high
in the profession of Pharmacy, and who without any compulsion have nobly spent
their time and money, studied their profession, aud honourably taken its highest
qualification.

Now I ask on what reasonable grounds can the “ outsiders ” who, to say the
least of it, have done nothing for the Society, and oftentimes much against it,
on what grounds, I repeat, can they reasonabl)\expcct to be admitted to the title

26

THE PROPOSED PHARMAGY ACT.

and privileges of the “ insiders ” in any one of the three sections before men¬
tioned cod sti tilting the Pharmaceutical Society ? The same means still exist for
gaining admission as existed and still exist for Section 3 of the Society, and
these means are examinations. Should the proposed Bill pass, the outsiders may
join the Society and be registered as qualified chemists and druggists, with the
title of Associate of the Pharmaceutical Society, and have the same privilege as
members at any meeting of the Society, on passing the Minor examination only.

In conclusion, if we wish to raise Pharmacy to the position it occupies in other
countries, if we wish to do away with a lifelong toil and little remuneration for
the same, if we wish to benefit both the public and ourselves, we shall all, both
members of the Society and non-members, unite for the common good, and
directly and indirectly use our utmost exertions to get the proposed Pharmacy
Bill passed into the law of the land.

Wilton , near Salisbury, June 21, 1864.

THE PROPOSED PPIARMACY ACT.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — I trust you will pardon my intruding upon your space; but having
been prevented from attending the Annual Meeting last month, I have not had
the opportunity of saying a few words upon the new Bill proposed to be taken
into Parliament.

I have attentively read each clause, and, as a whole, consider it in every way
answers the desired object without injuring the interest of any party ; but while
such is the case, one is somewhat surprised at finding the majority of the
speakers at the meeting expressing great doubts whether we shall have power
to pass the Bill through Parliament ; and one main antagonistic cause evi¬
dently exists within our own family of chemists and druggists, consequently
should be within our perfect control : and unless the difficulty be removed, I
firmly believe our efforts will be abortive, and the expense thrown away ; and
we shall retire with no great dignity.

But why should this be? Can it be possible that after so many years’ labour
towards uniting the trade into one homogeneous body, and at the very time
when unity of action is most absolutely necessary in order to obtain success,
that for the sake of holding our own preconceived opinions we should wilfully
fly in the face of reason ? We all know that every man is biassed in favour of
his own opinion, and that no dogmatic assertion that that opinion is based on
wrong grounds will ever convince a man of his error ; but let the parties meet,
and calmly and logically enter into the disputed points, and error will speedily
give place to sound reason. How this is just the point with us at the present
time.

The Pharmaceutical Society brings forward a Bill which, as I before said, I
firmly believe in all its main points satisfactory ; but there are other persons,
not members of our Society, and these are not so satisfied, but feel themselves
injured by certain clauses, and they therefore solicited an interview with our
Council. Here was a step, I humbly conceive, in the right direction ; and had
our Council acceded to that request I can see no reason why difficulties should
not have been removed ; and in place of the present antagonistic feeling, which,
but too evidently exists, a mutual friendly action might have been brought to
bear upon the desired object, and success in all probability have crowned our
efforts ; whereas, as matters stand at present, the two bodies are arrayed in
deadly warfare, opposing and opposed.

How, granting our Bill passed, let me ask what have we gained? Certainly
no friends ! not one who would put forth his hand and wish us God speed ! but

THE PROPOSED PHARMACY ACT.

27

a host of unwilling and irritated brethren, kicking against the trammels of, to
their way of thinking, an unjust law. Now we profess to be acting for the
'benefit of all parties, and yet only one side of the evidence is heard, and upon
that evidence an opinion is passed and a Bill framed, without allowing one word
of argument from the very persons whose interest, together with our ov7n, we
are supposed to have at heart. I must contend, Sir, that this is not a very
reasonable mode of proceeding ; neither can I understand upon what grounds
the late Council could have refused to entertain the proposal to meet the officers
of the United Society ; the deed is done, but surely it cannot be too late even
now to remove the evil.

The Session is now far advanced ; business of importance probably coming
before the House, a Bill brought in would stand a good chance of being hurriedly
considered, and very possibly hastily rejected, when it is seen how largely divided
in opinion are the very persons seeking legislative powers.

I do not wish to say a word against the gentlemen who held office ; I feel
satisfied too much praise cannot be given to them for the anxious . care and
thought bestowed upon their work, under the able guidance of our President, of
whom we cannot speak too highly ; but there is no denying the fact that a mis¬
take has been made, and the question is how that mistake is to be remedied ?
In order to answer this query I think we need but to consider how the move¬
ment originated. The Council, at the request of members of the Society, called
a General Meeting, at which it was considered advisable that a Bill should be
prepared, and, if possible, passed in Parliament. The Bill has accordingly been
prepared, and brought forward by the Council for the approval of the Society,
and at the Annual Meeting accepted. Thus far all is well ; another step is now
required ; let the newly elected Council, in their turn, call a general meeting
of the entire trade , either at the Society’s house or other convenient place ; sub¬
mit the Bill as approved, and then let the objections be fairly, calmly, and tho¬
roughly considered. Such a meeting, if conducted in a liberal and friendly
spirit, could not but be satisfactory to all parties ; and would materially tend to
remove the present ill-feeling which exists, and give power and effect to our
cause before Parliament. Apologizing for the length of my letter, but feeling
the urgency of the cause, I could not refrain from giving utterance to these few
words ; earnestly desiring to see animosity trodden down, and friendship esta¬
blished between brothers of our large and wide-spread family.

I am, Sir, faithfully yours,

Edwin B. Vizer.

63, Lupus Street , Belgravia South , June, 1864.

THE PROPOSED PHARMACY ACT.

TO THE EDITORS OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Gentlemen, — Having been prevented by business from attending the Annual
General Meeting, I have read vdtk some interest the account of the proceedings
and speeches made by various members on that occasion. As one of the mem¬
bers by examination, may I be allowed in a few words to express my opinion on
the subject of this proposed new Pharmacy Act? There appears to me, through¬
out all the discussions, to be a most extraordinary solicitude on behalf of the
“ Examined Men,” — a fear, almost, that they should be brought to the level of
those outsiders it is proposed to admit. As an examined member I must say (and
I dare say I might do so for others) I feel exceedingly grateful for the great in¬
terest shown to preserve my position, but, as far as I know, I believe this feeling
of jealousy (for it is nothing more) does not exist among the examined men
themselves, and I believe it to be a great mistake. If this new Pharmacy Act

2S TIIE NEW ACT AS AFFECTING ASSISTANTS.

is to come, into operation and benefit us as a trade, it must be founded on the
most liberal basis. We all know there are men outside the Society who are cer¬
tainly on an equality, and some I have no doubt superior to many we call Phar¬
maceutical Chemists, both in scientific attainments and in sound practical busi¬
ness qualities, and these are the very men we want, men of experience and
energy. Why, then, if they are to be admitted, should they not enjoy the same
privileges, when they might bring their talents to bear, not more to their own
advantage, than to that of the Society itself ? I think it should be the object of
the Council and of all who are interested in the welfare of the Society to strive
to gain and bring into its membership those men who will conduce most to its
well- working and prosperity. Of course under the proposed Act, many others
must be admitted, but we need not trouble about them ; our object should be to
raise others as much as ourselves. And it must be remembered that most of
these men have, although not connected with us, been contributing to the science
and practice of Pharmacy and Chemistry. Here, then, is the opportunity for
the Society to become firmly established ; let not the Council cavil obstinately
for a false superiority, but if the doors are to be opened let them be opened wide
freely, let all in on the same footing with ourselves, and then see that they be
well guarded for the future. How is it we see so little change in the Council ?
I should like to see a clause in the new Bill to this effect, that no member should
remain more than two or three years in succession, it would bring more intelli¬
gence and energy to bear on its deliberations, — not but what we owe a good deal
to the present members, but I think a little changing about would be beneficial.
I sent a suggestion last year that the Pharmaceutical men should have a dinner,
but I was sorry to find it met with no response. I still look forward to the time
when we shall have our annual dinner, but at present I shall leave the matter to
abler hands. At all events, it shows that “Pharmaceutical Chemists” are not
such a hungry lot as the public take them for.

I remain, Gentlemen, yours faithfully,

Frederick Tibbs.

47, Blaclcfriars Road , London , June 21, 18G4.

THE NEW ACT AS AFFECTING ASSISTANTS.

TO TIIE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — At the anniversary meeting of the Society, Mr. Edwards, in advocating
the adoption of the Amended Pharmacy Act, submitted that he could not do
better than allow the measure to speak for itself, and stand upon its own in¬
trinsic merit ; and seeing that the Society is now committed to carry the matter
to Parliament, no assistance should be slighted or despised. It has occurred to
me that were the proposed Bill, as affecting those Assistants now without the
Society, fairly stated to them, it must gain from them a large amount of vigorous
moral support , and, if I might instance the beneficial change the co-operation
of young men in the early closing movement has produced throughout the king¬
dom, who could fathom the influence such moral support might wield ? The
moderation of the change sought, the undeniable desirability of the object, the
spirit of justice to both sides breathed throughout the Bill, and the facility and
inexpensiveness of its application to the whole trade, cannot fail in the minds of
non-principal outsiders to overturn many a prejudice and refute a legion of old,
and in some instances plausible, objections.

By way of illustration, take this one,— Your examinations oblige us to incur
outlay our position will not warrant, and they require too much time for general
adoption by the profession.” Now this one argument, to my own very limited
knowledge, has debarred some score of young men with wdiom I have been brought

THE LATE ME. BAEEY.

29

into contact, and whose business abilities and manual industry were fully equal
to the average, from presenting themselves for examination. It is useless to deny
that success in business, rather than distinction in science, is the chief object
most of us have in view ; and that few, but those who have been fortunate
enough to attend such lectures, and work in such laboratories as the Pharma¬
ceutical Society provides, or have acquired the rudiments of their profession un¬
der superior and indulgent masters, pursue their studies with avidity, and attain
eminence as scientific chemists. Separate this minority, and the remainder are
lacking either the inclination or the means to qualify for any higher examina¬
tion than the present, or perhaps a rather more stringent “ Minor ” one. The
average number of working hours amongst chemists (taking town and country
together) is thirteen per diem, and whatever character the individual business
may possess, it is not reasonable to expect much systematic and zealous study in
conjunction with such an undue tax on the faculties of both body and mind,
especially when the subjects of such study are identical with those to which, by
the requirements of business, the wearied soul has been confined all day long.

But to exact from Assistants such an amount of knowledge as the u Minor ”
requires, is only to ask for as much as few intelligent young men with a spark
of interest in their labour, and with the very desultory reading obtainable in the
routine of an ordinary pharmacy, could fail to acquire. Doubtless there are
many honourable exceptions to such a type of Assistants both within and without
the Society ; but facts will, I think, bear me out in asserting that the majority
answer to this description. To such, after passing the requisite ordeal and paying
a very moderate fee, the Amended Pharmacy Act, if passed , would give a legal
and sufficient recognition of competency, together with a share in the govern¬
ment of the Society, and permission (itself a powerful stimulus to further exer¬
tion') to take the higher degree whenever they become competent to do so. At
the same time, and this is the noble aim of the proposed legislation, reasonable
though not infallible safety would be secured to the community by preventing-
unskilful and jgnorant men from compounding the prcescripta of the faculty.

In conclusion, let me commend the serious consideration of the matter to the
Assistants in our profession, and I feel firmly persuaded that the genuine “elo¬
quence ” of the measure alone will plead so effectually with them, that such a
body of volunteers would arise to assist its progress into law as no amount of
opposition could withstand, or successfully encounter.

Apologizing for the great liberty taken, and the amount of valuable space oc¬
cupied, I am, Sir, yours respectfully,

A Minor Associate.

THE LATE ME. BAEEY.

It is probable that the subject of this notice was personally known to a
very small proportion of our readers. Yet it is appropriate, and we trust it may
be found instructive, here to sketch a few of the salient features and leading
events of the character and life of a founder of the Pharmaceutical Society,
whose labours have produced an indelible impression on the legislation of our
country.

John Thomas Barry was the son of Alexander Barry, Esq., of Fratton, near
Portsmouth. He was born in 1789, and was the eldest of a numerous family,
seveial of whom were distinguished by conspicuous talents. His brother, Alex¬
ander, was a Hospital Lecturer at the age of twenty- one, and he was one of the
youngest men ever elected into the Eoyal Society ; but in 1832 his life of early
promise was cut short by an accidental explosion occurring in the course of a
scientific investigation. Another brother, Dr. Martin Barry, highly dis-

30

TIIE LATE ME. BAREY.

tinguished himself during a brief career. In 1834 he ascended Mont Blanc,
and published an account of what was then a rare feat. He received the
Gold Medal, of the Royal Society, of which he also was a Fellow, for his
physiological researches.

Mr. Barry himself early evinced unusual ability. Whilst still young he
was deprived of both his parents. The direction of the education of the younger
members of the family thus devolved upon him, and was carried out with cha¬
racteristic assiduity and intelligence.

When about fifteen years of age he entered the establishment of Messrs.
Allen and Howard, of Plough Court, Lombard Street. Here he soon displayed
the sterling qualities of his character, and in a few years gained the entire con¬
fidence and firm friendship of Mr. Allen, to whom, indeed, he rendered himself
almost indispensable. It was not long before he succeeded in reorganizing the
old establishment, which even at that time had been carried on for three-quarters
of a century, impressing upon it much of the systematic precision of arrangement
which has ever since characterized it.

At this time Mr. Allen was lecturer at Guy’s Hospital on Chemistry and Na¬
tural Philosophy ; and Mr. Barry pursued certain branches of medical science
in the same school, intending at this period to follow the medical profession,
but the state of his health compelled him ultimately to relinquish the project.
In anatomy he particularly distinguished himself. His talents were especially
noticed by Sir Astley Cooper, who in subsequent years spoke very strongly of
the brilliant success he might have commanded had he devoted himself to the
practice of surgery.

About the year 1817 Mr. Barry applied the method of evaporating in vacuo
to the production of pharmaceutical extracts. Under the celebrated patent of
Mr. E. C. Howard, the principle was already applied in the refining of sugar.
Mr. Barry invented a very ingenious apparatus for the purpose, which he pa¬
tented, expecting it to be used in some important manufactures, but he declined
to patent the process as applied to pharmaceutical purposes, thus leaving it open
for the adoption of the trade.

The apparatus was peculiar, in not requiring the use of an air pump. It con¬
sisted essentially of a distillatory apparatus, immersed in a water -hath to prevent
the ingress of air, with a large receiver attached at the end of the condenser.
Into this receiver a pipe from a steam boiler opened, and streams of cold water
could be made to play over its exterior. The vacuum was obtained by displacing
the air from the receiver by a jet of steam, then condensing the steam, and re¬
peating the process as often as required. Each “ blowing ” was calculated tore-
move four-fifths of the air from the apparatus, and thus, after a few repetitions,
the mercury in the gauge would rise to within an inch and a half or two inches
of the height of the barometer. Mr. Barry stated, that in actual practice the
gauge commonly stood at 28 inches even during active ebullition, which was
then kept up by a temperature of from 95° to 100° FA' This arrangement was
efficient, and easily worked ; but it has never come into general use. Perhaps
the most interesting part of the apparatus, at the present day, is the condenser ,
which was arranged in every respect exactly as that which is now known as
“ Liebig’s Condenser.”

The importance of guarding against inaccuracy in making and errors in using
poisonous articles deeply impressed Mr. Barry, and so early as about the year
1814 he introduced the plan of keeping the few poisons admitted upon the dis¬
pensing shelves in angidar bottles, whilst all the more virulent poisons were kept
altogether apart. His method of adjusting the strength of hydrocyanic acid
was greatly in advance of the time, and especially elicited the approbation of his

* Med. CIxir. Trans., 1st scries, vol. x. pt. 1, 1819.

THE LATE ME. BARKY.

31

friend Dr. Wollaston. He was beautifully neat and exact in his chemical ex¬
periments, habitually operating on very small quantities of material ; thus closely
following Dr. Wollaston, who appears to have initiated this important improve¬
ment in the method of chemical research. Throughout life it was his practice to
try a reaction for himself rather than to refer to a book. Thus his knowledge be¬
came remarkably sound ; and he accepted the results of his experiments with
unhesitating confidence.

His reliance on scientific principles was amusingly illustrated only a year or
two since. One Sunday morning, volumes of smoke were noticed to issue from
a cupboard in his dwelling-house. Remembering that he had put away there
some signal-lights, he at once suspected spontaneous combustion, but instead of
looking in and endeavouring to extinguish the fire with buckets of water, he
closed the keyhole and pasted strips of paper along the crevices, and then,
having thus blockaded the enemy, quietly sat down to read his Bible. All
signs of activity within soon ceased ; and when eventually the cupboard was
examined the damage done was found to be very limited.

In 1838 Mr. Barry was elected as a foreign member by the College of Phar¬
macy of Philadelphia.

But whilst he was still in early life Mr. Barry’s energies were devoted to an
object of more general interest than the organization of a business, or the appli¬
cation of the sciences associated with it. His revered friend Mr. Allen was ac¬
tively co-operating in almost every philanthropic undertaking of the day ; and
there can be no doubt that such an example had its natural influence upon Mr.
Barry. W e do not know the circumstances which gave the special direction
to his labours. But it is not surprising that a sensitive and very thoughtful
mind should have been roused to action in contemplating the horrible frequency of
executions under the criminal law as it existed during the earlier part of this
century. That this national disgrace has been so nearly removed is we believe
more largely due to the labours of Mr. Barry than to those of any other individual.
From natural temperament and from adopted principles he shrank from pub¬
licity, and never allowed himself to be made prominent in committees or socie¬
ties. Self-reliant, and wonderfully energetic, he never sought to operate through
organizations.

So early as the year 1808 a committee was formed which styled itself a
“ Society for Diffusing Information on the Subject of Punishment by Death.’’
Among the leading members were William Allen, Luke Howard, Joseph Gurney
Bevan, Richard Phillips, and Basil Montagu. They at once put themselves in
communication with Sir Samuel Romilly, who was delighted to find himself thus
supported in his humane endeavours to ameliorate the criminal code. Their
meetings were held at Plough Court ; but Mr. Barry, who at this date was only
nineteen years of age, does not appear to have taken any prominent part in
their proceedings for many years subsequently.

We cannot give a better idea of the part he eventually took in this great ques¬
tion than by extracting some portions of the notice of his labours which appeared
in the ‘ Morning Star ’ of the 4th April. Alluding to the year 1828, when a
new Anti-capital Punishment Society was formed, the writer says : —

“ Circumstances had drawn public attention to the cruel impolicy of retaining
the capital laws against forgery ; and to their repeal the Society at first appears to
have more especially directed its attention. The gallows at this period flourished in
great vigour, for, in 1829, no less than twenty-four persons were hanged in London
alone, and amongst these there was not one murderer. In 1830, Sir Robert Peel
brought in his Bill to consolidate the Acts relating to forgery. Sir James Macintosh
moved an amendment on the third reading of the Bill, the effect of which was to
abolish the capital punishment, except in so far as it related to the forging of wills
and powers of attorney. At this critical moment Barry put forth all his marvellous

32

THE LATE MR. BARRY.

energies. Correspondence with the provinces had to he maintained, statistics pre¬
pared and arranged, members of Parliament to be addressed through their consti¬
tuents, and every possible pressure brought to bear on the legislature in order to
secure the success of the amendment. None but himself could ever really know the
actual extent of the efforts by which Barry, almost single-handed, strove to accom¬
plish his end. The philanthropist kept a list of friendly legislators who conld be
relied upon for ‘franking’ his voluminous correspondence, and estimated that his
anti-forgery law agitation alone required ‘ franks ’ in lieu of postage to the value
of one thousand pounds. The most remarkable evidence obtained by Barry of the
growing opposition to the death-punishment was a petition from more than a thou¬
sand bankers presented by Brougham to the House of Commons on the 25th of May,
1830. To such testimony the legislature could not turn a deaf ear. Macintosh’s
amendment was carried against the Government by a majority of 13. The Lords,
however, took alarm at this innovation, and re-enacted the capital penalty.

“In 1832, Sir Thomas Denman, then Attorney-General, brought in a measure
totally to abolish death-punishment for forgery. Again Barry was at work with
his correspondence, petitions, and statistics, and lie had the satisfaction to see the
Bill go up to the House of Peers. It was near the end of the session when the Lords
took up the Bill. After much discussion it came back to the Commons altered by
the re-enactment of the capital penalty for the forgery of wills and powers of
attorney.”

By a singularly sagacious use of circumstances, Mr. Barry obtained, as the
Bill was passing through its last stage in the House of Commons, assurances
from the minister which rendered the Lords’ amendment inoperative, and no
person after this ever suffered death for forgery.

“We must not omit to mention that at this stage of his career Mr. Barry was
nobly supported by the eloquent pen of John Sydney Taylor in the columns of the
‘ Morning Herald.’ A close intimacy existed between them. After Taylor’s death,
Barry edited a selection of his Avritings, and never ceased to the close of his own life
to speak with affectionate admiration of the talents and generous nature of his de¬
parted friend. From the report of the committee, Barry’s course for some years
appears to have been marked by splendid triumphs. The year 1832 had witnessed, in
addition to the passing of Denman’s forgery Bill, the abolition of capital punishment
for false coining, and also for horse stealing, sheep stealing, cattle stealing, and
stealing in a dwelling-house, the last four measures being carried by Mr. William
Ewart. In 1833, Mr. Barrett Lennard carried his proposition to exempt house¬
breaking (as distinguished from burglary) from the extreme penalty of the law. In
1834 and 1835, on the motion of Mr. Ewart, returning from transportation, stealing
letters from the Post Office, and sacrilege were removed from the catalogue of offences
punishable with death ; and in the former year the disgraceful provision for ‘ hang¬
ing in chains ’ was erased from the statute book, attempts having been made to re¬
vive that odious practice at Leicester, and some other assize towns. In 1836, a Bill
passed into a law, on the motion of Mr. Aglionby, for putting an end to the custom
of executing within forty-eight hours after sentence all persons convicted of murder,
— a custom which had occasionally cut off, with cruel precipitation, those wffiose
innocence was discovered too late. In 1837, a large number of capital offences was
at once swept away by Lord John Russell’s Acts. They included ‘cutting and
maiming,’ and rick-burning, for which the punishment of death was altogether
abolished ; and attempts to murder, robbery, burglary, and arson, where it was re¬
served only in cases of extreme aggravation. The importance of these Acts is best
illustrated by the fact that the number of persons sentenced to death, which in 1837
amounted to 438, had fallen in 1S39 to 56. In 1840, for the first time in the history
of Parliament, a resolution for the total abolition of the punishment of death was
moved by Mr. Ewart, and no fewer than ninety- four members voted in its favour.
In 1845, the committee of the Society could congratulate itself upon the fact, mainly
the result of its labours, that whereas in 1829, the year after its formation, twenty-
four persons had been hung in London for offences other than murder, for twelve
years preceding 1844 not one execution for any offence but murder had disgraced

THE LATE MR. BARRY.

33

the metropolis. Those who had the pleasure in after years of hearing from Mr.
Barry’s lips the story of his life for the seventeen years covered by the above-men¬
tioned report, could till pages with stories of thrilling interest. He held that, wit!
regard to a question on which public feeling must often prove fickle, and for which
the masses of the people could hardly be expected to sustain any long-continued
agitation, the course for him to adopt was to demonstrate by continued and persist¬
ent efforts the injustice, impolicy, and inconsistency of the law in dealing with
individual offenders. By this means the administrators of the law became converted
by circumstances rather than by argument from open opponents into allies or sup¬
porters. This line of action necessarily brought him into contact and sometimes
collision with men in power, who exhibited not unfrequently the usual amount of
official dislike to his humane interference. In after years, even when apparently
exhausted by sickness, he would dwell with animation on some of these incidents of
the past. He would tell how the first man convicted of murder, after the passing of
Aglionby’s Act, was proved (through the time allowed by that measure to elapse
between sentence and execution) to have been totally innocent ; or he would describe,
with a keen sense of injustice and wrong, how, after long and weary journeys into
the country, after tough wrestling with the Home Secretary of the day, or long
midnight interviews with his friend Sydney Taylor, followed by an eloquent appeal
for mercy from Taylor’s pen, all proved in vain, and some unoffending victim of mis¬
taken justice died to expiate another’s crime.

“ Mr. Barry took an active share, though in enfeebled health, in the operations of
the Society for Promoting the Abolition of Capital Punishment, which took the
place of its predecessor, the ‘ Society for Diffusing Information,’ etc., and never
denied himself, however severe his physical suffering, to those who sought his
counsel in aid of the cause he had so much at heart.”

When in 1841 the chemists and druggists determined to offer an organized
opposition to the Medical Bill of Mr. Hawes, Mr. Barry cordially united and
afforded them the valuable aid of his great experience in Parliamentary business.
Thus he became one of the founders of the Pharmaceutical Society, and ever
after evinced a sincere interest in its welfare.

About eight years ago Mr. Barry retired from business. He had never
married, his health was frail, and as he frequently suffered from weakness or
entire loss of voice he naturally shunned society and led a life of much seclusion,
lie continued to take an active part in circulating publications relating to the
object upon which the best energies of his life had been expended, and his deep
abhorrence of oppression and injustice caused him to regard with lively interest
every great event affecting the welfare of mankind. To objects of which he
approved he liberally contributed, but so thoroughly did he act in the spirit of
the injunction “ When thou doest alms let not thy left hand know what thy right
hand doeth,” that his name was scarcely ever seen on a subscription list, and his
most intimate connections were, for the most part, unaware of his benevolent
actions. In the same spirit he withheld his name from any public connection
with the great labour of his life. It is scarcely to be found in the two volumes
published under his superintendence by the committee of which he was the very
soul ; and in the memoir of Sydney Taylor above referred to, we have sought for
his name in vain, although the work is preceded by a biographical sketch, written
by himself, and abounds in editorial notes.

His personal appearance was striking. In figure he was tall and slim, his
head was remarkably well developed and fine in form, his nose long and aquiline,
and his features strongly expressive of the calm refined thoughtfulness of his
mind. His general manner was remarkably gentle, affording no indication to
the casual observer of the deep earnestness of purpose and stern energy of will
which constituted the true basis of his character. It is not surprising that such
a man inspired those immediately about him with respect amounting almost to
awe. Yet blended with these indications of superiority and power there was ever

VOL. vi. r

MEMOIR OF LUKE HOWARD.

34

noticeable a peculiar tenderness of feeling. No one, we think, can peruse the
memoir of Taylor without perceiving the sympathetic pathos of the editor. It
is evident that he accompanies with loving admiration the noble sentiments,
generous impulses, and poetic tenderness of his departed friend. A remarkable
power of accurate observation, combined with studious habits and a retentive
memory, enabled him to accumulate from reading and travelling, in which he
took great pleasure, a rich fund of general as well as scientific knowledge.

His last illness was marked by characteristic activity of mind, blended with
the abounding consolations of a sincere Christian faith. Not long before the
close, with animated emphasis he said, u Already I seem as if I were floating
in clouds of everlasting light and glory ; eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, nor
hath it entered into the heart of man to conceive the things which I now ex¬
perience e.”

He died at his residence near Hornsey, on the 31st of March, and was buried
at Winchmore Hill, in the ground belonging to the Society of Friends, to which
body he united himself in early life.

MEMOIR OF LUKE HOWARD.

The decease of one of the oldest pharmaceutists in the country claims a few
words of notice in our Journal.

Luke Howard died on the 21st of last March, in his 92nd year. It is in¬
teresting to look back to the changes which have taken place during his long
life. In his earliest days, phlogiston reigned supreme in the realms of what was
then scientific chemistry. The belief in the transmutation of metals still sur¬
vived, and in the druggist’s store pulvis crardi Jiumani , oleum lumbricorum , and
oleum catulorum still occupied a place. He was already a young man when
Lavoisier revolutionized chemistry by the discovery of oxygen ; when Priestley
and Cavendish found out the joints of the armour of ignorance. He was in
the full tide of the busy occupations of life when Davy riveted the attention
of society at large by his magnificent discoveries ; and was the intimate friend
of Dalton. Iodine, the vegetable alkaloids, and a host of the other most valua¬
ble aids to medical skill, were totally unknown until long after.

It was about the year 1796 that he and the late Mr. Allen, taking the place
of Mr. Gurney Bevan at Plough Court, first brought science — such as it then
was — into connection with the preparation of medicines in England. Soon
after this they jointly entered upon the foundation of a laboratory on a larger
scale, and for the supply of the trade at large with pure preparations of the
chemicals then in use. This was first at Plaistow. Mr. Howard afterwards,
separating from Mr. Allen, removed it to Stratford, where it has been carried
on up to the present time by his children and grandchildren.

Chemistry was not, however, Mr. Howard’s most favourite science. In the
year 1796, he, in conjunction with Mr. Allen and some few other scientific men,
founded an association for the investigation of natural science, under the title
of the Askesian Society. They got on the track of some of the most perplexed
questions of modern science. Their first subject was, “Light: what becomes
of it when it falls on a surface which does not reflect it?” Several of their
papers were published, and were valued by the scientific men of the day.

Mr. Howard found in meteorology, then quite in its infancy, a subject of
particular interest. Pie set up an observatory at Plaistow, and traced the con¬
nection of electricity and temperature with the different forms of the clouds.
He soon found that the clouds admtited of classification, and his essay on the
“■ Modifications of the Clouds ” laid the foundation of all modern meteorolo¬
gical science. The names which he adopted for them, cumulus , stratus , etc., are

ALKALOID FROM RICINUS COMMUNIS.

35

*\vell understood and exclusively used by all scientific writers throughout the
world.

Nearly half a century ago, Mr. Howard withdrew from all active participa¬
tion in commercial pursuits, and gradually also from scientific investigation, and
devoted his time to various religious, philanthropic, and literary pursuits. He
inherited a fortune which enabled him to do this without anxiety, and a happy
Christian old age closed his peaceful career.

Amongst his published works are — ‘The Yorkshireman,’ ‘Notes on the
Odyssey,’ ‘ The Climate of London,’ ‘Notes on the Modifications of the Clouds,’
‘ The Barometrographia,’ and ‘ Lectures on Meteorology.’

NOTE ON AN ALKALOID OBTAINED FROM THE SEEDS OF RICINUS
COMMUNIS, OR CASTOR-OIL PLANT.

BY PROFESSOR TUSON.

It is well known that certain parts of several plants belonging to the Natural Order
Euphorbiacece , as well as various pharmaceutical preparations obtained therefrom, have
been long employed in medicine as remedial agents ; and that, notwithstanding this
circumstance, our knowledge respecting the chemical constitution and physiological ac¬
tion of the active principles residing in such bodies is even at the present day in an
exceedingly unsatisfactory state.

For a considerable period I have devoted much of the time which I could snatch from
that occupied in my regular professional pursuits to attempts at isolating the active
constituents of the seeds and oils of castor and croton, of gum eupliorbium, and of cas-
carilla bark, i. e. the bark of Croton eleuteria or of Croton cascarilla. Now although, as
yet, I have not succeeded in accomplishing the particular object which I had in view
when I commenced my experiments, I have nevertheless discovered several substances
possessing chemical if not therapeutic interest, and it is one of these proximate principles
which I have separated from the seeds and oil of Ricinus communis that I wish to partly
describe in this communication. The compound to which I refer is an alkaloid, and I
have provisionally named it ricinine.

Preparation of ricinine. — Crushed castor-oil seeds are exhausted by successive quan¬
tities of boiling water, and the matters soluble in water separated from the oil and other
insoluble materials by filtration through wet calico. The filtered liquid thus obtained is
then evaporated to dryness over a wrater-bath, and the extract produced is treated with
boiling alcohol so long as it exerts any solvent power. The alcoholic solutions are
allowed to cool, when a small amount of a resinoid body precipitates. This is separated
by filtration, and the filtered liquid is concentrated to a small bulk and allowed to stand
all night. The next morning a mass of almost white crystals are found to have deposited
from the alcoholic solution. These crystals are the new alkaloid, ricinine. It may be
obtained perfectly pure by recrystallization out of alcohol and decolorizing by animal
charcoal.

Properties of ricinine. — Ricinine crystallizes in rectangular prisms and tables. - When
placed on the tongue, it slowly manifests a feebly bitter taste, resembling somewhat
that of .bitter almonds. Cautiously treated on a microscope slide, ricinine melts and
forms a perfectly colourless and mobile fluid, which on cooling solidifies into a whorl
of acicular crystals. Heated between two watch-glasses, a sublimate is obtained, which
appears to be unaltered ricinine. Strongly heated on platinum foil, ricinine first melts
and subsequently burns with a highly luminous and fuliginous flame.

The best solvents for ricinine are water and alcohol; benzol and ether dissolve but a-
small quantity of the alkaloid. Heated with solid hydrate of potash it evolves am- -
monia, thus demonstrating the presence of nitrogen.

Concentrated sulphuric acid dissolves the alkaloid without colouring it, and the addi¬
tion of bichromate of potash simply causes the development of a green colour.

Iodic acid is not deoxidized by ricinine, even when these substances are warmed to¬
gether.

Concentrated nitric acid dissolves ricinine without evolving red vapours, although
heat be applied. On evaporating the solution thus produced to a small volume and al-

BILL ON WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

36

lowing it to' cool, groups of transparent and colourless acicular crystals develope. These*
crystals are rendered opaque by the addition of water.

Concentrated hydrochloric acid dissolves ricinine, but the hydrochlorate of the base,
which is doubtless produced in this reaction, appears to be readily decomposed both by
evaporation and dilution. A solution of ricinine in hydrochloric acid does not give a
precipitate with a concentrated aqueous solution of bichloride of platinum, but on
evaporating a mixture of these bodies well-defined octahedra and modifications of octa-
hedra having a deep orange colour crystallize out.

On mixing together cold saturated aqueous solutions of ricinine and perchloride of
mercury no change is at first observed, but if the mixture be allowed to stand for a few
minutes a mass of beautiful silky crystals, arranged in radiate tufts, is formed ; which
is so solid that the vessel in which the experiment is performed may be inverted without
any fear of its contents falling out. The mercurial compound of ricinine is soluble in
water and in alcohol, menstrua from which it may he purified by crystallization.

If ordinary castor oil be shaken up with water, the water decanted and evaporated to
dryness, a small quantity of resinous residue is left, which, when treated with boiling
benzol, partly dissolves. If the benzolic solution of this residue be allowed to evaporate
spontaneously, a small quantity of white crystals are obtained, which, so far as one can
judge from their physical properties, are ricinine.

Neither ricinine nor the resinoid body which falls when the alcoholic solution of the
aqueous extract of the seeds is allowed to cool, is the purgative principle of castor oil or
of the seeds from which it is expressed, for I administered two grains of each of these
educts to a rabbit more than a month ago, and the animal has not evinced the slightest
inconvenience, temporary or otherwise. The true active principles of officinal Euphor-
biaceae I am still seeking, and the nature of the results which I have already obtained,
induce me to indulge in the hope that before long I shall be enabled to publish an ac¬
count of them. I may be permitted to conclude this imperfect account of ricinine by
stating that I have obtained a similar if not identical body from croton seeds, and, so far
as I have yet discovered, differing in several important characters from those described
as belonging to cascarilline, an alkaloid discovered by Brandes in the bark of Croton
eleuteria or Croton cascarilla, both plants belonging to the Natural Order Euphorbiacese. —
The Veterinarian.

A BILL [AS AMENDED IN COMMITTEE] TO BENDER PERMISSIVE THE
USE OF THE METRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES IN THIS
COUNTRY.

Whereas for the Promotion and Extension of our internal as well as our foreign Trade,
and for the Advancement of Science, it is expedient to legalize the Use of the Metric
System of Weights and Measures : Be it enacted by the Queen’s most Excellent Majesty,
by and with the Advice and Consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Com¬
mons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the Authority of the same, as follows :

1. This Act may be cited as the “Metric Weights and Measures Act, 1864.”

2. Notwithstanding anything contained in any Act of Parliament to the contrary, no
Contract or Dealing shall be deemed to be invalid or open to Objection on the, Ground
that the Weights or Measures expressed or referred to in such Contract or Dealing are
Weights or Measures of the Metric System.

3. The Table in the Schedule hereto annexed shall be deemed to set forth, in terms of
the legal Weights and Measures in force in this Country, the Equivalents of the Weights
and Measures therein expressed in Terms of the Metric System, and such Table may be
lawfully used for computing, determining, and expressing, in legal Weights and Measures,
Weights and Measures of the Metric System.

SCHEDULE to which this Act refers.

Schedule of Tables of the Values of the principal Denominations of Measures and
Weights on the Metric System expressed by the Means of the legalized Denomina¬
tions of Measures and Weights in Great Britain and Ireland.

BILL ON WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

37'

MEASURES IN LENGTH.

Metric Denomination.

Equivalent in British Denominations.

Metres.

Miles.

Yards.

Feet. Inches Decimals.

Myriametre .

10,000

( 6'

376-

0*

11*9

l or

10,936*

0*

11*9

Kilometre . . . . .

1,000

1,093*

1-

10*79

Hectometre .

100

109*

1*

1*079

Dekametre .

10

10*

2*

9*7079

Metre .

1

1*

0*

3*3708

Decimetre .

1

1 0

3*9371

Centimetre .

• 1

1 () o

•

0*3937

Millimetre .

To (To

0*0394

MEASURES OF SURFACE.

Metric Denomination.

Equivalent in British Denominations.

Square

Metres.

Acres. Square Yards. Decimals.

Hectare .

Dekare .

Are .

Centiare ......

*

10,000

1,000

100

1

f 2* 2280* 3326

1 or 11,960* 3326

1,196* 0333

119* 6033

1* 1960

MEASURES OF CAPACITY.

Metric Denomination.

Equivalent in British Denominations.

Cubic

Metres.

Qtrs. Bshls. Pks. Galls. Qts. Pts. Decimals.

Kilolitre ....
Hectolitre ....
Dekalitre ....

Litre .

Decilitre ....
Centilitre ....

1

1

3 0

1

10 0

1

10 0 0

1

To ooo

1

100000

3* 3* 2* 0* 0* 0*77

2* 3* 0* 0* 0*077

1* 0* 0* 1*6077

1*76077
0*176077
* 0*0176077

WEIGHTS.

Metric Denomination.

| Equivalent in British Denominations.

Grams.

Cwts. Stones. Pounds. Ounces. Drams. Decimals.

Millier . . .

Quintal . . .

Myriagram . .

Kilogram . .

Hectogram .
Dekagram

Gram ....
Decigram .
Centigram .
Milligram . .

1,000,00.0

100,000

10,000

1,000

100

10

1

1

10

1

10 0

1

10 00

19* 5* 6* 9* 15*04

1* 7* 10* 7* 6*304

1* 8* 0* 11*8304

( 2* 3* 4*3830

( (or 15432*3488 grains)

3* 8*4383

5*6438

0*56438

0*056438

0*0056438

0*00056438

3S

MISCELLANEA.

MISCELLANEA.

Poisoning by Digitaline. — A very remarkable trial has lately taken place at
Paris, in which a homoeopathic physician, named La Pommerais, was charged with
having poisoned a poor widow named Pauw, whom he had known for many years, and
had attended her husband before his death, after which she became his mistress ; and
this connection continued till 1861, when it was broken off in consequence of Pom¬
merais marrying a Madlle. Dubizy. The intimacy was renewed in July last, when he
suggested that she should insure her life for £22,000, and that after payment of the
first premiums she should simulate illness, and then make a proposal to the insurance
companies that her policies should be exchanged for a life annuity. The policies were
effected in July for the above amount, at annual premiums of £750, and on the morning
of the 17th of November the widow Pauw was found in great agony, and died in the
evening. Dr. Gaudenat, who had been in attendance, certified that death was caused
by a fall three months previously. Pommerais afterwards applied to the companies for
payment of the money due upon the policies; but suspicions having arisen, a, post¬
mortem, examination wa,s ordered, and hence the present trial. The post-mortem exa¬
mination was made by MM. Tardieu and Poussin. No poison was discovered in the
viscera, but there was an absence of disease in the internal organs. However, from the
symptoms exhibited before death, and from experiments made on animals with the vomited
matters scraped from the floor of the room occupied by the deceased, and with the con¬
tents of the stomach, they were of opinion that death had resulted from some powerful
poison, probably digitaline. On the other side it was contended that the experiments
made with the matter scraped from the floor of the room were valueless, as it was impos¬
sible to say that organic matter in a state of decomposition might not have been suffi¬
ciently poisonous to cause the effects described. MM. Claude Bernard, Valpian, and
Raynal were examined as to the action of digitaline on the heart, and described the
experiments they had made with that substance. The jury found the prisoner guilty of
poisoning the widow De Pauw. No mention of extenuating circumstances having been
made, La Pommerais was condemned to death, and has since suffered the penalty.

Poisoning by Ranunculus acris. — An inquest was recently held at the Bull
Hotel, Dartford, before Mr. C. J. Carttar, coroner, on the body of a child named Sarah
Elizabeth Heron, aged six years. It appeared by the evidence of the mother and
father of the child, that some time before death the deceased had complained of feeling
very unwell, and in great pain about the body and legs. The mother afterwards dis¬
covered that the deceased had been eating buttercups from a field close by, and sent for a
powder from a chemist’s ; but as the deceased vomited a great deal, and presented every
appearance of having been poisoned, the parish surgeon (Mr. Martin) was sent for, but
that gentleman did not arrive at the house till the child was dead. A post-mortem
examination had been made, which proved the deceased had been poisoned by eating
buttercups ; and the jury returned a verdict to that effect.

Suicide by Aconite. — An inquest has been held at Bolton on the body of Hannah
Hulme, aged 25, a domestic servant, who died from the effects of aconite. It was
proved in evidence that she had been visited for the last eight months by a married man,
who had represented himself as single. On finding that she had been deceived, and
that she was pregnant, she drank a quantity of strong infusion of aconite, the remain¬
ing portion of which was found in a pint jug under the bed on which she was found
dead. The jury found that “ The deceased destroyed herself by drinking an infusion
of aconite whilst in a state of unsound mind.” The man was severely reprimanded for
his heartless conduct.

Tincture of Aloes as an Application to Wounds. — M. Delioux observes that,
notwithstanding the great repute of aloes as an external application in former times, it
is now seldom used, and that he was induced to give it a trial in consequence of its great
utility in veterinary practice. After trying it in combination with other balsamic sub¬
stances, he has come to use it alone, finding a saturated tincture made with one part of
aloes and two of alcohol to be the best preparation. Suppurating wounds, when at all
of an atonic character, are to be dressed by means of charpie dipped in the tincture, the
application causing little or no pain. Old and obstinate ulcers, and ulcers from decubitus
in cachectic subjects are much benefited by it. It is useful also to bear in mind its great
cicatrizing power in wounds and ulcers occurring in our domestic animals, especially the

REVIEWS.

39

horse. Erosures and fallings by its aid are prevented degenerating into ulcers. — Bull, de
Therap., vol. lxvi. p. 28.

Alleged Death from Chlorodyne. — At an inquest held at Shipton Sollars,
Gloucestershire, before J. Lovegrove, Esq., coroner, on the body of an old woman who
had taken ten drops of “ Dr. Collis Browne’s Chlorodyne,” and who was found dead a
few hours afterwards, Mr. A. W. Gabb, surgeon, who was acquainted with the deceased
and had prescribed for her, made the following statement: — He knew the history of the
case, and was well acquainted with “ Dr. Collis Browne’s Chlorodyne.” He had not
used it now for some time, because its effects on different constitutions appeared so un¬
certain. He had known fifteen drops to prove almost fatal. He did not know the
composition of the medicine, but chloroform formed a prominent ingredient. Such a
medicine ought not to be sold indiscriminately —except under medical advice. Being a
sticky medicine it was difficult to drop, and he invariably used a minim glass for the
purpose. He had given twenty-five drops in a dose, but that was by gradually increas¬
ing it. The cause of death in this case was the chlorodyne deceased took. — A verdict
in accordance was returned.

Practical Application of Dialysis. — As a note to his paper on the “Utilization
of Brine,”* Mr. Whitelaw has published the following in the ‘ Chemical News,’ May 28 :
— The salt meat is placed in a dialy tic bag made of untanned skin, or other suitable ma¬
terial, and the bag filled nearly, but not quite, full of brine from the beef barrel. The
dialyser is then placed in sea-water, and the process allowed to go on for several days,
till the meat and brine are sufficiently fresh for use, or till the brine in the dialytic bag
is within 1° or 2° of Twaddell’s hydrometer of the same strength as sea-water. In this
way, as the brine becomes freed from salt, the beef, which, by the action of salt, has
been contracted, gives its salt to the brine in the bag; and so the process goes on, the beef
expanding like a sponge, and gradually taking up a great part of the natural juice that
it had previously lost in the salting process. In this way no loss of juice is sustained by
steeping, and the brine left in the bags, after a nightly dialysis in fresh water, can be
used for soup. Thoroughly salted beef, without bone, takes up nearly one-third its weight
of juice, and this absorption takes place gradually as the strength of the brine in the dia¬
lyser becomes reduced. Meat thus treated — being, in fact, fresh meat — may be cooked
in a variety of ways that are obviously not available for salt meat ; and so the food of
sailors, and consequently their health, may be improved.

Preservation of Chloroform. — It requires but a short time for chloroform which
is exposed to the sun’s rays to undergo decomposition, hydrochloric acid being deve¬
loped, and a strong odour of chlorine being present. This is prevented if the chloroform
is kept in the dark ; and when it has undergone decomposition by exposure, M. Boettger
finds that it may be easily purified by shaking it up with a few fragments of caustic
soda. As long, indeed, as it is in contact with the caustic soda it may be preserved for
an indefinite period in diffused light. — Bull, de Therap ., May 15.

REVIEWS.

The Essentials of Materia Medica and Therapeutics. By Alfred Baring Gar-
rod, M.D., F.R.S. ; Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians ; Professor of Materia
Medica and Therapeutics in King’s College, London ; Physician to King’s College
Hospital ; and Examiner in Materia Medica in the University of London. Second
Edition, revised and much enlarged. London: Walton and Maberly. 1864.

The appearance of a second edition of Dr. Garrod’s well-known and appreciated text¬
book is a great boon to students at the present time, when such a work is in much re¬
quest. The fact of a large issue of the first edition having been sold is, in itself, evi¬
dence that a volume of this kind was required, and that the want was supplied in a satis¬
factory manner. The object and general nature of the work will be best judged of by the
following extracts from the Preface : —

“ The present work is intended to serve as a text-book of Materia Medica, and while
it is hoped that it omits -nothing essential to the study of the science, it excludes such
details as are often embarrassing to the student and seldom necessary to the practitioner.

* Yol. v. 2nd ser. p. 516-

40

REVIEWS.

It has been his object, while limiting its size, to include all points connected with the
officinal preparation of medicines, and so much information on the therapeutic action of
drugs as would serve as a sufficient guide in actual prkctice. All controversial points have
been avoided, as unsuited to the design of the work; and the information confined to
the facts really ascertained as to the action of each drug, and the purposes for which it
has been advantageously employed.”

“ A Table of Contents, by a glance at which the reader will at once see all drugs sci¬
entifically arranged, together with their pharmaceutical preparations, is contained in the
present edition ; as likewise a Table indicating the principal changes of nomenclature
and important differences of strength between preparations in the British Pharmacopoeia
and in the London Pharmacopoeia, 1851; and lastly, a somewhat copious Posological
Table is now introduced.”

The following notice of M'ezereon will serve as an illustration of the manner in which
Dr. Garrod has carried out his design : —

“ Thymelacee.

Mezereum, Mezereon. The dried bark of Daphne Mezereum , or Mezereon ; Linn.
Syst. Octandria Monogynia ; or Daphne Laureola, the Spurge Laurel. The latter is
chiefly found in commerce ; indigenous.

Description. Thin, flat, or curled pieces of various lengths ; tough, of a brown
colour outside, but white and fibrous within, with slight odour, taste hot and very acrid.

Prep, and Comp. An acrid volatile oil , acrid resin , and a crystalline principle ;
daphnin. When the root is boiled in water, an acrid vapour rises.

Off. Prep. It is contained in Decoctum Sarze Composititm.

Therapeutics. Mezereon is a powerful local irritant, and even vesicant ; it causes vo¬
miting and purging in large doses, but in small ones diaphoresis and diuresis. Used in
chronic rheumatism, syphilis, scrofulous and skin diseases. Seldom given in this country,
except in the compound decoction of sarsaparilla. In America an ointment is used.

l)ose. Of compound decoction of sarsaparilla, 1 fl. oz. to 2 fl. oz. or more.”

The above description, which includes everything that is absolutely essential for the
medical practitioner and medical student to know, may be taken as a fair specimen of the
others.

Such a text-book cannot but prove a useful guide to medical practitioners, and to
those students of materia medica who are not called upon to look deeply into the science,
and even to the latter class it will serve as an introduction to the larger and more com¬
prehensive works of Pereira, Christisou, Wood and Bache, etc.

Although we thus gladly admit that the work of our author contains much that is
good, we must at the same time state that it is by no means free from errors. Some of
these, as want of clearness of description, and wrong spelling of technical terms, have
doubtless arisen from the desire of the author to get his work published as soon as pos¬
sible after the issue of the British Pharmacopoeia ; but others having been recently pointed
out in this Journal and elsewhere, we cannot but regret to have to refer to again from
their occurrence in the present volume. We trust, however, that a new edition will be
speedily called for, and thus afford bur author another opportunity of carefully revising
the work, and make it still more worthy of the high reputation he has deservedly ac¬
quired.

A Companion to the Pharmacopoeia ; comparing the strength of the various Prepara¬
tions with those of the London, Edinburgh, and Dublin, United States, and other
foreign Pharmacopoeias; with Practical Hints on Prescribing. By Peter Squire,
F.L.S., Chemist on the establishment of the Queen, Chemist in Ordinary to the Prince
of Wales and the Royal Family, late President of the Pharmaceutical Society.

The defects and deficiencies of the British Pharmacopoeia have been felt and admitted to
be so numerous, and some of them so important, that those for whose use the work was
intended have hesitated in adopting it as their accredited guide, and appear at the pre¬
sent time to be waiting for the Medical Council to give it the value and authority that
such a work ought to possess. On its first appearance, all those interested in the subject
were anxious to know what changes would be effected by it ; at present, the anxiety is
rather to know what changes are to be made in it, or what explanations can be given

.REVIEWS.

41

that may reconcile medical men and pharmaceutists with reference to the points on
which dissatisfaction has been expressed. Several little works have appeared, having
for their object the explanation of changes effected by the introduction of the British
Pharmacopoeia, and tending to facilitate its ado. lion by prescribers and dispensers.
These, although useful in their way, may all be considered as having rather an ephemeral
object, and they have therefore been brought out in an inexpensive form. It has been
thought indeed, as the British Pharmacopoeia is published in English at rather a high
price, and as the copyright of the text is secured to the Medical Council, so that it can¬
not be brought out by other authors in a new dress, it might reasonably be expected
that it should contain all that is requisite for its comprehension and application.
Being in the vernacular language, a translation is not required, and it could not very
well be annotated as our Pharmacopoeias have hitherto been, without using the text upon
which to found the annotations, which would probably be considered an infringement of
the copyright. We have had no intimation therefore of any work, such as Phillips’s
‘ Translation of the Pharmacopoeia’ being in contemplation, nor indeed is there the same
occasion for such a work now as there has been formerly, for the British Pharmacopoeia
is much more full in descriptive and explanatory details than any of our previous Phar¬
macopoeias have been. The defects which unfortunately exist in the new Pharma¬
copoeia are not such as a commentator could set right ; they can only be corrected by the
high medical authority from which the work emanates.

Under these circumstances there has naturally been some speculation writh reference
to the purport of Mr. Squire’s book. It was difficult from its title to say what was its
principal object, or what position it was intended to occupy with reference to the Phar¬
macopoeia. Was it to be emendatory, or explanatory, or supplementary ? The first of
course it could not be, unless it were suggestively, without the authority of the Medical
Council ; but there was scope enough for an explanatory and supplementary work,
although, as already stated, it would be difficult to give to such its full value without
embodying the text of the Pharmacopoeia, and thus to some extent superseding the use
of that work. This obviously was not contemplated by the author, for ‘ A Companion to
the Pharmacopoeia’ clearly implies that it is to be used with the Pharmacopoeia, and not as
a substitute for it. On looking through Mr. Squire’s book, we find that although much
of the substance of the Pharmacopoeia is used, yet it is but rarely that the text is quoted
literally. It is generally much abbreviated, and sometimes essentially altered, so that the
new version cannot be taken fully to represent the original. The alterations are some of
them given, we presume, as suggested amendments, and in this class may be included
the method adopted of expressing the quantities of ingredients in some of the formulae by
numbers, without indicating any specific weights or measures. The author states in the
preface, — “ I have, as far as practicable, expressed the formulae in parts, which may be
regarded either as pounds, quarter pounds, or ounces, or indeed any weights, English or
foreign. The liquids, however, are always directed to be measured ; I have therefore placed
at the top of each page this general direction, .Solids by weight , liquids by measure .” Thi?,
as the author says, he has been able to carry out only partially, for there are many cases
in which it is found to be inapplicable. We confess we think it of very questionable
utility even in gases in which the author has applied it. Take, for instance, a very
simple case, that of Unguentum simplex. This, by the new method, is represented thus :
— “ Prepared lard, 3; white wax, 2; almond oil, 3; melt together.” In the Phar¬
macopoeia the quantities are given as ounces by weight of the solids and fluid ounces of
the liquid, and as long as the quantities used are limited to ounces, these, or any other
numbers bearing the same relation to each other, may be used ; but suppose the operator
wishes to substitute pounds for ounces, he has in this case to make a calculation of the
quantity of oil by measure that will correspond with the altered weight of the solids.
Or suppose the operator wants to make ten gallons of Acidum Sulphwicum Aromaticurr, ;
turning to the Pharmacopoeia, he finds a formula which yields two pints, and as he
requires forty times this quantity, he very easily calculates the quantities of ingredients,
which will be 6 pints of sulphuric acid, 10 gallons of rectified spirit, 5 pounds of
cinnamon, and 3 pounds 2 ounces of ginger. But now, turning to the “Companion,’
he finds another version of the formula, in which we have, “ sulphuric acid, 3 ; rectified
spirit, 40 ; cinnamon, in powder, 2; ginger, in powder, 14; macerate for seven days.”
There is surely as much calculation required here as in the other case, or we should
say rather more. In this case too, by abbreviating the formula; an essential part of the

VOL. VI. E

42

REVIEWS.

process is entirely omitted, so that if the “ Companion ” were consulted and not the
Pharmacopoeia, the product would not be such as the Pharmacopoeia orders. In the
formula for Syrup of I'o/u, a curious instance occurs of mystification resulting from the
adoption of this new method of expressing quantities. The process is thus described :
— “Balsam of Tolu, 1^; sugar, 32; water, 20; boil the balsam half an hour, adding
water when required ; filter, add sugar, and dissolve. When finished, weighs 48 oz.,
and measures 64 oz. sp. gr. 1*33.” We thiuk it would puzzle any other than an accom¬
plished pharmaceutist to make anything intelligible out of this, and yet the process as
given in the Pharmacopoeia is perfectly simple, clear, and well described. If liquids as
well as solids had been ordered by weight, as is the case in some of the Continental
Pharmacopoeias, the use of simple proportional numbers would, of course, have greatly
simplified the formulae ; but while liquids are measured, we do not see that any advan¬
tage results from the plan adopted by the author.

The arrangement of the matter in the “ Companion ” is different from that in the
Pharmacopoeia, and is no doubt considered better ; for unless there were some special
object in altering the arrangement, the simultaneous use of the two works would have
been easier if they had both been arranged alike. In both the arrangement is alphabe¬
tical, but in the Pharmacopoeia the Materia Medica part is separated from the pre¬
parations whilst in the “ Companion ” they are put. together, the preparations being de¬
scribed under the heads of the principal drugs used in producing them, as is usually done
in works on Materia Medica. The adoption of this plan, we think, gives to the work less
of a pharmaceutical character than it would otherwise have.

In the processes there is not much of an emendatory character, and yet it cannot be
said that there is nothing of this character. In a few instances, such as those of Liquor
Fe ri Perchloridi and Tinctura Ferri Perchloridi , where glaring defects exist in the
Pharmacopoeia processes, they are pointed out, and suitable remedies are suggested. The
value and importance of these suggestions make us regret that the author, whose skill
and experience in pharmaceutical operations are well known, has not entered more
generally and fully into that class of annotation in his book. The process for Spiritus
FEtheris nitrosi is condemned, as also is the substitution of the strong fuming nitric
acid of 1*5 sp. gr. for the weaker acid of the London Pharmacopoeia, and the process for
collodion is set right, while the new process for spirit of sal volatile is very justly com¬
mended. But in most cases the processes are passed over without comment, not how¬
ever without alteration, for, as we have already said, most of the matter, and especially
the processes, taken from the Pharmacopoeia, are expressed in altered terms, often much
abbreviated, and sometimes from this cause rendered obscure. In some cases there are
obviously intentional deviations from the Pharmacopoeia instructions, some of which may
be improvements, although we do not think them always so. One thing, however, we
decidedly object to, and that is, that there is nothing to indicate which part is in accord¬
ance with the Pharmacopoeia and which is not. This character in the work entirely pre¬
cludes its use in any other way than as a companion to the Pharmacopoeia, which was
probably intended.

The work does not partake much of an explanatory character, yet to a certain extent
brief explanations are given, especially where tests are described. Thus in the first article,
on Acacia, the test for Gum Arabic is extended, improved, and explained. In the article
on Acetum, after giving the Pharmacopoeia test, the following explanatory sentence is
added : — “ Indicating absence of hydrochloric acid, lime, and metals.'” This should have
been, indicating the absence of more than a minute quantity of sulphuric acid and lime,
a nd the entire absence of lead, copper, and tin. To the test for arsenious acid is appended,
“ the iodine converts the arsenite of soda into arseniate.” It would have been well in
this case to have explained how it does so, for those who understand the modus operandi
of the test do not require to be told what the result of the reaction is. The explanations
given in this way, however, are generally very brief, but not always so much so as in
the above instance, and sometimes they are full and sufficient.

But the principal object of the book cannot be said to be either that of suggesting
amendments or of explaining processes and reactions ; it is rather that of supplementing
the Pharmacopoeia with matter likely to be useful to those by whom such works are con¬
sulted. Thus, with reference to salts and many other substances used in medicine, we
have a statement of their solubilities and solvent poyvers. Of definite chemical substances
the chemical equivalents are frequently, although not invariably given. As these may be

REVIEWS.

43

used by students, we cannot avoid remarking here that great carelessness is evinced in this
part of the work, so that no reliance can be placed on the numbers representing the chemical
equivalents of compound bodies. In the Pharmacopoeia a table of the equivalent weights
cf elementary bodies is given at the end, constituting Appendix C, and it was a very sim¬
ple and easy thing to calculate and give the equivalents of compounds where their com¬
position is represented, as it is in the Pharmacopoeia, by symbolical formulae. On looking
over these however, we find t hem in a great number of instances to be wrong. Thus re¬
ferring to Acidum Arseniosum ,” the English name of this is changed from “ arsenious
acid ” as given in the Pharmacopoeia to “ white arsenic sublimed .” To this is added
“ Teroxide of arsenic, As03,eq. 75.” Now 75 is the equivalent of arsenic, that is the
metal arsenicum , and it is so given in the table already referred to, it does not, there¬
fore, represent arsenious acid , the equivalent of which is 99. The equivalent of benzoic
acid (H0,C14H603) is given as 112, it should have been 122 ; that of tartaric acid
(2 HO, CsH4O10) is given as 75, whereas, according to the formula, it should have been
150. The equivalent of phosphate oj ammonia (3NH40,P05, -f- 5HO) is given as 143,
it should have been 194; that of arseniate of iron (3FeO, As05) is given as 274, it
should have been 223 ; that of carbonate of lead (2(Pb0,C02) + HO,PbO) is given as
134, whereas the number representing the formula would be 387'5 ; what the number
134 is intended to represent we cannot conceive. The equivalent of citrate of potash
(SEOjCj.jHjOjj) is given as 100, it should have been, according to the formula, 300 ;
that of carbonate of potash (K0,CO.2-|- 2 HO) is given as 83 5, it should have been,
according to the formula, 87. These are a few and only a few out of numerous cases of
a similar description, which are much to be regretted, and the occurrence of wdiich it is
difficult to account for. With reference to medicines ordered in other Pharmacopoeias
as wrell as the British Pharmacopoeia, their relative strengths, as ordered in the several
works referred to, are indicated, although not always correctly, as, for instance, in the
case of infusion of senna. The doses of medicines are also given, and, above all, their
medicinal properties are described. This latter part of the matter comprises what is
referred to in the title-page as “ practical hints on prescribing.” We have no doubt
this will prove to many a very acceptable part of the information contained in the book,
as some dissatisfaction has been expressed at the absence of such matter from the Phar-
macopceia. The author states, w'ith reference to this part of his work, that he has u col¬
lated it from the best authorities,” and this statement was perhaps necessary to justify
the introduction of strictly medical matter by a pharmaceutist. It must not be supposed
that these practical hints on prescribing are intended for the use of Pharmaceutical
Chemists, or that the full description given of the therapeutic action of medicines affords
an indication of the amount of knowledge of this sort required by the chemist and drug¬
gist. This part of the matter is no doubt intended for medical men ; and the author
says, in the preface, “ knowing something of the wants of both pharmaceutists and pre-
scribers, I have endeavoured to make the book as practical as possible, and I trust that
the labour bestowed upon it will not be without some result.”

The Prescriber’s Analysis of the British Pharmacopoeia. By J. Birkbeck Nevins,
M.D. Bond., Lecturer on Materia Medica in the Liverpool Royal Infirmary School
of Medicine. Second Edition. London: John Churchiil and Sons. 1864.

The first edition of this useful little work was noticed by us in our issue for April
last, page 523. The present edition may almost be regarded as a new work, for it ap¬
pears to have been carefully revised, and has been so much enlarged that it contains
about three times the amount of matter as formerly. We can recommend it to our
readers as a useful and reliable guide to the British Pharmacopoeia.

PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

Intending visitors to Bath at the meeting in September who require accommodation
are requested to communicate their wishes to the Local Secretary, in order that such
accommodation may as far as possible be secured for them.

John C. Pooley, Local Secretary.

8, Georye Street, Bath.

44

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

BOOKS RECEIVED.

Manual of the Medicinal Preparations of Iron, including their Preparation,
Chemistry, Physiological Action, and Therapeutical Use. With an Appendix,
containing the Iron Preparations of the British Pharmacopoeia. By Harry Napier
Draper, F.C.S. Dublin: Fannin and Co., Grafton Street; London: Robert Hard-
wicke ; Edinburgh : Maclachlan and Co. 1864. (From the London Publisher.)

Selecta e Prescriptis. Selections from Physicians’ Prescriptions ; to which is
added a Ivey, containing the prescriptions in an unabbreviated form, with literal trans¬
lation. For the use of Medical and Pharmaceutical Students. By Jonathan Pereira,
M.D., F.R.S. Fourteenth edition. London: John Churchill and Sons, New Burlington
Street. 1864. (From the Publishers.)

The British and London Pharmacopoeias compared ; with an abbreviated Materia
Medica : giving the Chemical Symbol, Equivalent, Natural Order, Habitat, Properties,
Strength, and Dose of Every Article in the British Pharmacopoeia. By George Barber,
Pharmaceutical Chemist. Second Edition, revised and enlarged. London : Simpkin,
Marshall, and Co. 1864.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

To be placed on the Register as a Pharmaceutical Chemist and to participate in the
privileges of Membership, it is necessary to pass the Examinations as indicated in the
Regulations of the Board of Examiners (Copy of which may be had of the Registrar).

The Board do not require that any special course or courses of Lectures or Laboratory
instruction should have been attended ; if the Candidate evince an acquaintance with the
subjects on which he is examined, the usual Certificate of competency is granted, and he
is Registered accordingly.

X. Y. Z. (Rochdale). — The Quinine may be recovered from the solution by precipita¬
ting with Carbonate of Soda.

A Constant Reader. — The Proposed Pharmacy Act. See Section 5 of the proposed
Act, ‘Pharmaceutical Journal,’ page 558.

Vir (Newcastle-on-Tyne). — A so-called “Patent Medicine,” recommended for the
relief or cure of any complaint, requires a Stamp, and can be sold only under a Patent
Medicine Licence, whether a Patent be taken out for it or not.

Aqua DestiUata (Manchester). — (1) It is not probable that a new edition of the
British Pharmacopoeia will be published in less than twelve months from the present
time. (2) The required information will be obtained on application, by letter, to the
Secretary, 17, Bloomsbury Square.

B. R. (Buxton). — Such a knowledge of the Pharmacopoeia is required that would
indicate an acquaintance with all the more important preparations and their constituents.
The Regulations of the Board of Examiners may be obtained of the Secretary.

Chemicus. — Nitro-prusside of Sodium may be obtained of any Operative Chemist.
See any text-book of Chemistry.

Inquirer (Aberdare). — (1) Riddle’s Latin Dictionary. (2) Apply, by letter, giving
name and address, to the Secretary, 17, Bloomsbury Square.

B. (Whitchurch, Hants) proposes that “ a Central Office should be established, where
both Principals and Assistants could apply respecting Situations ; a payment of Five
Shillings to be made on being suited.” [We beg to remind our Correspondent that such
a Central Office already exists at 17, Bloomsbury Square, where a book is kept for the
names of applicants, whether belonging to the Society or not, and free of any charge.]

A Young Member. — Pereira’s ‘ Materia Medica and Therapeutics.’

An Apprentice (Manchester). — Fownes’s ‘Manual of Chemistry,’ and Bentley’s
‘Manual of Botany.’

Instructions from Members and Associates respecting the transmission of the
Journal before the 25th of the month, to Elias Bremridge, Secretary, 17,
Bloomsbury Square, W.C.

Advertisements (not later than the 23rd) to Messrs. Churchill, New Bur¬
lington Street. Other communications to the Editors, 17, Bloomsbury Square.

THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

SECOND SERIES.

YOL. VI. — No. II.— AUGUST 1st, 18C4.

SEPARATE EXAMINATIONS EOR CHEMISTS ALREADY IN
BUSINESS ON THEIR OWN ACCOUNT.

Our readers will see, by the Pharmaceutical Transactions, that the propriety
of examining chemists already in business on their own account, apart from
younger members of the trade who may more properly be termed “ Students,”
has been again under consideration of the Council, and it has been decided to
institute such an arrangement. We believe this resolution wiU find general
favour. Had compulsory powers been given in the Pharmacy Act of 1852, such
a step would now be unnecessary, but as submitting to the ordeal has been hitherto
and is still only voluntary, it is desirable to remove as many obstacles as possi¬
ble. The bringing together Principals and Assistants for examination has always
been regarded as an obstacle to the former, who may naturally feel a disinclina¬
tion to descend from an established position and once more stand at the gate for
admission, side by side with those who have perhaps only twelve months previously
emerged from apprenticeship. In the event of the passing of the proposed
amendment of the Pharmacy Act, the necessity for these separate examinations
would in a few years cease to exist, as no chemists would after that period com¬
mence business without previous test of qualification ; but for the present we
think the proposition wise, and calculated greatly to assist those who deem mere
registration as “ Chemists and Druggists'1'1 somewhat derogatory. In reality
such registration would secure and perpetuate all vested interests, and indeed
improve the position of men so registered ; but by this proposal the way to dis¬
tinction would be rendered less difficult, and easier access to membership of the
Society provided. It was stated in our Journal of last month that an increased
desire for Membership was made evident by the inquiries so constantly sent to
the Secretary by “ chemists and druggists already engaged in business on their own
account and that “ the more firmly the application of a test of qualification is
adhered to as a necessary condition to membership , the more is the attainment of
the object desired , nd the more tvhen attained is it appreciated.'''

From this proposition none will dissent, not even the candidates for examina¬
tion, and we do not understand, by receiving two different classes at the exami¬
ners’ table at two separate times, the Board has any idea of smuggling unquali¬
fied men into membership. Nevertheless, although both may be tested for the
Same knowledge, there should be a wide distinction in the manner of examining
them, — the one more practical than the other. The Student fresh from his books
and experimental laboratory must bring proof of his acquaintance with the
elements which are to fit him for the service of the public ; he will naturally be
more at home in the language of the schools ; he may have been a diligent ap¬
prentice and a trustworthy assistant, but he has not been called on to take the

YOL. VI. F

46

SEPARATE EXAMINATIONS FOR CHEMISTS.

full responsibility, unaided by the supervising care of a master, of a dispensing
establishment ; let him not however be misled by what we say on this point, his
examination is practical as well as technical, and a want of familiarity with the
practice of the dispensary would be fatal to his hopes, but it is important that in
technicalities he should be more perfect, as he has to give evidence that he is qua¬
lified to begin; whereas the man who has not only begun, but creditably con¬
ducted his business for a period of five years, brings a certain amount of evidence
that he possesses the right foundation, and his examination should therefore be
more — much more — practical than technical. He has already utilized his educa¬
tion, in reality improved it, and yet might not pass muster so well in a mere
technical questioning as his juvenile competitor.

A schoolboy at the end of his pupilage passes a severe ordeal and takes high
honours, an ordeal fitted for advanced pupils, but the time has gone by when
such an one was regarded as an educated man : the real work of education is now
to begin with him, and he has only shown his ability, cultivated ability we may
call it, to proceed with the work.

And this holds good with special or “ professional ” education as well as
general.

A student of history, if he be not a teacher also, may have forgotten the ac¬
tual dates of the Conqueror’s landing in England, the signing of Magna
Charta, or the expulsion of the Stuarts ; but he has nevertheless a very clear
appreciation of the influences these events have exercised on the character and
liberties of Englishmen. So too in Botany, one branch of study indicated for
Pharmaceutical Chemists by our Act of Parliament ; it is well known that
many of the elements of the science, we mean the exact details of classification,
are but matters of memory, and unless a man is handling flowers continually he
forgets them ; but they have assisted him and taught him great principles ; he
has generalized the information obtained by their means, knows the indige¬
nous medicinal plants when presented to him, and possesses such an acquaint¬
ance with -the vegetable substances employed in medicine as renders him a safe
vender or dispenser for the service of the public. He has attained the end for
which he studied, and the examiners finding him so qualified need not make
him recount the steps by which he ascended the tree of knowledge, — he has
plucked and applied its fruit.

We are quite aware that one of the greatest responsibilities of the Council
lies in the Examinations ; they are the very foundation of the Society, and the
maintenance of their integrity is the tenure by which its privileges are held. To
reduce these examinations to a mere farce would be to destroy their value both
in the eyes of the public and of pharmaceutists ; to break faith with the Legis-
gislature which enacted the law, and with those who have been examined under
it ; therefore we should not be slow to denounce and warn our readers against
any proposal which could have such an effect, although that proposal might be
one which would for the moment increase the numerical strength of the Society.
We have to look to the future, consider well the previous conduct and progress
of the Institution, maintain that which is right, amend that which needs altera¬
tion, and above all things adapt our laws and regulations to the requirements of
the time, always regarding as indispensable the educational qualification to esta¬
blish which our Society was formed. In considering our progress we are by no
means discouraged ; let those who say we have done nothing look to the late
examination lists, — the number of candidates will indicate the estimation in which
the seal of the Society is held, and satisfies us as to progress. The proposed
regulation we take to be a necessary adaptation to circumstances, which if
carried into execution fairly and honestly by the Board of Examiners will be of
service alike to the Society, and to those chemists and druggists who, although
well qualified for their business, have reasonable scruples about coming up for
examination in company with the Students presenting themselves monthly.

47

TRANSACTIONS

OF

THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

AT A MEETING OF THE COUNCIL, July 6th , 1864,

Present — Messrs. Bird, George Edwards, Evans, Hanbury, Haselden, Hills, Mackay,
Morson, Orridge, Sandford, Savage, and Squire,

The following were elected —

MEMBERS : —

Charles Symes . Birkenhead.

Abraham Johnson Dyer . Brixton.

Godfrey Watson Brewster . Cambridge.

Joh n Mills . Ch ester.

The following, having severally paid their Arrears and the Registration Fee for th e
current year, were

RESTORED TO MEMBEBSHIP : —

Frederick Telfer . Leytonstone.

Edward Pearson . Liverpool.

Luke Pearson White . Penistone.

John Whitwell . Peterborough.

The President for the time being of the Pharmaceutical Society of Victoria, was
elected an Honorary and Corresponding Member of the Pharmaceutical Society of
Great Britain.

Resolved — That Separate Examinations be instituted for Chemists and Druggists
engaged in business on their own account, provided always that such persons have either
been in business for Jive years or are thirty years of age.

That the first of such Examinations be held in October, and that due notice thereof be
given in the Journal and Transactions.

BENEVOLENT FUND.

The following subscriptions to the Benevolent Fund were received during June : —

Bishop, Thomas, Woolwich . £0 10 6

Bostock, William, Ashton-under-

Lyne . 0 5 0

Cooke, William, Norwich . 0 5 0

Christopher, Wm., Crickhowell... 0 5 0

Ellis, Richard, Thornbury . 0 5 0

Gardener, Charles, Tunbridge
Wells . «. 0 5 0

Gibbs, William, Ryde, I. W . £0 10 6

Gudgen, George B., Kimbolton 0 5 0

Jenkins, Joseph, Nottingham ... 0 10 0

Patterson, George, Stamford ... 0 10 0
Strawson, Henry, Crewkerne ... 1 1 0

Sutton, Francis, Norwich . 110

REGISTERED APPRENTICES, July 20 th, 1864.
name. residing with address.

Bowles, William James . Mr. Harrington . Rochford.

Deane, James . Mr. Deane . Clapham.

Hitchcock, Arthur Wm . Mr. Hitchcock . Oxford.

Mason, Robert William . Messrs. Garratt . Rugby.

Sheldon, Benjamin . . Mr. Greaves . Bakewell.

Steward, John Alfred . Mr. Davis . Leominster.

Trist, Richard . Mr. Turney . Plymouth.

XT'

48

ON THE RED VARIETY OP PITAYO BARK.

EXAMINATION, Wednesday and Friday , July 20th and 22nd, 18G4.

MAJOR.

Appleton, Robert . .

Berdoe, Edward .

Bingley, John .

Chambers, James .

Faulkner, James M .

Gowland, George R .

Griffith, William H . .

Hickman, William .

Hitchcock, Chas. G .

Mayfield, John Thos .

Norrish, Henry .

Pasmore, Frederic Rich .

Watts, John .

MINOR.

Barnett, Alexander . Buxton.

Barton, Hemy . Newark.

Child, Henry . Halesworth.

Farnsworth, Thomas . Codnor.

Fitt, Francis E . Barking.

Garside, Thomas . Southport.

Hearder, Harry P . Plymouth.

Hudson, John William . Bradford.

Isherwood, James . London.

Martindale, William . Carlisle.

Moulton, James E . Northampton.

Oldfield, Francis . Dover.

Sargent, George W . Liskeard.

Wearing, Richard H . Liverpool.

.Sheffield.

.London.

East Retford.
Belper.

London.

.Sunderland.

.Bristol.

.Maidstone.

.Oxford.

. W olverhampton .

.Crediton.

.London.

.London.

Ilampson, Robert

EDINBURGH.

MAJOR.

Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

Erratum. — Vol. V. page 592, for “Howell, Maurice, 5s.” read “ 10s. 6d”

Vol. VI. page 6, for “John C. Appleton” read “ Thomas C. Appleton.’

ORIGINAL AND EXTRACTED ARTICLES.

ON THE RED VARIETY OE PITAYO BARK.

BY J. E. HOWARD, F.L.S., ETC.

Mr. Robert Cross, who was employed to collect seeds of the Chinchonse on
behalf of the Indian Government, in the district of Popayan, sent over recently
the bark, together with the seeds, of that which he calls “ the red variety of
Pitayo, the best of all.” He gave ten ounces of this bark to Dr. Jameson, of
Quito, who says it is the true Pitayo bark of New Granada, and extracted 3*2
j)er cent, of quinine from it. Mr. Markham, in sending me the seeds, writes
as follows: — “ I enclose some specimens of bark and some seeds of Chinchona

ON THE BED VARIETY OF PITAYO BARK.

49

JPitay crisis , collected by Cross last August. They were collected from trees
growing on lofty ridges nearPopayan, where it sometimes freezes, — temperature
30° to 60° Fahrenheit.”

Cliinchona Pitayensis, red variety.

The bark was at once recognized as the superior quality of Pitayo bark, which
bears a high value in this market, as well as in Paris, equal in fact to that of
Calisaya. From a small portion of that given to me, gathered by Cross, I
obtained the surprising amount of 8’6 per cent, of alkaloid soluble in ether, and
the portion which formed crystalline salts indicated like results with those men¬
tioned by Dr, Jameson,

50

ON THE AMOUNT OF ALKALOIDS IN CINCHONA BARK.

There is, I believe, no doubt that this is the same sort of bark which was
given by M. Delondre to Dr. de Vry, described by him as the root-bark of C-
land folia, and from which Dr. de Vry obtained 8*66 per cent, of alkaloid. If I
understand rightly, this identity is admitted on all sides ; but the questions
remain, — First, is it the produce of C. lancifolia (Mutis) ? Second, is it root-
bark at all? As to the first question, it is certainly an error to identify the
C. Pitayensis with the C. lancifolia (Mutis). I send a drawing of the C.
Pitayensis , which was made by Air. Fitch from specimens gathered by Air.
Jervise, and now found in the herbarium of Sir William J. Hooker, at Kew.
They comprise the roja , or red, and naranjada , or orange, varieties,* and are
accompanied by characteristic specimens of the bark of these two sorts. Between
these no botanical difference that I am aware of can be traced, and both consti¬
tute a species markedly distinct from the C. lancifolia (Mutis), f which has been
very well figured both by Weddell and Karsten ; whilst the C. Pitayensis has
never till now been represented, as far as my knowledge extends, although it is
certainly one of the very best kinds of Chinchona, and far superior to the C.
lancifolia (Mutis), which last has been for a long time almost entirely neglected
by the collectors.

In the next place, is it root-bark? I presume not, as Cross never intimates
anything of the kind respecting the specimen bark which he sent home. The
appearance of the bark, which is peculiar, might most readily correspond to that
which would be produced by shrubs, growing high up the mountains, and in so
low a temperature as is above described. This is exactly the climate and circum¬
stances to favour the production of quinine in the bark, as has been well shown
by Dr. Karsten, and exemplified also in the Calisaya of St. Fe in particular.
No doubt the Indian Cascarilleros may strip roots and all, and mix these with the
bark, and, in the fragmentary condition in which it comes, it is impossible to
distinguish the bark of the different parts of the plant ; but the extraordinary
produce I must persist in believing to be due to the circumstances above-named,
and not to that of its being root-bark, which, as regards the great bulk of the
collection, I do not believe.

Whilst compelled to differ on this point, I most willingly bear my testimony
to the great value of the table given in last month’s Pharmaceutical by Dr. de
Vry. The exactness and fidelity with which these able researches are repro¬
duced, enable all persons to form their own conclusions, and to me the results
seem to indicate a general inferiority in the root-bark, as compared with the
trunk of the Calisaya.

ON THE DETERMINATION OF THE AMOUNT OF ALKALOIDS

IN CINCHONA BARK.

BY DR. J. E. DE VRY.

Although there exist many methods of ascertaining the amount of alkaloids
in the cinchona bark, my connection with the cinchona cultivation in Java
compelled me to select one which would not only afford comparable results,
but one in particular which would yield the different alkaloids as they are con¬
tained in the bark , without alteration from the chemicals used for their extraction.

It appeared to me that the method described by my friend A. Delondre^

* I have also from Paris the morada and blanca varieties exhibited in sections of branches,
hut not in flowers or fruit.

f I have specimens given by Mutis to Bonpland, and presented by the authorities of the
Museum of the J ardin des Plantes ; also an excellent specimen gathered by Dr. Karsten.

X Delondre et Bouchardat, £ Quinologic/ p. 44.

ON THE AMOUNT OF ALKALOIDS IN CINCHONA BAKK.

51

for the preparation of his so-called quinium, could be easily adapted for my
purpose ; and the result of my experiments proved that I had made a right
choice. My method, which has been applied to the investigation of the
Neilgherry barks, is the following : —

The powder of the bark is dried at 212° Fahr., and the weight ascertained
in the dry state. If possible, it is always preferable to use the same quantity.
It is now mixed with a quarter of its weight of slaked lime, and this mixture
boiled with ten times its weight of spirit of sp. gr. 0'85 during five minutes.
The whole is now put into a filter, and exhausted by successive quantities of
boiling spirit, making the whole quantity of spirit used equal to twenty times
the weight of the bark. The alcoholic solution, after having been acidulated
by dilute acetic acid, so that litmus paper becomes reddened, is evaporated
on a water-bath till all the alcohol has been expelled. The residue of the
evaporation is now repeatedly treated with water till the filtered liquid is
no longer rendered turbid by an alkali. The watery solution thus obtained
contains all the alkaloids, whilst the quinovic acid, fatty and resinous mat¬
ter, etc., remain upon the filter. If this filter, with its contents, be duly
treated with milk of lime, the quinovic acid can be determined. The watery
solution of the alkaloids is next brought to a small volume by evaporation
on a water-bath, and then mixed with an excess of slaked lime, by which
the alkaloids are precipitated. The whole is now thrown upon the smallest
possible filter and washed with a minimum quantity of cold water. If
properly managed, the quantity of water necessary to remove the colour¬
ing matter is so small, that the loss of alkaloids by their little solubility
in lime-water can be neglected ; and if in a series of investigations care is
but taken to work under the same conditions, as to size of the filters, etc. etc.,
the small loss before mentioned has not the least influence on the com¬
parability of the results. After the filter has been properly washed, it is
dried and boiled repeatedly with alcohol of 082, till the alcohol dissolves
nothing more. After filtration the slightly coloured alcoholic solution is
evaporated in a small weighed platinum vessel, and the residue heated on
the water-bath until its weight ceases to diminish. The amount of the
alkaloids in the bark is now known, and to ascertain the quality of the
different alkaloids, they are dissolved in the smallest possible quantity of very
dilute acetic acid. Sometimes there remains a trace of resinous matter undis¬
solved, but in the majority of cases this trace need not be noticed. If,
however, in an exceptional case, the resinous matter is in such quantity
that it can be weighed, its weight must be ascertained and subtracted from
the amount of alkaloids. The acetic solution of the alkaloids is now placed
in a closed funnel, provided with a cock, and agitated with a slight excess
of caustic soda and a quantity of ether equal to fifteen times the -weight of
the alkaloids. After this agitation, the whole must stand at least six hours ;
for, although cinchonidine and quinidine are sparingly soluble in ether, a
large amount of them is dissolved upon the first agitation, but is separated in
crystals after a few hours. The ethereal solution is now evaporated, and the
residue heated on a water-bath till its weight remains constant. This residue
is quinine, containing traces of cinchonidine, quinidine, or cinchonine, and in
many cases a large amount of the still unknown fusible alkaloid. By the
known reactions of chlorine and ammonia, and by the preparation of herapa-
tliite, the real nature of this residue can be ascertained. The alkaloids which
have not been dissolved by the ether are now again dissolved in the smallest
possible quantity of dilute acetic acid, and this solution mixed with a few
drops of a concentrated solution of iodide of potassium. After stirring the
liquid with a glass rod, there will appear a sandy crystalline precipitate if
quinidine is present. In such case, the hydriodate of quinidine is collected

52

THE RICE-PAPER OF FORMOSA.

upon a[filter, dried at 212° Falir., and its weight ascertained, whilst the amount
of pure quinidine can be ascertained by calculation from the known weight of
the hydriodate ; 100 parts of hydriodate are equivalent to 71‘68 parts of
quinidine, according to the formula C40H24N2O4,H I. The liquid separated
by a filter from the hydriodate is precipitated by caustic soda, and the pre¬
cipitate noted as cinchonine, or as a mixture of cinchonine and cinchonidine,
which depends upon special observations. If the solution of iodide of po¬
tassium produces no precipitate, the solution is precipitated by caustic soda,
and the precipitate may be regarded as cinchonine, or as a mixture of cincho¬
nine and cinchonidine. The presence of cinchonidine or quinidine among
the alkaloids of a bark can be easily conjectured at the time of their treatment
with ether ; for if one of these alkaloids is present, it is partially deposited in
a crystalline state after some time. Whilst the quinidine can easily be ascer¬
tained by iodide of potassium, even in small quantities, the presence of small
quantities of cinchonidine can onfy be ascertained with certainty by the polar¬
izing apparatus, by which instrument I have, for instance, found the cinchoni¬
dine of Pasteur in the bark of C.jpahudiana , of Java.

The Hague , April 21, 1864.

THE EICE-PAPEE OE FOEMOSA.

BY ROBERT SWINHOE, II. M. CONSUL AT FORMOSA.

The plant that produces the so-called rice-paper is the Ar alia papyrxf era
of botanists, a low shrub with large leaves, in form not unlike those of the
castor-oil plant ( Ricinus communis'). This plant has as yet only been procured
from the northern end of Formosa, where it grows wild in great abundance on
the hills. It is of very quick growth, and the trunk and branches, which are
lopped for use, are not unlike those of an old elder in appearance. The cellular
tissue or pith attains its full size the first year. The trunks and branches are
mostly procured from the aborigines of the inner mountains, in barter for
Chinese produce. They are rarely straight throughout their length, and are
usually cut into pieces of about nine inches long, and with a straight stick in¬
serted at one end and hammered on the ground, the pith is forced out with
a jump at the other end. The pith is then inserted into straight hollow bam¬
boos, where it swells and dries straight. If too short to form the required
breadth of paper, several bits are inserted into a hollow bamboo, and, by rods
inserted at both open ends of the bamboo, pressed together until dry. By this
process the short bits are forced to adhere together and form one long straight
piece of the required length. Thus paper of almost any size can be procured.
The knife used in paring the pith into paper is in shape not unlike a butcher’s
chopper. It is wrell sharpened on a stone, and when not used, kept with the
edge in a wooden groove held firm to it by two strings round the wood and the
knife. Before using it, the edge receives a fresh touch up on a small block of
wood, usually a piece of the timber of Macliilus ramosa , shaped like a large
hone. The block on which the pith is cut consists of a smooth brick or burnt
clay tile, with a narrow piece of brass on a rim of paper pasted at each edge, on
which the knife is laid, and is consequently a little raised above the bare tile
itself. The block is laid flat on a table, and the dried pith rolled on it with the
fingers of the left hand, and then the knife laid on the brass rims with its edge
towards the pith, its handle being held by the right hand. As the knife is ad¬
vanced leftwards by the right hand, the pith is rolled in the same direction, but
more slowly, by the fingers of the left. The paring thus goes on continuously,
until the inner pith, about a quarter of an inch in diameter, is left, resembling
somewhat the vertebral column of a very small shark, and breaking into similar

ON ACCIDENTAL POISONING.

53

concave-sided joints. This is used by the Chinese as an aperient medicine.
The paring produces a smooth continuous scroll about four feet long, the first
six inches of which are transversely grooved and cut off as useless. The rest
shows a fine white sheet. The sheets, as they are cut, are placed one upon
another and pressed for some time, and then cut into squares of the required
size. The small squares made here are usually dyed different "colours, and manu¬
factured into artificial flowers for the adornment of the hair of the native ladies ;
and very excellent imitations of flowers they make. The sheets most usually
offered for sale, plain and undyed, are about three inches and a quarter square,
and are sold in packets of one hundred each, at rather less than one penny
the packet, or a bundle of five packets for fourpence. The larger-sized paper
is made to order, and is usually exported to Canton, whence the grotesque but
richly tinted rice-paper paintings have long attracted the curiosity of Europeans.
Some of us tried our hands at paring, but made most abortive attempts, pro¬
ducing only chips, though the operation looked so easy in the hands of the ap¬
prentice. The term of apprenticeship to the trade is three years, during
which time the man receives no pay, but only board and lodging from his master,
and has to give his services as general attendant besides to his employer. When
the three years are completed, the apprentice is required to work other four
months, in place of paying premium. He then receives a certificate of capa¬
bility, and can either set up on his own account or demand wages for hire.

ON ACCIDENTAL POISONING IN CONNECTION WITH THE
RESPONSIBILITIES OE DISPENSING CHEMISTS.

BY MR. HENRY B. BRADY.

In the Journal for December, 1862, I ventured to trouble you with a few
paragraphs on Accidental Poisoning, and I purpose, if you will allow me again
to trespass on your space, to add somewhat to the remarks then offered.

The communication referred to was directly elicited by a melancholy accident
in dispensing, which occurred at North Shields, the circumstances of which
will be recollected by many of your readers. A medical man, in large practice,
was called upon to answer to the charge of causing the death of one of his pa¬
tients, by an error committed by his assistant in dispensing. It was in vain
that he pleaded that special pains had been taken in the regulation of his sur¬
gery to guard against contingencies of this kind ; that in the arrangement of
the bottles, the registration of prescriptions, the mode of labelling medicines for
external use, and, more than all, in the employment of experienced and highly-
paid dispensers, unusual care had been exercised. The jury, — such a jury
as you may find in any commercial seaport, — knowing nothing practically of
the details of a dispensing-room, nor of the precautions which were admissible
or desirable in the case, gave a verdict which resulted in the censure of the
surgeon, and, eventually, in the award of heavy damages to the husband of his
patient. There were some amongst us who were disposed to pass lightly over
the event, with the remark, u Medical men should not dispense their own medi¬
cines, but leave it to those whose proper business it is,” — a sort of served-liim-
right verdict, which a second thought would condemn as unworthy jealousy ; 4
but there were others to whom the result caused alarm and anxiety. A prece¬
dent was established which, unless counter-measures were taken, might ruin any
one practising pharmacy at any moment.

The heavy calamity which has recently befallen one of our brethren-in-arms
at Liverpool brings the matter yet nearer home to us, and has filled every rightly-
thinking member of our profession with feelings of the deepest sympathy. Let us
pass lightly over a few of the circumstances of the present case, and draw instruc-

54

ON ACCIDENTAL POISONING.

tion from them if we may. A pharmaceutist this time, not a general practitioner,
in position and attainments equal with the best ; labouring heartily for the ad¬
vancement of the status of his profession ; endeavouring to attain, and to a large
degree attaining, the patronage of the public, not by having recourse to underhand
or questionable means, but legitimately, by constant personal care and attention,
and an endeavour to keep pace with the ever-increasing requirements of the
practice of pharmacy, is the person most nearly concerned. In an unlucky
hour a dispenser, in whom years of satisfactory service gave him just right to
place confidence, whose one fault seems to have been the over-confidence arising
from long practice, makes an error in compounding a bottle of medicine, using
powdered strychnia instead of James’s powder. The immediate effect need not
be dwelt upon. We are informed that the principal was not aware that he had
such an article as powdered strychnia on his premises, and that the crystals had,
without his knowledge, been rubbed down by his assistant for convenience in
dispensing, forgetting the safeguard which resides in their peculiar appearance.

It is obvious that an accident like this may occur to any one of us, even the
most careful, and it is well therefore that we should look at the matter with
thoughts for the future. We need not quote trite latinisms in testimony of the
intimate association of error with humanity, nor can we expect our assistants
to be above human weaknesses ; if they understand their work, and are careful
and trustworthy, we have reason to be thankful. Accidents, in the very nature
of things, must happen ; let us do all in our power to prevent them, but let
us seek also to protect ourselves should they happen from causes beyond our
control.

It is easy to see how a jury, unacquainted with the details of a dispensing
establishment, and having no reliable authority on which to base their judgment,
may be persuaded, or bullied, or tricked, according to the fancy of a barrister
on the prosecuting side, into a belief that some precaution ought to have been
taken by the chemist which he has omitted ; and a tirade on a fanciful poison-
bottle, or a sand-paper label, may induce a verdict utterly unjust in the magni¬
tude of its consequences. Nor is it unnatural that the tendency of a jury,
when the “ safety of the public” and the u carelessness of dispensers” has been
duly sounded in their ears, should be disposed to decide the case in a spirit of
revenge, rather than of sober judgment. On the other side, the pharmaceutist
can scarcely complain, inasmuch as the class to which he belongs, to whom the
public naturally looks for information on the subject, has never given any indi¬
cation as to what means may be, or ought to be, taken by the chemist so as to
reduce the chance of error to the minimum. It is useless to state, that because
the substances with which we have to do glide, by imperceptible gradations,
from the alimentary and harmless into the virulently poisonous, we can draw
no line amongst them, nor even define what constitutes a poison. The public
recognize a difference, and common sense, rather than abstract science, is their
guide, as it must be ours. In reading the history of the Liverpool case, we
cannot avoid the conviction that, had the error occurred in the administration
of an ounce of paregoric instead of a dose of strychnia, though the effect
would have been the same, the verdict of the jury would have been couched in
very different language.

. Nearly three years ago, we understood that a committee had been appointed
by the Council of the Pharmaceutical Society to consider the whole question ;
we even heard of a re-appointment of that committee on the formation of a new
Council. Pharmaceutists would be glad to know the results of their delibera¬
tions. W e can scarcely suppose that they have not produced a report ; their
silence on the subject can scarcely be intended to signify an opinion that no
precautionary measures are of any value ; if this be so, their heaviest task is
still before them, which will be to convince chemists in the first place, and the

ON ACCIDENTAL POISONING.

55

public in the second, that their judgment is well founded. The Poison Bills
Avhich are periodically brought before Parliament are sufficient evidence of the
views which are held outside of our own body, and we must recollect that the juries
to whom cases of accident are referred are selected from the public, and not
from the craft. The Society has good reason to remember these Poison Bills,
from the trouble and money they have cost in the efforts, only just successful,
to prevent them becoming law. It is true that the provisions of these Bills
have been absurd and vexatious ; but this is only what we might expect of any
regulations devised by those whose zeal was in advance of their knowledge.
The public will have precautions against accident adopted ; let them be of our
own choosing rather than left to the selection of a Parliamentary Committee.
Were the Pharmaceutical Society, acting officially as the body governing not
only the interests of its own members, but those also of the nation at large, so
far as pharmacy is concerned, to issue a series of simple and reasonable regula¬
tions with respect to the storing and dispensing of poisonous substances, it would
require no other authority to ensure their general adoption. Then, any chemist
whose misfortune it may be (and it may happen to any of us) to fall under the
notice of a coroner’s jury, will have the advantage of being able to show that
the system of his establishment is not at fault, and that the approved means of
guarding against casualties have been thoroughly adopted ; the jury, on their
side, will also be benefited by having a real standard, instead of an imaginary
one suggested by an excited fancy, by which to determine the merits of the
case.

Recent events teach us that accident of the kind under consideration may be,
and is followed by a civil action ; so that, in addition to the toilsome life and
poor reward often dwelt upon, and so feelingly, in your pages, the pharma¬
ceutist has the ghost of pecuniary ruin staring him in the face, and he is de¬
prived of the power, which consciousness of right should impart, to disarm the
intruder. With the assistance of such a document as I have alluded to, his
position in common law would be materially altered, if indeed the question of
damages were ever brought into court. I am not sufficiently versed in law to
know how far Lord Campbell’s Act bears the construction which seems to be
put upon it with reference to these cases, and it would have been well for us if
some of the funds we see annually accounted for in the financial statement
under the head of “ law expenses” had been expended in ascertaining how far
the provisions of the Act affect members of the Society, and in warning those
whom it concerned of their increased responsibilities.

The great pity is, that the Society did not, years ago, take action in the ques¬
tion of accidental poisoning. Its views, then expressed, could not have failed
to be taken as the basis of any Poison Bill which might have been brought into
Parliament. Honourable members, knowing little about the real wants of the
case, would have been ready enough to accept suggestions, sanctioned by the
authority of those who have the best opportunity of forming a correct estimate,
as the groundwork of legislation, being also well aware that in doing so they
would secure the support of an important division of the community. We may
at any time be threatened with another Bill similar in character to those which
have gone before, causing us so much trouble ; and if public feeling be a little
excited on the subject, we shall have greater difficulties than ever in inducing a
Parliamentary Committee to listen to reason, so that we may still have enact¬
ments forced upon us, not only grievous to bear, but impossible to carry out to
the letter.

It was the opinion of the late Mr. Bell, that pharmaceutists had nothing to
fear from a good Poison Bill ; nay, more, that the next advance to the Society
was likely to be most readily attained in connection with legislation on this
question, and I agree almost entirely in what he said and wrote concerning it ;

56

EMPLASTRUM IIYDIIARGYRI.

but the first essential for satisfactory movement is, that we shall agree amongst
ourselves as to what precautions it is best to recommend to chemists, that may
satisfy the desire of the public without undue inconvenience in the practice of
dispensing. We can do nothing with the educational clauses, which he proposed
should be added if these provisions were at any time embodied in a Bill, until
we have settled the first point.

Feeling the urgent necessity of some action in the matter, a committee was
appointed some time ago by the Executive Committee of the Pharmaceutical
Conference to inquire into it ; surely the Council of the Pharmaceutical Society
do not mean to stand idly by whilst such questions are mooted.

Since writing the above I have received for perusal, through the courtesy
of the Secretary of the Society, the report of the committee presented at the
meeting of the Council last August. It is a great pity that this report was not
printed in the Journal. The proposals contained in it seem to me almost un¬
exceptionable so far as they go, but it could never have been intended as a final
report ; it leaves off in the middle of the “ first act,” and is, in fact, only the
beginning of the beginning. Still, I am informed that this committee does
not now exist.

TYSON’S PROCESS FOR BLUE PILL.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — Dr. Attfield having pointed out to me that my communication to your
periodical of the 18th ult., with respect to Tyson’s process for Blue Pill, is liable
to misconstruction, I shall be obliged by your affording me space for explanation.
Any careful and informed reader would perceive that in alluding to the possi¬
bility of the poisonous chlor-amiduret of mercury being formed, I referred solely
to the action of ammonia on the small quantity of calomel left undecomposed by
the Liq. Potassse ; but all readers are not careful and informed, and therefore it
may be necessary to state that the precipitate recommended by Tyson for making
Blue Pill would consist principally of dinoxide of mercury, mixed with a little
of the di-clilor-amiduret. The therapeutical effects, consequently, would not be
by any means so violent as if the latter compound constituted the whole preci¬
pitate, as was the case in the instance which I cited in my former letter. But
we like to use pure chemicals in medical practice ; we are not satisfied if our
calomel contain even very small quantities of corrosive sublimate, and the re¬
spected Tyson would not, if he was aware of it, wish his black oxide to be con¬
taminated with chlor-amiduret.

I find I was mistaken in supposing that Dr. Attfield approved unconditionally
of Tyson’s process. He was, it appears, aware of its defects, and will, no doubt,
perfectionate a much better and safer one.

I am, Sir, yours respectfully,

John Aldridge, M.D.

Pharmaceutical Referee to the Pharmacopoeia Committee
of the Medical Council.

[ W e do not think there is any good evidence to show that Blue Pill owes its
efficacy to the presence of oxide of mercury ; and there is one important objection
to the use of black oxide of mercury, which is, that it becomes transformed very
rapidly into the poisonous red oxide. — Ed. Piiarm. Journ.]

EMPLASTRUM HYDRARGYRI, Piiarm. Brit.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — Having had occasion to try the process directed in the new British

PROCESS FOR PREPARING LINIMENTUM ACONITI.

57

Pharmacopoeia for the preparation of Emplast. Hydrarg., I think it desirable to
acquaint my brother members of the Pharmaceutical Society with the result.
On following strictly the directions, as well as the proportions given, I found
that it was almost impossible to divide the mercury sufficiently by trituration
with the oil and resin ; and on adding afterwards the litharge plaster, the mass,
instead of having a tenacious consistence, was so crumbly as to prevent its being
formed into the usual rolls. I had then recourse to the formula I have used for
the last forty years, viz. substituting the same weight of Venice turpentine as the
oil and resin combined, thus preserving the proportions of the mercury, and
found it to answer completely ; the latter being much more easily divided, and
the resulting plaster being of a good consistence.

I am, Sir, yours very faithfully,

Thomas Blunt.

The Wyle Cop, Shrewsbury, July 4 th, 1864.

ON THE PROCESS OP THE BRITISH PHARMACOPCEIA FOR PREPARING
LINIMENTUM ACONITI, AND ON THE MEDICAL AGENCY OF THE
LINIMENTUM SO PREPARED.

BY M. DONOVAN, M.R.I.A., ETC.

Many acrid vegetable substances, which are virulently poisonous in their natural
state, are rendered innocuous by being dried by heat. Such is the case with many of
the Aroidese and Ranunculacese. Aconite seems to be of the same character to a certain
extent ; and although the poison be not destroyed by drying, the noxious quality of
the plant may be greatly weakened by being volatilized, or otherwise dissipated, or par¬
tially decomposed.

The following statements have been made relative to aconite : — Bucholz, while occu¬
pied in making an analysis of the leaves of aconite, was seized with headache, pain in
the back, and vertigo ; whence we conclude, says Berzelius, that the poison is volatile.
Pereira, quoting Gieger, says that the emanations of the distilled water affect the eyes.

Statements have been made to the effect that handling the fresh plant has produced
tremblings and faintness ; and that in preparing the extract, the vapours have produced
disagreeable symptoms, and enlargement of the pupils of the eyes, which has continued
several hours. All these facts seem to point to the volatile and destructible nature of
the acrid principle, and to the injury which the roots must sustain by being dried by
heat.

It became a question, therefore, whether the process adopted in the British Pharma¬
copoeia for preparing the linimentum aconiti is such as to preserve the properties of the
roots of the plant without injury.

Having procured a quantity of the root in a nearly dried state, I completed the
drying by spreading it out on a well-regulated hot hearth, covered with sheets of paper.
Of the dried root, twenty ounces were moistened with twelve ounces and a half of
rectified spirit, and macerated for seven days. The whole was then percolated with the
remaining seventeen ounces and a half of rectified spirit ; eight ounces and a half were
held absorbed by the powder permanently, and twenty-one ounces and a half of the
liniment -were obtained, first cost in Dublin 7s. Gd. per pint of twenty ounces for mere
materials, there being eight ounces and a half of liniment wasted in the residuum.

The chief thing to be now ascertained was, whether the process of the Pharmacopoeia
is injurious to the qualities of the aconite. The only way to ascertain this is by the
application of the liniment on a sensitive part of the body, and by comparing its effects
with those of another liniment similarly made with aconite roots recently taken from
the ground, and neither dried nor heated.

It being just the period of the year (late in May) when the roots are in best con¬
dition, I procured some fresh from the garden. They were sliced, immediately thrown
into the proper quantity of rectified spirit, and allowed to macerate for twenty-four
hours.

53

PROCESS FOR PREPARING LINIMENTUM ACONITI.

A piece of lint soaked in this tincture or liniment was laid on my forehead, and left
closely adhering for an hour and a half, being during that period saturated with the
liniment four times. My first impression was that of cold, which soon after so far
changed that it was difficult to determine whether it was cold or heat ; but it soon be¬
came very decidedly heat, and after a while it increased to smarting, and very painful
smarting it was. Meanwhile, I felt tightness of the skin, and pressure resembling a
band drawn tight over the forehead. Then came on a kind of vibration and creeping
of the part, and although the smarting continued, the part when touched had but little
feeling. After an hour and a half, the smarting began to abate, but the tightness and
vibration continued for three hours, and even next morning were perceptible. The fore¬
head was much reddened.

A lady, a member of my family, aware of what I was doing, submitted to the same
experiment. She describes the sensation of great heat or cold — doubtful which — the
very painful smarting, which continued an hour and a half after the application had
been removed, and the want of feeling, notwithstanding, when the part was touched.
She also felt the tension and pressure. The forehead was very much reddened, and
somewhat the next day.

The effects of the recent aconite root were thus decisive and striking. The next ob¬
ject was to ascertain the effects of the phannacopoeial preparation. With this view I
applied lint soaked in the liniment (without the camphor) to my forehead, and con¬
ducted the experiment as before. After some time a slight sense of coldness and tight¬
ness was perceptible, which soon passed off ; a partial and transitory tickling (not ting¬
ling) ensued. There was no smarting whatever, nor heat ; but the forehead was slightly
reddened.

The lady already mentioned applied the phannacopoeial preparation in the same
manner as before. She describes the sensation as doubtful whether hot or cold ; but
whatever it was, as much less in degree than in her former trial. There was neither
tightness nor pressure, and during an hour and a half, although the wetting of the lint
was renewed three times, the smarting was “ not worth speaking of.” It is to be
observed that the application was continued three times longer than in the former case,
although the effect was so much weaker. A slight sensation of coldness remained for
several hours, and was at length accompanied by slight tightness of the skin. On the
whole, the effects were much less decided than in the former case, yet this lady was
particularly sensitive to the influence of aconite. She had formerly been troubled with
brow- ache. It was her habit to go into the garden, and having pulled a handful
of aconite leaves, to wet them slightly, and after rubbing between her hands, to apply
them to her forehead. The effects were coldness, some smarting, and an indescribable
vibratory creeping in the part ; altogether the sensations were so disagreeable, and the
relief so small, that she discontinued the practice.

It is to be observed that the recent roots were macerated for twenty-four hours only ;
but the powder of the dry roots had been macerated for seven days, as directed in the
Pharmacopoeia. In none of the trials had the camphor been as yet added to the lini¬
ment.

These facts left no doubt in my mind that the Linimentum Aconiti of the British
Pharmacopoeia is by no means what it might have been, had the recent root been em¬
ployed. Beside the superior power of the liniment thus prepared, there would have
been other advantages. The trouble and loss caused by drying and powdering, which
are considerable, would have been avoided by the more simple process of slicing the
root. The ratio of the root to the rectified spirit might have been much less, and the
loss of liniment, by permanent absorption, saved ; for the root would give out as much
juice as it absorbed spirit. Much time would also have been saved, for twenty-four
hours’ maceration produced a more powerful liniment than seven days with the dried
powder, and the cost would be considerably less.

Seeing that nearly two hours’ continued application of the liniment was necessary
to produce the full effect, it may be doubted that merely rubbing it for a few minutes
in the usual way to any part of the body can produce much benefit.

The specific gravity of the liniment before the camphor was added was *878.

I also made a liniment of the leaves of aconite, and applied a portion to my forehead
in the manner already described. It produced smarting and coldness, but both in a much
less degree than the liniment made from the roots.

ON ACONITIA AND ITS PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS.

59

la order to discover if the rectified spirit acted any considerable part in the smarting,
I applied it on lint to my forehead several times during two hours, but found very little
effect from it. — Dublin Medical Press.

11, Clare Street.

ON ACONITIA AND ITS PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS.

BY M. ERNEST HOTTOT.

In a former paper the author, in connection with M. Liegeois, has published some re¬
sults. In the present paper, which is extracted from a thesis sustained before the Aca-
demie de Me'decine by M. Hottot alone, the author has entered more fully into the sub¬
ject, both as regards its preparation and physiological effects. The following method
of preparing aconitia was adopted : —

_ Macerate the aconite root in powder in a sufficient quantity of alcohol of 85° during
eight days. Displace the liquors, distil in a water-bath, add a sufficient quantity of quick¬
lime, agitate from time to time, filter, precipitate by a slight excess of diluted sulphuric
acid, and evaporate to the consistence of syrup. Add to this liquid two or three times its
weight of water, allow it to repose, and remove the green oil which floats and solidifies
at 68° F., strain through a moistened filter to remove the last portions of oil ; treat by
ammonia in excess, and heat to ebullition ; the aconitia is precipitated as a compact
mass, which contains a great deal of resin, and separates easily from the liquor ; wash the
precipitate, treat it when dry by ether deprived of water and alcohol, and permit the
ethereal liquor to evaporate spontaneously, which gives impure aconitine

Dissolve the product thus obtained in diluted sulphuric acid, and precipitate it hot by
ammonia ; the aconitia separates in the form of a coagulum like codeia. Collect it on a
filter, wash and dry it, dissolve in ether, evaporate to dryness, again dissolve in a small
quantity of diluted sulphuric acid, and finally precipitate the aconitia by the addition,
drop by drop, of an excess of ammonia ; wash it, and dry at a low temperature.

Ten kilogrammes (22 lbs. av.) of the root of aconitum napellus in good order, gave a
mean of four to six grammes (61 to 92 grains) of alkaloid.

Aconitia thus obtained presents the form of a white powder, extremely light, of a bitter
taste : it is in the state of hydrate, and contains 20 per cent, of water ; at 187° F. it melts
and becomes aphydrous, and is then a transparent amber-coloured substance. Although
the aconitia of M. Hottot has only been obtained in an amorphous state, it is very much
more active than the aconitias of commerce, which are generally very impure, although
they are often crystallized.

A singular thing, and well worthy of attention, is, that there exists in aconite root two
distinct substances, which possess, in different degrees, the physiological properties of this
substance. One is the amorphous aconitia of M. Hottot, the other is a substance which
is presented in the form of well-defined crystals, and which after three successive crystal¬
lizations and evidently chemically pure, determined the same symptoms as amorphous
aconitia, though in a much weaker degree. What is the nature of this substance which
has been obtained by Mr. Morson, and for which he proposes the name of napellina ? Is it a
transformation of aconitia, or a co-existent body ? Whatever it be, M. Hottot has studied
aconitia, which presents the following properties : —

Aconitia blues reddened litmus paper, saturates acids, and forms salts which do not
crystallize.. It is a nitrogenous alkaloid, of which the composition, according to M.
■ Stahlschmidt, is represented by C60H17OuN. Treated hot by SO;?,HO, it is coloured first
yellow, and afterwards violet-red ; tannin precipitates it abundantly, ioduretted iodide of
potassium a kermes-coloured precipitate, and this reagent is its best antidote. Iodohyilrar-
gyrate of potassium gives a curdy yellowish- white precipitate ; chloride of gold, yellow,
and with chloride of platinum no precipitate.

M. Hottot employs aconitia in the form of pills, each containing the fifth of a milli¬
gramme (^5-th grain), or in the form of tincture T^th of a grain to the drachm. The
dose of the pills is from two to ten per day, and of the tincture ten to forty drops.

The author has arrived at the following conclusions as to the physiological action of
aconitia : —

The root of aconite only should be used for making the preparations of aconite.

Aconitia has the same physiological properties as the root. The irritant properties of
aconite, usually attributed to an acrid principle, belongs to aconitia. Its action is exer¬
cised on the mucous membranes.

60

ON MYROXYLON TOLTIIFERUM.

The absorption of aconitia by the intestinal canal is more rapid than is that of curara
and strychnia by the same tissue, and this explains the rapidity of the death of animals
to which even small doses of aconitia have been given.

Aconitia acts on the nervous centres, and successively on the bulb, the spinal marrow,
and the brain.

The symptoms manifest themselves in the following order : — suspension of respiration,
of general sensibility, of reflex sensibility, and of voluntary movements.

Aconitia disturbs the functions of the heart by acting on its nervous tissues.

The effects of aconitia on men are the following : — irritation of the mucous membranes,
salivation, nausea, muscular weakness, prickling, sweats, heaviness of the head, pain in
the track of the facial nerves, dilatations of the pupils, slow respiration, depression of the
pulse, and weakness of sensibility.

Aconitia is a powerful sedative ; in external forms it has been applied with success
in calming neuralgic and rheumatic pain, internally it may be given from -y^th to yLnd
of a grain, the maximum dose.

In conclusion, M. Hottot cautions physicians and pharmaceutists in relation to the
wiable nature or power of commercial aconitia as made by different processes. — Amer.
Journ. Pharm. from Journal de Pharmacie , Aprils 1864.

ON MYROXYLON TO WIFE RUM, AND THE MODE OF PROCURING THE

BALSAM OF TOLU.

BY JOHN WEIK.

Extracted from the Proceedings of the Royal Horticultural Society for May , 1SG4.

[Previous to his departure for New Granada, Mr. Weir received instructions to make
inquiries respecting certain interesting medicinal plants growing in that country, especially
the Balsam of Tolu tree and Sarsaparilla , and to obtain, if possible, seeds and speci¬
mens. In accordance with these instructions, Mr. Weir has communicated the following
interesting notice of his proceedings.]

From inquiries made during the voyage out, and immediately on landing in this
country, I learnt that a good deal of the Balsam of Tolu was brought down the river
Magdalena annually to Barranquilla, whence it is exported to Europe. I therefore thought
that the best way of reaching the country where the tree grows, was to go up the
river to one of the ports I was informed the drug came from, where I hoped to be able
to procure specimens and collect the desired information concerning it. At all events, I
was told that by going to one of the ports on the lower Magdalena, I could cross the
country to the valley of the Zinu quite as easily as I could reach the mouth of that
river from Cartagena by sea.

Following up this plan, I took a passage to Mompox by the first steamer up the
river after my arrival at Barranquilla. On arriving at Mompox, I found that no balsam
was gathered there (although I had been assured to the contrary in Barranquilla), and
that the people generally did not know the tree ; a negro was recommended to me, how¬
ever, as having a wonderful knowledge of all kinds of “ hervas y remedios ,” and who said
he knew where some of the balsam-trees grew. With this man I started in a canoe for
a place called Espino, about three leagues distant from Mompox, and situated on the
margin of one of the large swamps called “ ceinigas ,” so common on the lower part of the
river.

Ou reaching this place we entered the forest ; and after having toiled through it for
a couple of hours, during which I was gradually losing faith in the probity of my
guide, he suddenly pointed out a tree which he assured me was the balsam-tree. This
confirmed the opinion I had been forming — that he knew nothing about it, for the tree
was certainly not a Myroxylon , nor anything like one.

I returned to Mompox in disgust. The gentleman who recommended the black was
much disappointed on learning the result of our excursion, but said he had found another
man, who would undertake to guide me to a place where the tree was to be found. I
went with him a few days afterwards, but with no better success.

I have no doubt that the tree occurs within perhaps a day’s journey of Mompox, but
not in its immediate vicinity ; for the ground, for leagues around that place, is low and

ON MYUOXYLON TOLU1FERUM.

61

swampy ; indeed it was nearly all under water when I arrived there, and I afterwards
found that the tree is never found in the low trades adjoining the river, but in the higher
rolling ground beyond, where the soil is dry.

Finding that the tree was not known in Mompox, I left for Plato on the 17th
December. Taking the steamer to Las Mercedes, I went from thence to Plato in a
canoe. Las Mercedes is the port of El Carmen, and it consists only of a large storehouse
for the tobacco brought from the interior, and the imported goods received in exchange.
It was here I first saw the balsam. In the store were upwards of thirty tins full of it,
ready for exportation ; most of the tins contained ten pounds of the balsam, but there
were also a few of a larger size, each containing an arroba of twenty-five pounds. The
store-keeper told me that that lot of balsam had come from Plato only a day or two
before, and that he expected some more that evening from the same place. The drug,
he further informed me, was also exported from Teneriffe, Pinto, and Santa Anna, all
small ports on the right bank of the river, but that most came from Plato. At Corozal,
he said, none was now gathered, although the tree exists there, as also at El Carmen.

I was glad to find that I had got on the right track at last, and waited patiently
for the canoe from Plato, by which I hoped to get a passage to that place. It arrived
about six o’clock in the evening, started on its return an hour later, and by nine of the
same day that I left Mompox, we were in Plato. This place is about a league further
down the river than Las Mercedes, and on its opposite side, near the outlet of one of the
numerous branch-streams the river forms in its course. Luckily for me, the “ Jefe Munici-
pale” of Plato, Frederico Alfaro by name, came in the canoe with me, and this man
showed me much disinterested kindness during my stay there.

I had great difficulty in getting animals for the journey into the Montana, — not a horse
nor a mule was to be had, and it was only after waiting two days that I was able to hire
two donkeys, one for my guide and the other for myself ; a third for baggage I could not
get, — and indeed it was considered quite unnecessary, as it is the usual custom here to
travel on donkeys loaded with 80 or 90 lbs. of cargo besides the rider.

During the two days I had to wait at Plato, I found a species of Myrospermum grow¬
ing plentifully in the neighbourhood of the village, and gathered specimens of it both in
flower and fruit. This I take to be M. frutescens, Jacq. : it grows to a height of about 15
to 20 feet. Some trees are now in flower, while on others the fruit is already of a good
size. The trees bearing flowers or fruit are generally destitute of foliage, and it is only
barren individuals that are in full leaf.

On the morning of the 21st, having got the donkeys and guide assembled and every¬
thing ready, we started for the Montana. On one side of my own donkey was hung a bundle
of paper and boards for drying specimens, and on the other my “ estera ” (mat for sleeping
on), blankets, mosquito net, and a change of clothes ; that of the guide carried some pro¬
visions for the journey and his own things. I started on foot, feeling almost ashamed to
mount an animal not much bigger than myself which seemed to be already well loaded,
but, before the day’s journey was done, I had been glad to take occasional lifts on the
poor donkey. We made about eighteen miles before we halted for the night, and my
guide, a man twice my weight, rode every foot of the way. What with the burning sun,
the thermometer at 89° in the shade, and the heavy load, I did not much envy his poor
“ burro.”

We passed some balsam-trees in the afternoon, each with a lot of calabashes stuck
on its trunk to catch the drug which trickled from the wounds in its bark. I picked up
a few of the fruit under one of these trees, and on asking him what they were, he said
they were “ojos de algo palo de la montana.” He did not know them, although he told
me he had been accustomed to gather balsam since his boyhood.

Our second day’s journey was not so long as the first, — I think not more than about twelve
miles. The balsam-trees occurred occasionally during the whole way. We stopped at a hut
in the forest surrounded, by a small clearing, the owner of which, like all the inhabitants of
the Montana, makes part of his living by gathering balsam. The trees were very plentiful
here, and generally of a large size. Their average height is about 70 feet, and the
trunk is sometimes upwards of 2 feet in diameter a yard from the ground, and generally
rises to a height of 40 feet without branching, so that it is impossible to get at either
foliage or fruit without cutting down the tree. On the day after our arrival, I got the
man’s permission to have a tree felled; he did not charge me anything for the tree, but
stipulated that I should pay two of his sous a dollar each for felling it. I selected an
YOL. YI. Cx

ON MYllOXYLON TOLUIFERUM.

'62

old tree, nearly 2 feet in diameter. There was a sprinkling of pods upon it, hut it was
not by any means loaded. The pods are so loosely attached to the branches and so brittle
in themselves, that nearly all of them were shaken from the tree and many broken to
pieces by the shock of the fall. I found them to be approaching maturity, the seeds
being fully developed, but, I am afraid, not ripe enough to grow. I had another smaller
and more vigorous tree cut; the foliage of this was much larger than that of the older
tree, and also a little different in form, but it bore no fruit. The specimens I send will
sufficiently show the difference in the foliage of the two trees, and it is also sufficiently
explained by the greater luxuriance of the younger.

As I have already said, it is impossible to reach the foliage of any of the trees unless
by felling them ; but I examined the leaflets of many trees from specimens picked up
from the ground, but saw nothing to induce me to believe that the balsam is produced
here by more than one species. The young trees have always larger foliage than the old
ones ; but the difference was constantly the same as it was in the individuals I had felled.
The trees never make a very dense head of branches and foliage ; but in the old ones,
which have been much bled, it is very thin : many of the small twigs are dead, and the
living ones are covered with lichens.

When a tree is about to be bled, two sloping notches are made in its trunk quite through
the bark, and meeting in a sharp angle at their lower ends, leaving thus a point of bark
between them untouched. The bark and wood is hollowed out a little immediately
under this point, and the calabash cup is inserted under it. The process is repeated ail
over the trunk at close intervals, up as high as a man can reach ; I have seen as many as
twenty cups on a tree. The piece of bark and the cups I have sent, will show the process
better than I can describe it. When the lower part of the trunk of a tree is too full of
scars and wounds for any fresh cuts to be made, a rude scaffold is sometimes made round
the tree, and a new series of notches made higher up. ■

From time to time, as may be necessary, the balsam gatherer goes round the trees
with a pair of flask-shaped bags made of raw hide, slung over the back of a donkey. Into
these bags the contents of the calabash cups are successively poured, and the cups are re¬
inserted under the point of bark and left to be again filled. The balsam is sent down to
the ports on the river in these hide bags, where it is transferred to the tins.

I could not learn which were the best months for the flowing of the balsam, — one
person saying that it was in July, another in March, and so on, scarcely two agreeing ; but
the bleeding goes on during at least eight months of the year, from July to March or
April. When the balsam is flowing well, I was told that “ one moon ” sufficed to fill
the cups.

Respecting the time of the flowering of the tree, individuals differed as widely as they
did about the best time for the production of the balsam. I think I was told that it
flowered in every month of the year, each person asked giving a different month; and
several asserted that it did not flower at all.

I could not get anyone to recognize the nam q u Balsamo de coneolito.” I tried
individuals with it at Cartagena, Barranquilla, Mompox, Las Mercedes, Plato, and the
Montana, but none of them knew what I meant. The balsam is certainly not known by
that name at any of these places, but is always called Balsamo de Tolu*

I remained a couple of days in the Montana, and returned to Plato. We travelled
part of the way with a man going down to the port with a quantity of balsam : he had
three donkeys loaded with it, each carrying four arrobas, or 100 lbs. weight. The quan¬
tities of the drug I saw on its way for exportation at Las Mercedes, Plato, and on the
road from the Montana, must have amounted to at least 1500 lbs., wfliich proves that the
tree must be very plentifully scattered through the forest.

I returned to Mompox in a canoe, and arrived there on the 20th ult. On the 4th of the
present month I left Mompox by the steamer up the river, and lauded here on the 7th.
This place is called Barranca Vermeij a, and is situated on the riverside, about two leagues
further up than the place where the village of Bojorques formerly stood, for it is not now
in existence, the river having earned all the houses away. This being the nearest point
to Bojorques I could land at, I came here hoping to find Stnilax officinalis H.B.K., hut

* “ The balsam is
known by the name

calabash used for

23rd, 1802.

not distinguished in this region [Carthagena] by the name of Tolu, but if
of Balsamo de coneolito , — coneolito being the native name of the small
collecting it.” — Letter from the late Sutton Haves to JD. Manhunt. Dnrii

-Letter from the late Sutton Ha.

yes to JD. Hanbury,

is
; in all
djpril

ON THE PROPERTIES OP SILICIC ACID.

63

after several days’ unsuccessful searching for it, I am afraid I must conclude it is not here ;
hut I will go to Bojorques in another day or two, and perhaps I may find it there.

The Rhatany, I was told at Barranquilla, came from the neighbourhood of Bucara-
manga, and as I intend to go up the river Sogamoza to that place when I leave Bojorques,
I hope to be able to procure specimens of the plant that produces it there.

Barranca Vermeija, on the River Magdalena , New Granada ,

January 13 th, 1864.

ON THE PROPERTIES OF SILICIC ACID AND OTHER ANALOGOUS

COLLOIDAL SUBSTANCES.

BY THOMAS GRAHAM, F.R.S., MASTER OF THE MINT.

( Preliminary Noticed)

The prevalent notions respecting solubility have been derived chiefly from observa¬
tions on crystalline salts, and are very imperfectly applicable to the class of colloidal
substances. Hydrated silicic acid, for instance, -when in the soluble condition, is pro¬
perly speaking a liquid body, like alcohol, miscible with water in all proportions. We
have no degrees of solubility to speak of with respect to silicic acid, like the degrees of
solubility of a salt, unless it be with reference to silicic acid in the gelatinous condition,
which is usually looked upon as destitute of solubility. The jelly of silicic acid may be
more or less rich in combined water, as it is first prepared, and it appears to be soluble
in proportion to the extent of its hydration. A jelly containing 1 per cent, of silicic
acid, gives with cold water a solution containing about 1 of silicic acid in 5000 water ;
a jelly containing 5 per cent, of silicic acid, gives a solution containing about 1 part of
acid in 10,000 water. A less hydrated jelly than the last mentioned is still less soluble ;
and finally, when the jelly is rendered anhydrous, it gives gummy -looking white masses,
which appear to be absolutely insoluble, like the light dusty silicic acid obtained by
drying a jelly charged with salts, in the ordinary analysis of a silicate.

The liquidity of silicic acid is only affected by a change, which is permanent (namely,
coagulation or pectization), by which the acid is converted into the gelatinous or pec-
tous form, and loses its miscibility with water. The liquidity is permanent in propor¬
tion to the degree of dilution of silicic acid, and appears to be favoured by a lowr tem¬
perature. It is opposed, on the contrary, by concentration, and by elevation of tempera¬
ture. A liquid silicic acid of 10 or 12 per cent, pectizes spontaneously in a few hours
at the ordinary temperature, and immediately when heated. A liquid of 5 per cent,
may be preserved for five or six days ; a liquid of 2 per cent, for two or three months ;
and a liquid of 1 per cent, has not pectized after two years. Dilute solutions of 0T
per cent, or less are no doubt practically unalterable by time, and hence the possibility
of soluble silicic acid existing in nature. I may add, however, that no solution, weak or
strong, of silicic acid in water has shown any disposition to deposit crystals , but always
appears on drying as a colloidal glassy hyalite. The formation of quartz crystals at a
low temperature, of so frequent occurrence in nature, remains still a mystery. I can
only imagine that such crystals are formed at an inconceivably slow rate, and from
solutions of silicic acid which are extremely dilute. Dilution no doubt weakens the
colloidal character of substances, and may therefore allow their crystallizing tendency
to gain ground and develope itself, particularly -where the crystal once formed is com¬
pletely insoluble, as with quartz.

The pectization of liquid silicic acid is expedited by contact with solid matter in the
form of powder. By contact with powdered graphite, which is chemically inactive, the
pectization of a 5 per cent, silicic acid is brought about in an hour or two, and that of
a 2 per cent, silicic acid in two days. A rise of temperature of 1°T C. wras observed
duriug the formation of the 5 per cent, jelly.

The ultimate pectization of silicic acid is preceded by a gradual thickening in the
liquid itself. The flow of liquid colloids through a capillary tube is always slow com¬
pared with the flow of crystalloid solutions, so that a liquid-transpiration-tube may be
employed as a colloidoscope. With a colloidal liquid alterable in viscosity, such as
silicic acid, the increased resistance to passage through the colloidoscope is obvious from
day to day. Just before gelatinizing, silicic acid flows like an oil.

64

ON THE PROPERTIES OF SILICIC ACID.

A dominating quality of colloids is the tendency of their particles to adhere, aggre¬
gate, and contract. This idio-attraction is obvious in the gradual thickening of the
liquid, and when it advances leads to pectization. In the jelly itself, the specific con¬
traction in question, or synccresis, still proceeds, causing separation of water, with the
division into a clot and serum ; and ending in the production of a hard stony mass, of
vitreous structure, which may he anhydrous, or nearly so, when the water is allowed to
escape by evaporation. The intense synawesis of isinglass dried in a glass dish over sul¬
phuric acid in vacuo, enables the contracting gelatin to tear up the surface of the glass.
Glass itself is a colloid, and the adhesion of colloid to colloid appears to be more powerful
than that of colloid to crystalloid. The gelatin, when dried in the manner described
upon plates of calcspar and mica, did not adhere to the crystalline surface, hut detached
itself on drying. Polished plates of . glass must not be left in contact, as is well known,
owing to the risk of permanent adhesion between their surfaces. The adhesion of
broken masses of glacial phosphoric acid to each other is an old illustration of colloidal
synaeresis.

Bearing in mind that the colloidal phasis of matter is the result of a peculiar attrac¬
tion and aggregation of molecules, properties never entirely absent from matter hut
greatly more developed in some substances than in others, it is not surprising that col¬
loidal characters spread on both sides into the liquid and solid conditions. These
characters appear in the viscidity of liquids, and in the softness and adhesiveness of cer¬
tain crystalline substances. Metaphosphate of soda, after fusion by heat, is a true
glass or colloid ; but when this glass is maintained for a few minutes at a temperature
some degrees under its point of fusion, the glass assumes a crystalline structure without
losing its transparency. Notwithstanding this change, the low diffusibility of the salt
is preserved, with other characters of a colloid. Water in the form of ice has already
been represented as a similar intermediate form, both colloid and crystalline, and in the
first character adhesive and capable of reunion or “ regelation.”

It is unnecessary to return here to the fact of the ready pectization of liquid silicic
acid by alkaline salts, including some of very sparing solubility, such as carbonate of
lime, beyond stating that the presence of carbonate of lime in water was observed to be
incompatible with the coexistence of soluble silicic acid, till the proportion of the latter
was reduced to nearly 1 in 10,000 water.

Certain liquid substances differ from the salts in exercising little or no pectizing in¬
fluence upon liquid silicic acid. But, on the other hand, none of the liquids now re¬
ferred to appear to conduce to the preservation of the fluidity of the colloid, at least not
more than the addition of water would do. Among these inactive diluents of silicic
acid are found hydrochloric, nitric, acetic, and tartaric acids, syrup of sugar, glycerine,
and alcohol. But all the liquid substances named, and many others, appear to possess
an important relation to silicic acid, of a very different nature from the pectizing action
of salts. They are capable of displacing the combined water of the silicic acid hy¬
drate, whether that hjdrate is in the liquid or gelatinous condition, and give new sub¬
stitution-products.

A liquid compound of alcohol and silicic acid is obtained by adding alcohol to aqueous
silicic acid, and then employing proper means to withdraw the water from the mixture.
For that purpose the mixture contained in a cup may be placed over dry carbonate of
potash or quicklime, within the receiver of an air-pump. Or a dialysing hag of parch¬
ment-paper containing the mixed alcohol and silicic acid may be suspended in a jar of
alcohol : the water diffuses away, leaving in the bag a liquid composed of alcohol and
silicic acid only. A point to be attended to is, that the silicic acid should never be
allowed to form more than 1 per cent, of the alcoholic solution, otherwise it may gela¬
tinize during the experiment. If I may be allowed to distinguish the liquid and gela¬
tinous hydrates of silicic acid by the irregularly formed terms of hydrosol and hydrogel
of silicic acid, the two corresponding alcoholic bodies now introduced may be named
the alcosol and alcogel of silicic acid.

The alcosol of silicic acid, containing 1 per cent, of the latter, is a colourless liquid,
not precipitated by water or salts, nor by contact with insoluble powders, probably from
the small proportion of silicic acid present in solution. It may be boiled and evaporated
without change, but is gelatinized by a slight concentration. The alcohol is retained
less strongly in the alcosol of silicic acid than water is in the hvdrosol, but with the
same varying force, a small portion of the alcohol being held so strongly as to char

ON THE PROPERTIES OF SILICIC ACID.

65

when the resulting jelly is rapidly distilled at a high temperature. Not a trace of
silicic ether is found in any compound of this class. The jelly burns readily in the air,
leaving the whole silicic acid in the form of a white ash.

The alcogel, or solid compound, is readily prepared by placing masses of gelatinous
silicic acid, containing 8 or 10 per cent, of the dry acid, in absolute alcohol, and chang¬
ing the latter repeatedly till the water of the hydrogel is fully replaced by alcohol. The
alcogel is generally slightly opalescent, and is similar in aspect to the hydrogel, preserv¬
ing very nearly its original bulk. The following is the composition of an alcogel care¬
fully prepared from a hydrogel which contained 9*35 percent. of silicic acid : —

Alcohol . 88T3

Water . . . 023

Silicic acid . 11 ’64

100-00

Placed in water, the alcogel is gradually decomposed — alcohol diffusing out and water
entering instead, so that a hydrogel is reproduced.

Further, the alcogel may be made the starting-point in the formation of a great
variety of other substitution jellies of analogous constitution, the only condition required
appearing to be that the new liquid and alcohol should he intermiscible, that is, inter-
diffusible bodies. Compounds of ether, benzole, and bisulphide of carbon have thus been
produced. Again, from etherogel another series of silicic-acid jellies may be derived,
containing fluids soluble in ether, such as the fixed oils.

The preparation of the glycerine compound of silicic acid is facilitated by the com¬
parative fixity of that liquid. When hydrated silicic acid is first steeped in glycerine,
and then boiled in the same liquid, water distils over, without any change in the ap¬
pearance of the jelly, except that when formerly opalescent it becomes now entirely
colourless, and ceases to be visible when covered by the liquid. But a portion of the
silicic acid is dissolved, and a glycerosol is produced at the same time as the glycerine
jelly. A glycerogel prepared from a hydrate containing 9 ‘35 per cent, of silicic acid,
was found by a combustion analysis to be composed of

Glycerine . 87*44

Water . 3-78

Silicic acid . 8*95

100-17

The glycerogel has somewhat less bulk than the original hydrogel. When a glycerine
jelly is distilled by heat, it does not fuse, but the whole of the glycerine comes over,
with a slight amount of decomposition towards the end of the process.

The compound of sulphuric acid, sulphagel, is also interesting from the facility of its
formation, and the complete manner in which the water of the original hydrogel is re¬
moved. A mass of hydrated silicic acid may be preserved unbroken if it is first placed in
sulphuric acid diluted with two or three volumes of water, and then transferred gradually
to stronger acids, till at last it is placed in concentrated oil of vitriol. The sulphagel
sinks in the latter fluid, and may be distilled with an excess of it for hours without
losing its transparency or gelatinous character. It is always somewhat less in bulk than
•the primary hydrogel, but not more, to the 'eye, than one-fifth or one-sixth part of the
original volume. This sulphagel is transparent and colourless. When a sulphagel is
heated strongly 4in an open vessel, the last portions of the monohydrated sulphuric acid
in combination are found to require a higher temperature for their expulsion than the
boiling-point of the acid. The whole silicic acid remains behind, forming a white,
opaque, porous mass, like pumice. A sulphagel placed in water is soon decomposed, and
the original hydrogel reproduced. No permanent compound of sulphuric and silicic
acids, of the nature of a salt, appears to be formed in any circumstances. A sulphagel
placed in alcohol gives ultimately a pure alcogel. Similar jellies of silicic acid may
readily be formed with the monohydrates of nitric, acetic, and formic acids, and are all
perfectly transparent.

The production of the compounds of silicic acid now described indicates the posses¬
sion of a wider rang*e of affinity by a colloid than could well be anticipated. The or¬
ganic colloids are no doubt invested with similar wide powers of combination, which
may become of interest to the physiologist. The capacity of a mass of gelatinous silicic

60

ON THE PROPERTIES OF SILICIC ACID.

acid to assume alcohol, or even oleine, in the place of water of combination, without
disintegration or alteration of form, may perhaps afford a clue to the penetration of the
albuminous matter of membrane by fatty and other insoluble bodies, which seems to
occur in the digestion of food. Still more remarkable and suggestive are the fluid
compounds of silicic acid. The fluid alcohol-compound favours the possibility of the
existence of a compound of the colloid albumen with oleine, soluble also and capable of
circulating with the blood.

The feebleness of the force which holds together two substances belonging to different
physical classes, one being a colloid and the other a crystalloid, is a subject deserving
notice. When such a compound is placed in a fluid, the superior diffusive energy of the
crystalloid may cause its separation from the colloid. Thus, of hydrated silicic acid, the
combined water (a crystalloid) leaves the acid (a colloid) to diffuse into alcohol ; and if
the alcohol be repeatedly changed, the entire water is thus removed, alcohol (another
crystalloid) at the same time taking the place of water in combination with the silicic
acid. The liquid in excess (here the alcohol) gains entire possession of the silicic acid.
The process is reversed if an alcogel be placed in a considerable volume of water. Then
alcohol separates from combination, in consequence of the opportunity it possesses to
diffuse into water ; and water, which is now the liquid present in excess, recovers
possession of the silicic acid. Such changes illustrate the predominating influence of
mass.

Even the compounds of silicic acid with alkalies yield to the decomposing force of
diffusion. The compound of silicic acid with 1 or 2 per cent, of soda is a colloidal so¬
lution, and, when placed in a dialyser over water in vacuo to exclude carbonic acid,
suffers gradual decomposition. The soda diffuses off slowly in the caustic state, and
gives the usual brown oxide of silver when tested with the nitrate of that base.

The pectization of liquid silicic acid and many other liquid colloids is effected by
contact with minute quantities of salts in a way which is not understood. On the other
hand, the gelatinous acid may again be liquefied and have its energy restored by con¬
tact with a very moderate amount of alkali. The latter change is gradual, 1 part of
caustic soda, dissolved in 10,000 water, liquefying 200 parts of silicic acid (estimated
dry) in 60 minutes at 100° C. Gelatinous stannic acid also is easily liquefied by a
small proportion of alkali, even at the ordinary temperature. The alkali, too, after
liquefying the gelatinous colloid, may be separated again from it by diffusion into water
upon a dialyser. The solution of these colloids, in such circumstances, may be looked
upon as analogous to the solution of insoluble organic colloids witnessed in animal
digestion, with the difference that the solvent fluid here is not acid but alkaline. Liquid
silicic acid may be represented as the “ peptone” of gelatinous silicic acid ; and the
liquefaction of the latter by a trace of alkali may be spoken of as the peptization of
the jelly. The pure jellies of alumina, peroxide of iron, and titanic acid, prepared by
dialysis, are assimilated more closely to albumen, being peptized by minute quantities of
hydrochloric acid.

Liquid Stannic and Metastannic Acids. — Liquid stannic acid is prepared by dialysing
the bichloride of tin with an addition of alkali, or by dialysing the stannate of soda
with an addition of hydrochloric acid. In both cases a jelly is first formed on the
dialyser ; but, as the salts diffuse away, the jelly is again peptized by the small propor¬
tion of free alkali remaining : the alkali itself may be removed by continued diffusion,
a drop or two of the tincture of iodine facilitating the separation. The liquid stannic
acid is converted on heating it into liquid metastannic acid. Both liquid acids are re¬
markable for the facility with which they are pectized by a minute addition of hydro¬
chloric acid, as well as by salts.

Liquid Titanic Acid is prepared by dissolving gelatinous titanic acid in a small quan¬
tity of hydrochloric acid, without heat, and placing the liquid upon a dialyser for several
days. The liquid must not contain more than 1 per cent, of titanic acid, otherwise it
spontaneously gelatinizes, but it appears more stable when dilute. Both titanic and
the two stannic acids afford the same classes of compounds with alcohol, etc., as are ob¬
tained with silicic acid.

Liquid Tungstic Acid. — The obscurity which has so long hung over tungstic acid is
removed by a dialytic examination. It is in fact a remarkable colloid, of which the
pectous form alone has hitherto been known. Liquid tungstic acid is prepared by add¬
ing dilute hydrochloric acid carefully to a 5 per cent, solution of tungstate of soda, in

LIGHTHOUSE ILLUMINATION BY MAGNETO-ELECTEICITY.

67

sufficient proportion to neutralize the alkali, and then placing the resulting liquid on a
dialyser. In about three days the acid is found pure, with the loss of about 20 per cent.,
the salts having diffused entirely away. It is remarkable that the purified acid is not
pectized by acids or salts even at the boiling temperature. Evaporated to dryness, it
forms vitreous scales, like gum or gelatin, which sometimes adhere so strongly to the
surface of the evaporating dish as to detach portions of it. It may be heated to 200° C.
without losing its solubility or passing into the pectous state, but at a temperature near
redness it undergoes a molecular change, losing at the same time 2-42 per cent, of water.
When water is added to unchanged tungstic acid, it becomes pasty and adhesive, like
gum ; and it forms a liquid with about one-fourth its weight of water, which is so dense-
as to float glass. The solution effervesces with carbonate of soda, and tungstic acid is
evidently associated with silicic and molybdic acids. The taste of tungstic acid dis¬
solved in water is not metallic or acid, but rather bitter and astringent. Solutions
of tungstic acid containing 5, 20, 50, 66-5, and 79-8 per cent, of dry acid, possess the
following densities at 19°: — 1-0475, 1*2168, 1-8001, 2-396, and 3-243. Evaporated in
vacuo liquid tungstic acid is colourless, but becomes green in air from the deoxidating
action of organic matter. Liquid silicic acid is protected from pectizing when mixed
with tungstic acid ; a circumstance probably connected with the formation of the double
compounds of these acids which M. Marignac has lately described.

Molybdic Acid has hitherto been known (like tungstic acid) only in the insoluble
form. Crystallized molybdate of soda dissolved in water is decomposed by the addition
of hydrochloric acid in excess without any immediate precipitation. The acid liquid is
thrown upon a dialyser and more hydrochloric acid occasionally added to it. After a.
diffusion of three days, about 60 per cent, of the molybdic acid remains behind in a pure
condition. The solution of pure molybdic acid is yellow, astringent to the taste, acid to
test-paper, effervesces with carbonates, and possesses much stability. Soluble molybdic
acid, when dry, has the same gummy aspect as soluble tungstic acid, and absorbs mois¬
ture if exposed to damp air. Both acids lose their colloidality when combined with soda,
and give a variety of crystallizable salts.

LIGHTHOUSE ILLUMINATION BY MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY.

BY J. H. GLADSTONE, ESQ., PH.D., F.ILS.

Any one who, on a tolerably clear night, has crossed the Channel between Folkestone
and Boulogne, and remained on deck, must have noticed on the French coast what ap¬
peared a brilliant star, now waxing, now waning. It was the light of the far-famed
Pharos, on Cape Grisnez. But if he has made the passage within the last eighteen
months, his gaze will have beeu attracted by a still brighter star on the British coast,
of a bluish tint, steady and brilliant. This is the Magneto-electric Light at Dungeness,
the brightest spark in the world, and one which unites a rare scientific with a practical
interest, and may prove only the first lighted of a multitude of similar beacons. I pro¬
pose to say a few words on the history, production, and merits of this light.

History. — If we ask the parentage of the Magneto-electric Light, Mr. Frederick
Hales Holmes is certainly its father, but, like other beings, it has had two grandfathers
— the philosopher who first showed the conducting power of charcoal, and the brilliancy
of the light between charcoal terminals of an interrupted galvanic current ; and Professor
Faraday', who discovered that when a piece of soft iron, surrounded by a coil of metallic
wire, was made to pass by the poles of a magnet, an electric current was produced in the
Avire, which revealed its existence by effecting chemical decompositions, or by giving a
spark. This spark, it is true, was barely visible as at first obtained, but it has been ex¬
alted into the present Magneto-electric Light.

It appears that in 1853 some large magneto-electric machines were erected in Paris
for producing gas by the decomposition of water, the object of the proprietor being to
use this gas for the purposes of combustion ; but the scheme failed, the Company that
was being formed came to nothing, and the machines were pronounced by leading scien¬
tific men to be only expensive toys. Mr. Holmes, however, who was one of the referees,
proposed to turn them to account for electro -plating and gilding, and thought it possible
that the Electric Light might be produced advantageously by their means. “ My pro-

68

LIGHTHOUSE ILLUMINATION BY MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY.

positions,” he says, in his evidence before the Royal Commission on Lights, Buoys, and
Beacons, “ were entirely ridiculed, and the consequence was, that instead of saying that
I thought I could do it, I promised to do it by a certain day. On that day, with one of
Duboscq’s regulators or lamps, I produced the Magneto-electric Light for the first time ;
hut as the machines were ill-constructed for the purpose, and as I had considerable diffi¬
culty to make even a temporary adjustment to produce a fitting current, the light could
only he exhibited for a few minutes at a time — say ten or twenty minutes — when the
adjustments were entirely displaced by the friction : the rubbing surfaces were worn
away. From this time I directed my attention more particularly to the reconstruction of
the machines entirely, from the very framework upwards, so as to produce the current that
I saw necessary for the Electric Light.” During this time, it appears that Mr. Holmes, not
liking the treatment he received from the French Company, left Paris, and left his imper¬
fect machine there ; and it was this very machine which was subsequently used by the
French Government in their experiments, and these experiments were carried on by a man
who had worked under Mr. Holmes. The inventor next appears in Belgium, continuing his
improvements with a new machine, and visited by Admiral (then Captain) Fitzroy, who
was commissioned by the Admiralty to go to Brussels, see the light, and report on it. In
February, 1857, Professor Holmes applied to the Trinity Board, and in the following
month the Electric Light was exhibited, for several nights, at the experimental lantern*
at Blackwall, before the Light Committee and Professor Faraday. In May, an agree¬
ment wras made for a trial at the South Foreland ; but it was not till the 8th of Decem¬
ber that this experiment at an actual lighthouse was commenced. The Elder Brethren
made arrangements for getting observations by the crews of pilot-cutters, masters of
light vessels, and the keepers of neighbouring lighthouses, both on the British and French
coasts. Some unforeseen difficulties seem to have arisen, due partly, no doubt, to the
novelty of the whole arrangement, but partly also to the complicated optical apparatus
in the lighthouse being suited to a large flame instead of a brilliant point of light, and
being ill-adjusted to throw that light to the horizon. All this caused some interruptions
in the experiment. M. Reynaud, the Director-General of the French Lighthouses, in¬
spected the light on April 26, 1859; it was visited by most of the Members of the
Royal Commission of Lights, Buoys, and Beacons, including myself, three days after¬
wards, and on the same day Professor Faraday wrote a Report to the Trinity House. The
opinions expressed were so far favourable, that the Elder Brethren desired a further trial
of six months, during which time the light was to be entirely under their own control,
Mr. Holmes not being allowed to interfere in any way. The light was again kindled on
August 22, and the experiment happened soon to be exposed to a severe test, as one of
the Light-keepers, who had been accustomed to the arrangement of the lamps in the
lantern, was suddenly removed, and another took his place without any previous instruc¬
tion. This man thought the light quite strong enough if he allowed the carbon points
to touch, as the lamp then required no attendance whatever, and he could leave it in
that way for hours together. On being remonstrated with, he said, “ It is quite good
enough.” Notwithstanding such difficulties as these, the experiment was considered satis¬
factory, but it was discontinued at the South Foreland, for the cliffs there are marked by
a double light, and the electric spark was so much brighter than the oil-flames in the
other house that there was no small danger of its being seen alone in thick weather, and
thus fatally misleading some unfortunate vessel.

Then occurred a period of two years, consumed partly in coming to the decision that
the Magno-electric Light was to be exhibited at Dungeness, and partly in fitting up the
lighthouse there (which, by the way, had been cracked by lightning) for the reception of
its new occupant.

It was not deemed desirable to trust the illumination of that headland entirely to the
Electric Light, hence the old apparatus was retained, and the oil-lamp has always been
kept ready for use in case of necessity. A supplementary lantern was therefore con¬
structed on the top of the ordinary one, and in this the electric lamp was fixed, and sur¬
rounded by a small combination of lenses and prisms made expressly for it by Messrs.
Chance, of Birmingham. In the meantime Mr. Holmes had considerably improved his
lamp by borrowing an idea from an arrangement devised by a M. Serrin. At length, in

* The room with glass sides, from which the light is exhibited at the top of a lighthouse,
is called a “ lantern/’

LIGHTHOUSE ILLUMINATION BY MAGNETO-ELECTBICITY.

69

February, 18G2, this lamp was lit at Dungeness, but it was extinguished on account of
the necessity of instructing fresh lighthouse keepers, who had to take charge of the ap¬
paratus, and it was not till the Gth of June that the brilliant star shone permanently on
our southern coast.

In the meantime, the French have not been indifferent or idle. When the Royal Com¬
mission visited Paris, the Lighthouse authorities were found experimenting with a com¬
paratively small machine, and had clearly not overcome the difficulty of maintaining the
charcoal points at a proper distance. But they persevered, and last July there was pub¬
lished in the ‘ Moniteur Universel ’ a Report by M. Reynaud to the Minister of Com¬
merce and Public Works, in which he expressed a most favourable opinion of the Elec¬
tric Light, and the Minister gave an order for two Electro-magnetic machines to be placed
in the double Lighthouse of the Cap de la Heve, near Havre. Thus France is following
England in the adoption of this improvement in coast lights, just as, years ago, Great
Britain followed France in the use of the Dioptric system of illumination.

It is possible that some other nations may not fee behind the French. The Dutch
Government contemplate placing an Electric Light at Scheveningen, and a second one at
Texel. The Lighthouse system in the empire of Brazil is excellent, and they have long
had an eye on the Electric Light. Sweden is on the alert ; and inquiries also have been
made respecting its management and cost by the Imperial Academy of Vienna.

Apparatus. — Many readers will be familiar with the apparatus both of Mr. Holmes
and of M. Berlioz, from having examined them at the International Exhibition last year.
It would be very difficult to describe them without drawings, but the following may give
a sufficiently good general idea. In the apparatus at Dungeness, the power that pro¬
duces the light is resident in 120 permanent magnets, of about 50 lbs. each, ranged on the
periphery of two large wheels. This power is called into action by a steam-engine, with
Cornish boilers, of about three-horse power, which causes a series of 160 soft iron cores
surrounded by coils of wire to rotate past the magnets. The small streams of electri¬
city thus generated are collected together into one stream, and by a special piece of
apparatus called a Commutator the alternate positive and negative currents are all
brought into one direction. The whole power is then conveyed by a thick wire from the
engine-house to the lighthouse tower, and up into the centre of the illuminating ap¬
paratus. • There it passes between two charcoal points, producing thus a most brilliant
and continuous spark. The “ Lamp,” or “ Regulator,” is so contrived that by means of
a balance arrangement and a magnet, round which the wire coils, the charcoal points are
kept always at a proper distance apart.

At sunset the machine is started, making about 100 revolutions per minute ; and the
attendant has only to draw two bolts in the lamp when the power thus spun in the
engine-room bursts into light of full intensity. It now requires little or no thought for
three hours and a half, wrhen the charcoal points being consumed the lamp must be
changed, and this is done without extinguishing the light, for it is the kindling of the
second lamp that puts out the first. There are always several lamps ready at Dungeness
in case of accident, and everything is kept in duplicate.

The French machine is composed of 56 magnets distributed in 7 vertical equidistant
planes, upon the angles of an octagonal prism. The maximum of intensity is obtained
wrhen the machines turns 350 or 400 times per minutes, and the direction of the current
is then reversed nearly 6000 per minute. There is no Commutator employed, and the
alternate currents are not brought into one.

Merits and Demerits. — In favour of the Electric apparatus, it maybe stated without
any fear of contradiction that the light is vastly more intense than that produced from
the most powerful oil-lamp, or any practicable number of argand burners. In truth that
now shining at Dungeness is the most brilliant light in existence. The following state¬
ment will illustrate this. Professor Faraday says of it, when at the South Foreland,
“ During the daytime I compared the intensity of the light with that of the sun, that is,
it was placed before and by the side of the sun, and both looked at through dark glasses;
its light was as bright as that of the sun, but the sun was not at its brightest.” No
other light in existence would have stood that test. Again, he describes an experiment
at Dungeness : — “ Arrangements were made on shore, by which observations could be
made at sea about five miles off on the relative light of the Electric lamp, and the me¬
tallic reflectors with their argand oil-lamps — [the light formerly used] — for either could
be shown alone, or both together. . . . The combined effect was a glorious light up to the

70

LIGHTHOUSE ILLUMINATION BY MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY.

five miles ; then, if the Electric light was extinguished, there was a great falling off in
the effect ; though, after a few moments’ rest to the eye, it was seen that the oil-lamps
and reflectors were in their good and proper state. On the other hand, when the Elec¬
tric light was restored, the glory rose to its first high condition. Then, whilst both were
in action, the reflectors were shaded, and the Electric light left alone ; but the naked eye
could see no sensible diminution ; nor when the reflectors were returned into effectual
use, could it see any sensible addition to the whole light power, though the telescope
showed that the alteration in the lantern had taken place at the right time.” M. Rey-
naud estimates the usual intensity of the light at from 180 to 190 standard Carcel bur¬
ners.

This superiority of brightness is of practical service only in thick weather, for if the
air be clear an ordinary first-class light under the old system answers every purpose of the
mariner, and in fog no light is of any avail ; but it scarcely requires demonstration that
in certain intermediate states of the atmosphere, the brighter light will penetrate the
haze, rain, or snow to a distance at v/hich the other is perfectly invisible. There is no¬
thing in the nature of the rays emitted to prevent its doing so, for when submitted to
spectral analysis, the Electric light is found to contain every ray that the oil-flame does,
and others besides. The returns of neighbouring lighthouse keepers, and of the masters
of two of the lightships at the Goodwin Sands, during the experiment at the South Fore¬
land, show this to be actually the case, and similar testimony is borne by the masters
of passing vessels, the commanders of the Channel Steam Packets, and the pilots who
frequent the neighbouring seas.

The peculiar bluish colour of the light as seen from a distance is another advantage,
by distinguishing it from ships’ lights, or lamps on shore ; and practically this is a great
object. Of course, it may be made red or green, or any other tint, by coloured glasses ;
indeed, it is peculiarly adapted for such a purpose. As the light can be interrupted and
immediately rekindled with full intensity at pleasure, this light offers facilities for signal¬
ing which no other does. Each lighthouse might be made to repeat its own number all
night long, if that were thought desirable. Another advantage is well stated in the
words of Professor Faraday : — “ In cases where the light is from lamp-flames fed by oil,
no increase of light at or near the focus or foci of the apparatus is possible beyond a
certain degree, because of the size of the flames ; but in the Electric lamp, any amount
of the light may be accumulated at the focus, and sent abroad at, of course, an increased
expense. In consequence of the evolution of the light in so limited a focal space, it
may be directed seaward, diverging either more or less, or in a vertical or horizontal di¬
rection at pleasure, with the utmost facility. The enormous shadow under the light, pro¬
duced by the oil-flame burner, which absorbs and renders useless the descending rays to
a very large extent, does not occur in the Magneto-electric lamp ; all the light proceed¬
ing in that direction is turned to account. The optical part of the arrangement, whether
dioptric or reflecting, might be very small in comparison with those in use and, in¬
deed, it is so at Dungeness. As there is always an extra steam-engine and machinery
on the premises, and ready for work, the power, and the consequent light between the
charcoal points, might at any time be doubled, if the state of the atmosphere seemed to
require it.

It has already been remarked that in fog no light, however powerful, is of much avail,
and public attention is now being directed to the necessity of improving our fog signals.
It has been well observed in M. Reynaud’s Report, “ During foggy weather the supple¬
mentary steam-engine might be employed in playing sonorous instruments, which would
carry sound to a much greater distance than the bells to which we have recourse at pre¬
sent.”

Against the advantages attending the use of this Electric light must be set the greater
complexity of the instrument, and the consequent greater chance of derangement, or
rather the necessity of providing lighthouse-keepers of a superior order, and an engineer
to inspect the machinery and keep it in repair. This demand for superior workmen is a
difficulty we generally have to encounter in perfecting our engines either of peace or
war.

The relative expense of the Magneto-electric light and the Fresnel lamp is a consi¬
deration that must not be overlooked, though it should not be allowed too much weight
when we are dealing with the safety of valuable cargoes and priceless human lives. The
original outlay in machinery for the Electric light is very large, but there must be set

CHEMICAL HISTORY AND APPLICATION OP GUN-COTTON.

71

against this a considerable diminution in the cost of the apparatus used for directing the
rays where they are wanted. The working expense consists of the coals burnt, the char¬
coal points used up, and the wear of the machinery, all of which perhaps scarcely ex¬
ceeds the cost of oil under the old system. The magnets are said rather to increase in
strength than to diminish by use. The salary of an engineer is a more serious item, but
the expense may be greatly reduced by appointing one engineer to several lighthouses,
if the electric system become common. Mr. Holmes estimates the working expenses of
the electric apparatus as compared with the oil lamp, at about 400 against 290. The
French estimate is, “ Abstracting the expenses of the first establishment, it will be found
that while the expenses of the annual maintenance of a lighthouse of the first order fed
with colza oil rise to 9421 francs 75 centimes, those of the same lighthouse illuminated
by electricity would be 12,240 francs.” Again, “ The annual expense will be increased
29 per cent, in lighthouses of the first order, but it will have the effect of rendering the
luminous intensity at least fivefold greater.”

It has been objected that the light is too bright, dazzling the mariner and misleading
him as to its distance, but experience will soon removelhis source of error ; and it is hard
to understand how the light can produce any dazzling effect, unless exhibited at the head
of a pier close alongside of which the mariner must steer his way. But for harbour
lights it is not required. Its proper place is on the prominent points of the coast which are
used as landfalls by vessels, and unless objections present themselves in the future which
are as yet unknown, we may confidently anticipate that each of these headlands will in
time be marked by its brilliant electric light. — Quarterly Journal of Science.

ON THE CHEMICAL HISTORY AND APPLICATION OF GUN-COTTON.

Delivered at the Boyal Institution of Great Britain, on Friday, April 15, 1864.

BY PROFESSOR ABEL, F.R.S., DIRECTOR OF THE CHEMICAL ESTABLISHMENT OF THE WAR

DEPARTMENT.

The history of gun-cotton affords an interesting illustration of the facility with which
the full development of a discovery may be retarded, if not altogether arrested for a time,
by hasty attempts to apply it to practical purposes, before its nature has been sufficiently
studied and determined.

When Schonbein, in the autumn of 1846, announced that he had discovered a new
explosive compound, which he believed would prove a substitute for gunpowder, the
statement attracted general attention, and attempts were made with little delay in dif¬
ferent countries to apply the material to purposes for which gunpowder hitherto had
been alone used. Schonbein, and Bottger (who appears to have discovered gun-cotton
independently, shortly after the former had produced it) lost little time in submitting
their discovery to the German Confederation ; and a committee was appointed for its
investigation, by whom gun-cotton wras eventually pronounced inapplicable as a substi¬
tute for gunpowder.

In this country, gun-cotton was experimented with immediately after the method of its
preparation was published by Schonbein. Researches were instituted into its nature,
preparation, etc., by Porrett and Teschemacher, John Taylor, Gladstone and others. A
few experiments were made on its application as a propelling and mining agent, and the
manufacture of the material upon a considerable scale was set on foot by Messrs. Hall,
the well-known gunpowder makers at Faversham ; a patent having been previously taken
out in this country for the production of gun-cotton according to Schonbein’s process.
This factory had, however, not been long in operation before a very disastrous explosion
occurred at the works, by which a number of men lost their lives, and which was ascribed
to the spontaneous ignition of the gun-cotton, by the jury, who endeavoured to in¬
vestigate its cause. From that time, the manufacture of gun-cotton upon any consider¬
able scale was abandoned in England, and no important contributions to our knowledge
of this material were made, until, in 1854, Iladow published the results of some valuable
investigations, which served to furnish a far more definite knowledge regarding the true
constitution and proper method of producing gun-cotton, than had hitherto existed.

72 CHEMICAL HISTORY AND APPLIANCES OF GUN-COTTON.

In France, gun-cotton was also made the subject of experiments as early as the winter
of 1846, and ‘its manufacture was carried on at the Government powfler-works at Bou-
chet, near Paris. Some interesting balistic experiments were instituted, under the di¬
rection of Piobert, Morin, and other men of eminence, with gun-cotton, in comparison
with different kinds of gunpowder, the results of which indicated that, for producing
equal effects to those furnished by a given weight of gun-cotton, it was necessary to em¬
ploy a double quantity of sporting-powder, three times the quantity of musket-powder,
and four times the weight of cannon-powder. It was also found that the best results
appeared to be obtained by arranging the gun-cotton so that it should occupy the same
space as the charge of gunpowder required 40 produce an equal effect ; and other data
were arrived at, which show that the investigators were being led to work in a direction
similar to that afterwards so successfully pursued by Baron von Lenk, in Austria. Un¬
fortunately, however, disastrous explosions occurred at the works at Bouchet ; one as
early as March, 1847, in a drying chamber ; and two, following closely upon each other,
in 1848. One of these took place in a magazine, near which it was believed that no¬
body had been for several days ; the other occurred also in a magazine where gun-cotton
was being packed, and on this occasion several lives were lost. These disasters appear
to have put an end, until quite recently, to experiments with gun-cotton in France.

After the material had been pronounced upon unfavourably by the committee of the
German Confederation, one of its members, Baron von Lenk, continued to devote him¬
self to its study, and with such success, it appears, that a committee was eventually ap¬
pointed by the Austrian Government, in 1852, to inquire fully into the merits of the ma¬
terial. A sum of money wras paid to Schonbein and Bottger, in recognition of the value
of their discovery ; and an experimental manufactory of gun-cotton was established at
the Castle of Hirtenberg, near Vienna. A particular form of gun was devised by Baron
von Lenk, for employment with gun-cotton, of which a 12-pounder battery was esta¬
blished. The performances of these guns were considered sufficiently satisfactory to war¬
rant the preparation of four more batteries, which were sent to the army of observation
in Galicia in 1855, but did not go into active service. It appears that, in consequence of
a want of uniformity in the effects of the gun-cotton, and of an injurious effect upon the
guns, added probably to the prejudice entertained against it by the artillery corps, the
material fell into disfavour, and its application in cannon was for a time abandoned.

It was received, however, with much greater favour by the engineers, and was applied
with great success to mining and submarine operations. Meanwhile Baron von Lenk’s
labours to perfect gun-cotton as a material for artillery purposes wrere unceasing, and, at
the close of the Italian war, the subject of its application was again thoroughly reopened
at the instigation of Count Degenfeld, then Minister of War, who had, at an earlier
period, taken an active interest in Baron von Lenk’s investigations. After upwards of
one year’s experiments, a system of rifled. field- and mountain-guns, to be employed with
gun-cotton which had been elaborated by Von Lenk, was introduced into the Austrian
service ; thirty batteries of these guns were equipped, and it was considered as definitely
settled that gun-cotton would before long be introduced into the service in the place of
gunpowder, for artillery purposes.

In 1862, however, an explosion occurred in a magazine at Simmering, near Vienna,
where both gunpowder and gun-cotton were stored ; and this disaster appears to have
fortified to such an extent the arguments which were adduced against the employment
of gun-cotton, by its opponents in the artillery service, that its use in this direction was
again put a stop to for a time. Ultimately a committee of investigation was appointed,
which consisted in part of eminent scientific men, and which appears, after careful deli¬
beration, to have reported highly in favour of the stability and important properties, as
an explosive, of the material, — a report which was supported by the favourable opinion
entertained of gun-cotton by the Austrian engineers, in whose name Baron von Ebner
prepared a very complete and interesting account of the properties and effects of the
agent, with particular reference to mining and other engineering operations.

Gun-cotton appears, therefore, to have been again restored to favour in Austria, but no
official accounts have reached England, up to the present time, with regard to its em¬
ployment in the recent war operations in that country.

In the spring of 1862, full details relating to the manufacture and modes of applying
gun-cotton were communicated by the Austrian Government to that of Her Majesty, and
the War Office chemist was at once instructed to institute experiments upon the manu-

CHEMICAL HISTORY AMD APPLIANCES OF GUN-COTTON.

73

facture of gun-cotton, and upon its chemical constitution and stability. In the autumn
of that year, General Sabine directed the attention of the British Association to the re¬
sults obtained with gun-cotton in Austria, and a combined committee of engineers and
chemists was appointed to inquire into the subject. At the meeting of the Asso¬
ciation in 1SG3, this committee presented a report, which was based upon infor¬
mation received partly from General von Lenk, who had been permitted by the Austrian
Government to visit this country for the purpose of communicating fully with the
British Association on the subject, and partly upon the results already arrived at in the
experiments instituted by the lecturer, under the direction of the Secretary of State for
War. Subsequently, a committee of investigation was appointed by the latter, under
the presidency of General Sabine, composed of scientific men connected with the Royal
Society and British Association, and of military and naval officers of considerable ex¬
perience; and this committee has been entrusted with the. full investigation of the pro¬
perties of gun-cotton, as improved by Baron von Lenk, with reference to its application
to military, naval, engineering, and industrial purposes.

The chemical constitution of gun-cotton, concerning which the opinions of chemists
were divided until 1854, has been conclusively established by the researches of Hadow.
In the formation of substitution-products, by the action of nitric acid upon cotton or
cellulose, three atoms of the latter appear to enter together into the chemical change,
and the number of atoms of hydrogen replaced by peroxide of nitrogen in the treble
atom of cellulose, C)3 H30 0)5 = 3 (CG H10 Os), may be nine, eight, seven, or six, according
to the degree of concentration of the nitric acid employed.

The highest of these substitution-products is triuitrocellulose, pyroxylin, or gun-cotton;

f TT 1 r XT Y

C1S [ 9 NO j" 015 = 3 CG o j- 0- ; this being the substance first produced

by Pelouze in an impure condition, in 1836, by the action of very concentrated nitric
acid upon paper, or fabrics of cotton or linen ; and afterwards obtained in a purer form
by Schonbein, who employed a mixture of concentrated nitric and sulphuric acids for the
treatment of cotton- wool, the object of the sulphuric acid being to abstract water of hy¬
dration from the nitric 'acid, and also to prevent the action of the nitric acid from being
interfered with by the water which is produced, as the chemical transformation of the
cotton into gun-cotton proceeds. The formation of trinitrocellulose is represented by the
following equation : —

C0H,„O5 + 3 { } o = C6 { 3 ^ } 05 + 3 g } 0

Cotton. Nitric acid. Gun-cotton. Water.

The lowest substitution-product from cotton, of those named above, appears to have the
same composition as the substance which Braconnet first obtained in 1832, by dissolving
starch in cold concentrated nitric acid and adding water to the solution, when a white,
highly combustible substance is precipitated, to which the name of Xyloidin was given.
The substitution-products from cotton, intermediate between the lowest and highest, are
soluble in mixtures of ether and alcohol, and furnish by their solution the important
material collodion , so invaluable in connection with photography, surgery, experimental
electricity, etc.

According to Schoubein’s original prescription, the cotton wras to be saturated with a
mixture of one part of nitric acid (of specific gravity 1*5) and three parts of sulphuric
acid (sp. gr. 1*85), and allowed to stand for one hour. In operating upon a small scale,
the treatment of cotton with the acid for that period is quite sufficient to effect its com¬
plete conversion into the most explosive product, pyroxylin or trinitrocellulose ; but when
the quantity of cotton treated at one time is considerable, especially if it be not very
loose and open, its complete conversion into pyroxilin is not effected with certainty, un¬
less it be allowed to remain in the acids for several hours. This accounts in great
measure for the want of uniformity observed in the composition of gun-cotton, and its
effects as an explosive, in the ealier experiments instituted ; and it is, moreover, very
possible that the want of stability, and consequently even some of the accidents, which
it was considered could only be ascribed to the spontaneous ignition of the material,
might have been due to the comparatively unstable character of the lower products of
substitution, some of which existed in the imperfectly-prepared gun-cotton.

The system of manufacture of gun-cotton elaborated by General von Lenk is founded

74

CHEMICAL HISTORY AND APPLIANCES OF GUN-COTTON.

upon that described by Schbnbein ; the improvements which the former has adopted, ail
contribute importantly to the production of a thoroughly uniform and pure gun-cotton ;
there is only one step in his process which is certainly not essential, and about the pos¬
sible utility of which chemical authorities are decidedly at variance with General von
Lenk.

The following is an outline of the process of manufacture of gun-cotton as practised
by Lenk. The cotton, in the form of loose yarn of different sizes, made up into hanks,
is purified from certain foreign vegetable substances by treatment for a brief period with
a weak solution of potashes, and subsequent washing. It is then suspended in a well-
ventilated hot-air chamber until ail moisture has been expelled, when it is transferred to
air-tight boxes, or jars, and at once removed to the dipping tank or vessel, where its satu¬
ration with the mixed acids is effected. The acids, of the specific gravity prescribed by
Schbnbein, are very intimately mixed, in a suitable apparatus, in the proportion origi¬
nally indicated by that chemist, i. e. three parts by weight of sulphuric acid to one of
nitric acid. The mixture is always prepared some time before it is required, in order
that it may become perfectly cool. The cotton is immersed in a bath of the mixed acids,
one skein at a time, and stirred about for a few minutes until it has become thoroughly
saturated with the acids ; it is then transferred to a shelf in this dipping trough, where
it is allowed to drain, and slightly pressed, to remove any large excess of acid, and is
afterwards placed in an earthenware jar, provided with a tightly- fitting lid [which re¬
ceives six or eight skeins, weighing from two to four ounces each]. The cotton is tightly
pressed down in the jar, and, if there be not sufficient acid present just to cover the mass,
a little more is added ; the proportion of acid to bo left in contact with the cotton being
about 10j pounds to one pound of the latter. The charged jars are set aside for forty-
eight hours in a cool place, where, moreover, they are kept surrounded by water, to pre¬
vent the occurrence of any elevation of temperature and consequent destructive action of
the acids upon the gun-cotton. The same precaution is also taken with the dripping-
trough, as considerable heat is generated during the first saturation of the cotton with
the acids. At the expiration of forty-eight hours, the gun-cotton is transferred from
the jars to a centrifugal machine, by the aid of which the excess of acid is removed as
perfectly as is possible by mechanical means, the gun-cotton being afterwards only slightly
moist to the touch. The skeins are then immersed singly into water, and moved about
briskly, so as to become completely saturated with it as quickly as possible. This result
is best accomplished by plunging the skeins under a fall of water, so that they become at
once thoroughly drenched. If they are simply thrown into water and allowed to remain
at rest, the heat produced by the union of a portion of the free acids with a little water
would be so great as to establish at once a destructive action upon the gun-cotton by the
acid present. The washing of the separate skeins is continued until no acidity can be
detected in them by the taste ; they are then arranged in frames or crates and immersed
in a rapid stream of water, where they remain undisturbed for two or three weeks. They
are afterwards washed by hand, to free them from mechanical impurities derived from
the stream, and are immersed for a short time in a dilute boiling solution of potashes.
After this treatment they are returned to the stream, where they again remain for several
days. Upon their removal they are once more washed by hand, with soap if necessary ;
the pure gun-cotton then only requires drying, by sufficient exposure to air at a tempe¬
rature of about 27° C., to render it ready for use. A supplementary process is, however
adopted by General von Lenk, about the possible advantage or use of which his opinion,
is not shared by others, as already stated. This treatment consists in immersing the air-
dried gun-cotton in a moderately strong hot solution of soluble glass (silicate of potassa
or soda), for a sufficient period to allow it to become completely impregnated ; removing
the excess of liquid by means of the centrifugal machine ; thoroughly drying the gun¬
cotton thus “ silicated,” and finally washing it once more for some time, until all alkali is
abstracted. Lenk considers that by this treatment some silica becomes deposited with¬
in the fibre of the gun-cotton, which, on the one hand, assists in moderating the rapidity
with which the material burns, and, on the other hand, exercises (in some not very evi¬
dent manner) a preservative effect upon the gun-cotton, rendering it less prone to under¬
go even slight changes by keeping. The mineral matter contained in pure gun-cotton
which has not been submitted to this particular treatment amounts to about one per
cent. The proportion found in specimens which have been “silicated” in Austria and
in this country, according to Lenk’s directions, varies between 1-5 and 2 per cent. It is

CHEMICAL HISTORY AND APPLIANCES OF GUN-COTTON.

75

difficult to understand how the addition of one per cent, to the mineral matter, in the
form chiefly of silicates of lime and magnesia (the bases being derived from the water
used in the final washing), which are deposited upon and between the fibres in a pul¬
verulent form, can influence, to any material extent, either the rate of combustion or the
keeping qualities of the product obtained by Leak’s system of manufacture.

Gun-cotton, prepared according to the system just described, is exceedingly uniform
in composition. The analyses of samples prepared both in Austria and at Waltham
Abbey have furnished results corresponding accurately to those required by the for-

f TT 1

mula C, \ o v7n ^ ^s ordinary air-dry condition it contains, very uniformly,

about two per cent, of moisture ; an amount which it absorbs again rapidly from the
air, when it has been dried. The proportion of water existing in the purified air-dried
cotton, before conversion, is generally about six per cent. "When pure gun-cotton is
■exposed to a very moist atmosphere, or kept in a damp locality, it will absorb as much
as from six to seven per cent. ; but, t if it be then exposed to air of average dryness, it
very speedily parts with all but the two per cent, of moisture which it contains in its
normal condition. It may be preserved in a damp or wet state apparently for an inde¬
finite period without, injury, for if afterwards dried by exposure to air, it exhibits no
signs of change.

In these respects it possesses important advantages over gunpowder. The normal
proportion of hygroscopic moisture in that substance varies between three-quarters and
one per cent. ; but if exposed in any way to the influence of a moist atmosphere, it
continires to absorb water until, however firm the grains may have originally been, it
becomes quite pasty. It need scarcely be stated that, when once gunpowder has be¬
come damp, it can no longer be restored to a serviceable condition, except by being
again submitted to the processes of manufacture, starting almost from the commence¬

ment.

Perhaps the most vital considerations bearing upon the possibility of applying gun¬
cotton to important practical purposes, are those which relate to the risk likely to be
incurred in its manufacture and preservation in large quantities. The manufacture of
gun-cotton is unquestionably much safer than that of gunpowder ; in fact, there is no
possibility of accident until the final drying process is reached, as in all the other
stages, the material is always wet, and therefore harmless. With the adoption of a
proper system of wanning and ventilation in the drying-chamber, the last operation
is certainly not a more dangerous one than that of drying gunpowder. The question
of the safe preservation of gun-cotton cannot as yet be so easily and satisfactorily dis¬
posed of. Specimens of gun-cotton exist, which were prepared according to Schonbein’s
directions in 184G, and which have undergone no change whatever ; on the other hand,
it is well known that gun-cotton, which was believed to have been perfectly purified,
has become extremely acid, and has even undergone so complete a decomposition as to
have become converted into oxalic acid and other organic products, when preserved in
closed vessels, and especially when exposed continually, or occasionally, to light. This
susceptibility to chemical change has been particularly observed in samples of gun¬
cotton known to consist chiefly, or to contain some proportion, of the less explosive or
lower substitution-products (i. e. gun-cotton specially prepared for the manufacture of
collodion). Hence, it is very possible that such instances, as are considered to have
been well authenticated, of the spontaneous ignition of gun-cotton, when stored in con¬
siderable quantities, or during exposure to very moderate heat, may have arisen not
simply from an imperfect purification of the material, but also from the more or less
imperfect conversion of cotton into the most explosive and apparently most stable
product.

There is no doubt that the improvements effected in the system of manufacture of
gun-cotton have been instrumental in rendering it far more stable in character than it
was in the early days of its production upon a considerable scale. At the same time,
although General von Lenk and its warmest partisans consider that its unchangeability
can no longer be disputed, a greater amount of experience, combined with more search¬
ing investigations than have hitherto been instituted, upon the possibility of its under¬
going change when under the influence of moderate heat, alone or combined with that
of moisture, and when preserved under a variety of other conditions, are unquestionabty
indispensable before its claims to perfect permanence can be considered as properly

76

CHEMICAL HISTORY AND APPLIANCES OF GUN-COTTON.

established. It has already been ascertained by very recent experiments of the lecturer,
that gun-cotton prepared and purified with the most scrupulous care, speedily under¬
goes some amount of decomposition when exposed to temperatures ranging from 82° to
06° C. ; it remains to be seen whether such decomposition, if once established by ex¬
posure of gun-cotton to some temperature within the above limits, will cease perma¬
nently, when the material is removed from the influence of heat, or whether precau¬
tions or efficient supplementary processes can be adopted in the manufacture, to coun¬
teract the tendency to change exhibited by gun-cotton under the above circumstances.
These are only some of the points which need patient investigation before it is posi¬
tively known whether the requisite confidence can be placed in the material as an agent
susceptible of substitution for gunpowrder.

It has been ingeniously argued that a slight indication of spontaneous change in gun¬
cotton need give rise to no alarm, because gunpowder is also liable to slight spontaneous
change, reference being made to the fact that a very minute proportion of the sulphur
in that material has been noticed to undergo oxidation. It need hardly be stated that
such a minute change cannot have the slightest effect upon the stability of the mecha¬
nical mixture, gunpowder, in which variations, as regards purity and proportions of
ingredients, occur, to an extent which render this change of absolute insignificance;,
whereas in the case of gun-cotton as now manufactured, the development of acid, how¬
ever minute the proportion, may very possibly give rise to an important disturbance of
chemical equilibrium, in a compound, the stability of which is based upon the perfect
uniformity of its composition ; and it may also be at once productive of further change,
by the tendency which the acid itself has to exert chemical action upon certain ele¬
ments of the gun-cotton.

The general properties of gun-cotton as an explosive agent have long been popularly
known to be as follows : — When inflamed or raised to a temperature ranging between
137° and 150° C. it burns with a bright flash and large body of flame, unaccompanied by
smoke, and leaves no appreciable residue. It is far more readily inflamed by percussion
than gunpowder ; the compression of any particular portion of a mass of loose gun¬
cotton between rigid surfaces will prevent that part from burning when heat is applied.
The products of combustion of gun-cotton, in air, redden litmus paper powerfully ; they
contain a considerable proportion of nitric oxide, and act rapidly and corrosively upon
iron and gun-metal. The explosion of gun-cotton, when in the loose, carded condition —
the form in which it was always prepared in the early days of its discovery, — resembles
that of the fulminates in its violence and instantaneous character ; in the open air it may
be inflamed, when in actual contact with gunpowder, without igniting the latter ; in a
confined space, as in a shell or the barrel of a gun, the almost instantaneous rapidity of
its explosion, when in this form, produces effects which are highly destructive as com¬
pared with those of gunpowder, while the projectile force exerted by it is comparatively
small.

Many attempts have been made, from time to time, to diminish the rapidity of ex¬
plosion of gun-cotton ; but’ the only one attended by any success is that which, in
General von Lenk’s hand, has led to the development of a system of mechanical arrange¬
ment of gun-cotton, as ingenious and simple as it is effective. By manufacturing the
cotton into yarn, of different thicknesses and degress of compactness or fineness of twist,
before its conversion into gun-cotton, this material is at once obtained in forms which
not only burn Avith great regularity and much less rapidity, when used in the original
condition, than the loose gun-cotton wool, but which also, when employed in the form
of reels, wound more or less compactly, or when converted into plaits or hollow ropes,
may be made to burn gradually, in a manner similar to gunpowder, or to flash into
flame instantaneously, exerting an explosive action very far exceeding that of the latter.
The modifications in the nature and degree of explosive force exerted by gnn-cotton,
which are essential for its application to military and industrial purposes, as a substitute
for powder, are therefore arrived at by means of very simple variations of the mecha¬
nical condition of the material. Thus, to obtain the gradual action essential for the
employment of gun-cotton in cannon, cartridges are made up of coarse yarn, which is
wound firmly round a hollow cylinder of wood, of dimensions regulated by the size of
the gun-chamber and the weight of the charge used, the best result being obtained
by so arranging the latter that the cartridge entirely fills the space allotted to the
charge in the gun. Similarly, small-arm cartridges are made of cylindrical plaits of

CHEMICAL HISTORY AND APPLIANCES OF GUN-COTTON.

77

fine yarn or thread, which are fitted compactly in layers, one over the other, upon a
small cylinder or spindle of wood. In both of these arrangements the combustion of the
charge can proceed only from the external surfaces towards the interior of the cartridge.
On the other hand, the charges for shells, in which the most rapid explosion is most
effective, and the priming for quick-matches which are intended for firing several
charges simultaneously and almost immediately upon the application of flame, consist
of cylindrical, hollow, and moderately compact plaits (similar to lamp- wicks), made of
gun-cotton thread, or very fine yarn. These plaits are produced in pieces of any
length, and when employed as quick-matches are compactly enclosed in cases of water¬
proof canvas or other similar materials. The charges to be used in mines, in which the
most destructive effects are aimed at, consist of pieces of very firmly-twisted rope, with
a hollow core along the centre, the number of strands of which it is composed varying
with the size of the charge to be used. For quarrying and blasting purposes, small lengths
of the rope are employed singly ; for military operations (demolition of works, etc.), it is
packed into moderately stout cases of sheet-metal. In these hollow ropes and plaits
of gun-cotton, the flame produced by the burning of that portion to which heat is
applied, penetrates at once to the interior and into the interstices of the charge, and
hence the entire mass of gun-cotton is converted into gas and vapour, with almost
instantaneous rapidity. A striking illustration of the very opposite effects which can
be produced by very simple modifications in the mechanical arrangement of the gun¬
cotton is afforded by the following experiment : — If two or three strands of gun-cotton
yarn be very loosely twisted together and inserted into a tube of glass, or other material,
in which they fit so loosely as to be readily drawn backwards and forwards, upon apply¬
ing heat to a projecting portion at one end of the tube, the gun-cotton thus arranged
will explode with great -violence, completely pulverizing the tube, if it be of glass ; and
the combustion will take place with such almost instantaneous rapidity that small por¬
tions of unburnt gun-cotton will actually be scattered by the explosion. But when,
two or more strands of the same gun-cotton yarn are tightly twisted, singly in the first
instance, then made up into a firm cord, solid throughout, and enclosed in a glass tube
or some other description of case into which the cord fits very tightly, if a protruding
end of the gun-cotton be then inflamed, the cord will bum with moderate rapidity
until the fire reaches the opening of the case, when the combustion will pass over from
the ordinary kind to a form which can only be described as a smouldering ; the lighted
extremity of the gun-cotton simply glows within the case, while a steady jet of flame
(furnished by the combustible gases evolved from the gun-cotton) continues to burn at
the open extremity of the case until the contents of the latter are consumed, The
gun-cotton not only burns extremely slowly under these conditions, but also with the
greatest regularity, so that the rate of combustion of a given length of the enclosed
cord may be accurately timed. The rapidity of combustion of gun-cotton arranged in
this given form may be regulated by the number of strands in a cord, and the degree of
their compactness ; and it is by this new modification of General von Lenk’s system of
arranging gun-cotton that the lecturer has succeeded in applying this material to the
production of slow-matches and time-fuzees ; uses for which it had not previously been
found suitable.

Keference has just been made to inflammable gases evolved by gun-cotton while it
undergoes a very slow combustion. The composition of gun-cotton renders it self-evi¬
dent that, under any circumstances, the explosion of this substance must be accom¬
panied by the production of a very considerable proportion of carbonic oxide. The
large body of flame, always observed when gun-cotton is ignited under ordinary
circumstances, is principally due to the combustion of carbonic oxide and, probably
also, of small quantities of carbo-hydrogen compounds, which, together with minute
suspended particles of the mineral matter contained in the gun-cotton, give to
the flame its brightness. If a tuft of gun-cotton be ignited in a capacious and some¬
what deep vessel, the flame actually resulting from the burning of the tuft may be dis¬
tinctly seen surrounded by a large body of flame, produced by the burning gases, which
continue apparent for a very appreciable time after the disappearance of the fl ish of
flame furnished by the explosion of the gun-cotton. If similar tufts be ignited in at¬
mospheres of hydrogen, nitrogen, carbonic acid, coal-gas, etc., the combustion oi the
gun-cotton is only accompanied by a very small and pale flame, of instantaneous dura¬
tion. Similarly, if gun-cotton be ignited in a vessel which has been previously ex-
vol. yi. n

78

CHEMICAL HISTORY AND APPLIANCES OF GUN-COTTON.

hausted, to at any rate one-half the ordinary atmospheric pressure, the proportion of
air, and therefore oxygen, present when the gun-cotton is ignited, does not suffice to
effect the combustion of any large proportion of the inflammable gases generated, and
hence the explosion of the gun-cotton is attended only by a small pale flame. If,
however, the vessel be filled with oxygen, and then exhausted to an equal or even a
lower degree, it is filled with flame of dazzling brightness directly the ignition of the
gun-cotton is effected.

The one modification, just referred to, of the phenomena which attended the ignition
of gun-cotton in a rarefied atmosphere is not the only result observed in experiments of
this kind. Various curious effects may be obtained ; their nature being determined by
the degree of rarefaction of the atmosphere, the mechanical condition of the gun-cotton,
its position with reference to the source of heat employed, and other variable elements
in the experiments. A brief account of some of the principal of these phenomena may
not be without interest.

In the experiments with a tuft of gun-cotton in rarefied air, spoken of just now, a
perceptible interval is observed between the first application of heat (by passage of a
voltaic current through a platinum wire enclosed in the tuft) and the first appearance of
ignition of the gun-cotton ; moreover, the pale flame observed when the latter does
burn, is of very perceptibly longer duration that than of the bright flash which attends
the explosion of gun-cotton in air, under ordinary conditions. If instead of using the
gun-cotton in the form of a tuft, a short piece of the gun-cotton yarn be employed in the
experiment, and laid on a support so that it rests upon the wire by which it is to be
ignited, the pale flame of the burning gun-cotton will travel along towards the two
extremities of the piece of yarn with a degree of slowness corresponding to the extent
of rarefaction of the atmosphere. These results are in perfect accordance with the
observation (first made by Quartermaster Mitchell, afterwards fully examined into by
Frankland, and recently amplified by Dufour), that the rate of burning of time-fuzees is
influenced by the altitude at which they are burned, or, in other words, by the degree of
pressure of the atmosphere, the combustion being proportionately slow with every decre¬
ment of pressure of the air. When the platinum-wire is first raised to a red-heat, in
the centre of the tuft of gun-cotton enclosed in a highly-rarefied atmosphere, the pro¬
ducts resulting from the decomposition of that portion of the material which is in close
contact with the wire, immediately distribute themselves through the rarefied space,
conveying away, and rendering latent by their great expansion, the heat furnished by the
platinum-wire and that which results from the chemical change. The increase of pres¬
sure within the confined space, by the generation of the gases and vapours, on the one
hand, and, on the other hand, the effect of the heated gases, which escape, upon the par¬
ticles of gun-cotton through which they permeate, result, in the course of time, in the
ignition of the mass ; but even then the gun-cotton burns only slowly, because, in conse¬
quence of the rapidity with which the resulting gases and vapours escape and expand,
much of the heat essential for the maintenance of the combustion is at once conveyed
away. The latter result is strikingly exemplified by an experiment in which gun¬
cotton-yarn is substituted for the tuft of carded gun-cotton ; indeed, if the atmosphere
be very highly rarefied (to 06 in inches of mercury) and a sufficient length of the gun¬
cotton yarn (4 or 5 inches) be employed in the experiment, the burning of the material,
induced by the heated wire, will proceed so slowly, that the heat resulting from the
chemical change will be conveyed away from the burning surface, by the gases gene¬
rated, much more rapidly than it is developed, so that the gun-cotton will actually
become extinguished when only a small portion of it has been burned.

A very similar result is obtained if gunpowder, either in the form of grains or of one
large mass, is exposed to the action of an incandescent platinum wire imbedded in it,
the pressure of the atmosphere, in the apparatus in which the experiment is made,
being reduced to between 06 and 2, in inches of mercury. The portion of gunpowder
contiguous to the heated wire will fuse ; vapours of sulphur will be evolved in the first
instance, and, subsequently, the charcoal will be oxidized by the nitre, bubbles of gas
escaping from the fused mass. The vapours and gases thus generated convey away
rapidly the heat provided by the wire and developed by the chemical action ; and at the
same time the change which the gunpowder undergoes diminishes its explosive character,
so that its partial ignition or explosion will only be effected after the lapse of several
minutes, and, if it be in the form of grains, the explosion of the particles contiguous to
the wire will have the effect of scattering the remainder without igniting it.

CHEMICAL HISTORY AND APPLIANCES OF GUN-COTTON.

79>

The great reduction in the rapidity of combustion of gun-cotton is not the only result
observed when small quantities of that substance are exposed to heat under diminished
atmospheric pressure. In the most highly-rarefied atmospheres (from 05 to 1 inch),
the only indication afforded of the burning of the gun-cotton is the appearance of a
beautiful green glow, like a phosphorescence, immediately surrounding that part which
is undergoing decomposition. When the pressure of the atmosphere is slightly in¬
creased, a faint yellow lambent flame appears, beyond the green glow, at a short dis¬
tance from the point of decomposition ; and, in proportion as the atmosphere is less
rarefied, this pale yellow flame increases in volume, while the green phosphorescence
becomes less and less apparent until it seems to be completely obliterated. Lastly, when
the pressure of the atmosphere is comparatively great ( = 25 or 2G, in inches of mer¬
cury), the gun-cotton burns with the ordinary bright flame, though less rapidly, of
course, than it does under normal conditions of atmospheric pressure. There is no
doubt that this bright flame is due to an almost instantaneous secondary combustion
(in the oxygen supplied by the air in the apparatus) of the inflammable gases evolved
by the decomposition. On the other hand, the production of the small pale flame,
observed when gun-cotton is burned in more highly rarefied air, or in atmospheres
of gases which cannot supply oxygen for combustion, is most probably due to the gene¬
ration of a mixture of gases (by the change which gun-cotton undergoes under these
conditions), which contains not only combustible bodies such as carbonic oxide, but
also a proportion of oxidizing gases (protoxide of nitrogen or even oxygen); such a
mixture, having self-combustible properties, will receive sufficient heat from the burn¬
ing gun-cotton to become ignited, except when the atmosphere in which the change-
takes place is so highly rarefied that the heat is immediately dissipated and the gases,
evolved become highly attenuated, as already described.

It will be readily conceived that the mechanical state of the gun-cotton (i. e. the parti ¬
cular form in which it is employed), like other variable conditions which have been alluded,
to, will greatly influence the nature of phenomena observed, when this substance is
ignited in air, or in various gases, either at ordinary or diminished pressures. This may
be exemplified by the following experimental illustrations It has been stated that when
a tuft of carded gun-cotton is ignited in carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, nitrogen, coal-gas,
hydrogen, and other gases, it burns only with a pale yellow flame ; this flame, when
furnished by equal quantities of gun-cotton, is much smaller in an atmosphere of
hydrogen than it is, for example, in carbonic acid,— a fact which must be ascribed to the
comparatively very rapid diffusion of the generated gases when hydrogen is used. In
operating with pieces of gun-cotton yarn, instead of employing loose tufts, the material,
when ignited by a red-hot wire in atmospheres of carbonic acid, nitrogen in carbonic
oxide, burns much more slowly than it does in air under the same conditions ; and its
combustion is accompanied only by a very small jet or pointed tongue of pale flame,
which is thrown out in a line with the burning extremities of the piece of yarn. In
the same way, if the yarn is enclosed in a tube or other vessel, through which those
gases are circulating, and from which one extremity of the gun-cotton protrudes, when
the latter is lighted it will burn in the ordinary manner only until it reaches the open¬
ing of the tube, when the form of combustion will at once be changed to that just
described. If, however, corresponding experiments are made in atmospheres of hy¬
drogen or coal-gas, the gun-cotton yarn will burn in the slow manner described,
but only for a very brief period ; indeed, it ceases to burn at all almost instantaneously,
just as it does when ignited in a very highly-rarefied atmosphere. This result is not
clue to the high diffusive powers of the gas in which the gun-cotton is burned, as it may
be obtained equally in open and in perfectly-closed vessels ; it can therefore only be
ascribed to the high cooling powers, by convection, of the gases employed. Pure
nitrogen, as stated just now, allows the gun-cotton yarn to burn in the slow manner,
but if mixed with one-fourth its volume of hydrogen, it arrests the combustion of the
the material, just like coal-gas or pure hydrogen.

A rapid current of air will also effect the transformation of the combustion of gun¬
cotton from the ordinary to the slow form, if the yarn be enclosed in a moderately wide
glass tube, with one end protruding from the tube, so that it may be inflamed in the
ordinary manner ; but unless the current be very rapid, an explosive mixture of air
and the inflammable gases generated from the gun-cotton may be produced in the tube,
and become ignited, in which case the gun-cotton will flash into flame instantaneously,.

H 2

80

CHEMICAL HISTORY AND APPLIANCES OF GUN-COTTON.

and the tube will be shattered by the explosion. If, however, a long piece of thin gun¬
cotton yarn be passed through a small narrow glass tube, one or two inches long, intowhich
it fits so loosely that it may be drawn through very easily, the change in the form of
combustion is effected with certainty, and without the aid of a current of air. When
the gun-cotton, thus arranged and placed upon a flat surface, is inflamed at one extre¬
mity, it burns as usual until it reaches the one opening of the tube ; the slow form of
combustion then takes place within the tube, and the gun-cotton will continue to burn
in the slow manner, emitting only the small tongue of flame, after the combustion has
reached the portion of yarn on the other side of the tube, which will be entirely burned
in this peculiar manner. In fact, to change the ordinary into the slow form of com¬
bustion of the gun-cotton yarn in open air , it is only necessary to pass a piece of the
material through a perforation in a diaphragm of wood, cardboard, or paper, and to
allow it to rest upon a flat surface on both sides of the diaphragm. The gun-cotton
will burn as usual upon one side of the screen, until its combustion reaches the perfora¬
tion, when the large bright flame will vanish, and the gun-cotton upon the other side
of the screen will burn in the slow manner to the end.

The two last experiments show that if the combustible mixture of gases, evolved by the
action of heat upon gun-cotton when it is inflamed in open air, are prevented, even for
the briefest space of time, from completely enveloping the burning extremity of the
yarn or twist ; or, in other words, if they are forced for an instant to escape only in a
direct line with the burning surface of gun-cotton from which they are emitted, those
particles of the latter which are in immediate proximity to the burning portion cannot
be raised to the temperature necessary for their rapid and more complete combustion,
and hence the gases themselves are in turn not supplied with sufficient heat for their
ignition. Now, as the gases which escape unburned convey away a very large portion
of the heat developed by the metamorphosis cf the gun-cotton, it is impossible for the
latter to continue to burn otherwise than in the slow and imperfect manner. If, how¬
ever, a flame or highly-heated body be held in the path of the gases as they escape,
they will at once be ignited, and the yarn will burst into the ordinary form of com¬
bustion. The correctness of this explanation may readily be demonstrated by two or
three simple experiments. Thus, if a piece of loose or open gun-cotton yarn is em¬
ployed in place of the compact material which furnishes the results just described, it is
very difficult, or even impossible, to cause the rapid combustion to pass over into the
slow form, because the escaping gases cannot be diverted all into one direction, and
cannot, therefore, be prevented from transmitting the heat necessary for perfect com¬
bustion from particle to particle of the material. Again, if a piece of the compactly-
twisted gun-cotton yarn, placed upon a flat surface, is inflamed in the usual manner,
and a jet of air is then encircled in a line with the gun-cotton so as to
meet the flame, the latter will appear to be blown out, though the cotton still
burns ; in fact, the burning gases are prevented for an instant from completely enve¬
loping the extremity of the gun-cotton, and hence the combustion at once passes from
the quick to the slow form. Conversely, if when the yarn has been made to burn in
this slow manner, a very gentle current of air be directed against the burning portion,
so as to force back upon the latter the gases which are escaping, thus impeding the
rapid abstraction of heat, the gun-cotton will very speedily burst into the ordinary form
of combustion, because, under these circumstances, the gases are almost immediately
raised to the temperature necessary for their combustion. In the same way, if a
piece of the yam placed upon a board be made to bum in the slow manner, and one
end of the board be gradually raised, so that the burning extremity of the gun-cotton
is the lowest, the latter will burst into flame as soon as the board has been raised to a
position nearly vertical, so that the escaping gases flow back upon the burning surface.

The slow or imperfect form of combustion may be at once induced in the compact
gun-cotton yarn, in open air, by applying to any part of the gun-cotton a source of
heat not sufficiently great to inflame the gases generated. A wire, or metal rod, heated
to any temperature between 135° C. to just below visible redness, or the spark of a thin
piece of smouldering string, will invariably produce the result described. Of course
this effect, like most of the phenomena described, is to a considerable extent dependent
upon the mechanical condition of the gun-cotton, upon the relation between the quantity
as well as the degree of heat applied and the amount of surface of the gun-cotton, and
upon other conditions. While a small spark, or a thin platinum wire heated full to redness,

CHEMICAL HISTORY AND APPLIANCES OF GUN-COTTON.

81

only induces slow combustion in the compact gun-cotton yarn, a thick rod of iron, heated
only to dull redness, will invariably inflame it in the ordinary manner. A piece of open yam
cannot be ignited so as to burn in the slow manner ; on the other hand, the more com¬
pactly the gun-cotton is twisted, the more superficial is the slow form of combustion
induced in it ; indeed, the gun-cotton may be rendered so compact that it will simply
smoulder in open air, if ignited as described, leaving a considerable carbonaceous re¬
sidue ; and the heat resulting from this most imperfect combustion will sometimes be
abstracted by the escaping gases more rapidly than it is developed, so that the gun¬
cotton will then actually cease to burn, even in open air, after a short time.

The remarkable facility with which the effect of heat upon gun-cotton may be mo¬
dified, so as even to produce results totally opposite in their characters, as exemplified
by some of the experiments which have been described, renders it easily conceivable
that this material may be made to produce the most varied mechanical effects, when
applied to practical purposes ; that it may indeed be so applied as, on the one hand, to
develope a force, very gradual in its action, which may be directed and controlled at
least as readily as that obtained by the explosion of gunpowder, while, on the other
hand, it may be made to exert a violence of action and a destructive effect far surpassing
those of which gunpowder is susceptible. The results arrived at in Austria, which show
that gun-cotton may be made to produce effects from three to eight times greater
than those of gunpowder, cease to be surprising after a study of the chemical and phy¬
sical characteristics of this interesting explosive agent.

The products obtained by the explosion of gun-cotton, and its decomposition under
various conditions, have as yet been very imperfectly studied, but there is little doubt
that they vary in their nature almost as greatly as the phenomena which attend the
exposure of the material to heat under different circumstances. It is well known that,
when gun-cotton is inflamed in the open air, there is produced (in addition to water,
carbonic oxide, carbonic acid, and nitrogen) a considerable proportion of binoxide of
nitrogen, so that the gaseous mixture assumes a red-brown tinge, and becomes very
acid when it mixes with air. The products of the different forms of imperfect combus-
it on which gun-cotton has been described as susceptible of undergoing, are undoubtedly
much more complex in their character than those just referred to. They include at
times a proportion of some substances, not yet examined, which make their appearance
as a white vapour or smoke ; cyanogen can readily be detected in all the products of
imperfect combustion ; the proportion of binoxide of nitrogen is generally so large that
the gaseous product becomes very highly coloured when mixed with air ; peroxide of
nitrogen has also been observed in some instances ; lastly, there is little doubt that the
products occasionally include a proportion of oxidizing gases.

The products Avhich have just been alluded to are the results of the decomposition of
gun-cotton either at ordinary or diminished atmospheric pressures ; when the explosion
of the material is effected in a confined space, in such a manner that the main decompo¬
sition takes place under pressure, the metamorphosis which the material undergoes is of
a more simple and complete character.

It has been found by Karolyi that when gun-cotton is exploded by voltaic agency in
a shell which is burst by the explosion, and which is enclosed within an exhausted
chamber, so that the products of decomposition are collected without danger, the
results obtained under these conditions are comparatively simple ; the analysis of the
contents of the chamber, after the explosion, showed that they consisted of carbonic
acid 20\S2 per cent., carbonic oxide 28’95, nitrogen 12,G7. hydrogen 3TG, marsh gas
7'24, water 2Ao4, and carbon 1*82. The decomposition of gun-cotton under these
conditions (which are similar to those of its explosion when employed as a destructive
agent) appears, therefore, not to be attended by the production of any oxide of nitrogen.
The lecturer found, in some preliminary experiments made under the same conditions
as those of Karolyi, that only a minute proportion of binoxide of nitrogen was pro¬
duced. These results, when compared with those obtained by the ignition of gun-cotton
in open air and rarefied atmosphei'es, show that, just as the decomposition of this
material is of a more complicated and intermediate character, in proportion as its com¬
bustion is rendered imperfect by diminution of pressure or other circumstances, so, con¬
versely, the change which it undergoes will be the more simple, and its conversion into
gaseous products the more complete, the greater the pressure, beyond normal limits,
under which it is exploded ; that is to say, the greater the resistance offered to the

83

CHEMICAL HISTORY AND APPLIANCES OF GUN-COTTON.

generated gases upon the first ignition of a charge of gun-cotton (and consequently the
higher the temperature at which the decomposition of the confined gun-cotton is
effected). It is therefore readily intelligible that the notions hitherto generally enter¬
tained with regard to the very noxious character of the products of explosion of gun¬
cotton and their powerfully corrosive action upon metals — based as these notions have
been upon the effects observed on exploding gun-cotton in open air — have been proved
to be erroneous by the results of actual application of gun-cotton to artillery and other
purposes. The foregoing considerations contribute, moreover, to the ready explanation
of the fact, established by the experiments in Austria, that the destructive effect of gun¬
cotton is greatly increased, within certain limits, by increasing the resistance which the
products of explosion have to overcome before they can escape into the air.

The conditions (of temperature, pressure, etc.) which influence the nature of the
decomposition of gun-cotton, exert, unquestionably, a similar influence upon the nature
of the explosion of gunpowder , and upon the mechanical effects which the products are
capable of exerting. Observations made by the lecturer, in experiments upon the igni¬
tion of gunpowder in rarefied atmospheres, point to the existence of products of com¬
paratively complicated character among those found by the gradual decomposition of
that material under the conditions described. The earlier investigators (G-uy-Lussac,
Chevreul, etc.), of the products of explosion of gunpowder, represent these as being of
a very simple character, and in harmony with the theory that gunpowder is converted
essentially by its explosion into carbonic acid (or a mixture of that gas and carbonic
oxide), nitrogen, and sulphide of potassium. But more recent experimenters, Bunsen
and Schischkoff, who have made a very elaborate examination of the products which
they obtained by the explosion of gunpowder, represent the change to be one of a very
complicated character ; fix the percentage of solid substances found at a much higher
figure than that hitherto accepted ; and show that the sulphide of potassium, which has
been considered as the principal of these products, was only produced in very small
proportion in their experiments. The conditions under which these chemists exploded
the gunpowder did not, however, correspond at all in their character to those under
w'hich guupowder is exploded in actual practice, and would, therefore, be very likely
to furnish results greatly at variance with those produced when a charge of powder is
fired in a gun, a shell, or a mine. That sulphide of potassium is abundantly produced,
upon the discharge of a firearm, appears beyond doubt ; it may be readily detected in
the solid matter which remains in the barrel near the breech ; it may be found depo¬
sited in considerable quantity near the muzzle of the arm, and there appears strong
reason for believing that the flash of flame, observed at the mouth of a firearm upon its
discharge, is due in part to the ignition, as it comes into contact with the air, of sulphide
of potassium, which has been vaporized by the heat of the explosion,, and is thus mixed
with the escaping gases.

In comparing the effects of gun-cotton, as an explosive agent, with those of gun¬
powder, and in basing theories, with regard to the difference in the mechanical effects
exerted by the two, upon the analytical results of the products of their explosion which
have been obtained up to the present time, it is necessary to proceed with great caution,
for exceptional results cannot form any sound basis for correct theories or tenable argu¬
ments. It can only lead to incorrect conclusions, which may considerably retard the
thorough investigation of a most important subject, if the facts be ignored or lost sight
of, that, firstly , the conditions which practically influence the nature of the products of
the explosion of gun-cotton have a similar influence upon the change which gunpowder
mady be made to undergo ; and that, secondly , the effect of heat upon the water pro¬
duced by decomposition of gun-cotton, which forms so important an element in the
the action of this explosive, has most probably its parallel, to no unimportant extent,
in the vaporizing eflect of heat upon the solids (especially upon sulphide of potassium)
produced in the explosion of gunpowder. These are matters which demand their full
share of consideration and investigation, before it can be admitted that a sufficient
explanation of the remarkable differences between the effects of gunpowder and gun¬
cotton exists in the assumption, that certain products of decomposition of the former
must be regarded entirely as Avaste matter in the material, simply because they are
solid at ordinary temperatures. The fact that gun-cotton is entirely converted into
gases and vapour at the moment of explosion , constitutes unquestionably one of the great
advantages which that substance possesses over gunpowder ; but it is premature, at

REPORT ON THE INDUSTRY OP MANURES.

83

present, to assume, in comparing the action of the two substances, that only thirty-two
(or even sixty) per cent, of gunpowder exist as gas or vapour, at the moment of its
explosion.

It is to be expected that the investigations which are now being actively pursued upon
the true chemical effects produced in the explosion both of gun-cotton and gunpowder,
under conditions similar to those which attend their employment in practice, will aid
materially in furnishing the correct data so essential for a thorough and impartial com
parison of the nature and merits of these two explosive agents.

REPORT ON THE INDUSTRY OF MANURES.

The Reporter is so largely indebted for this section to the collaboration of his friend
Mr. F. 0. Ward, that he cannot refrain from renewing here, in a special manner, the
expressions of gratitude already proffered to that gentleman, in the introduction, for
other services of a similar kind.

The great manurial problem, and the grave collateral questions involved in its dis¬
cussion, are so remote from the sphere of the Reporter’s habitual studies, that, in his first
sketch of this section, he had merely added to the simple record of the Jury’s proceedings
the tribute of homage which it was at once his duty and pleasure to offer to the great
founder of modern husbandry — Justus Liebig.

Finding, however, that his friend Mr. F. 0. Ward had been led, by special circum¬
stances, to bestow particular attention on this subject, the Reporter gladly availed him¬
self of that gentleman’s liberal offer, to furnish him with an epitomized view of the
question in its most important bearings.

This assistance was the more readily accepted by the Reporter, because, on the one
hand, previous experience had assured him that no exposition from his friend’s pen would
be otherwise than masterly and luminous ; whilst, on the other hand, he felt that this
report, taken as an outline of modern chemico-industrial progress, would be utterly in¬
complete, unless the industry of manures, and the great agricultural problems bound up
therein, were adequately represented in these pages.

The essay laid before him by his friend, appeared to the Reporter, he does not hesitate
to say, one of the ablest and most philosophically conceived compendiums of a complex
and difficult subject, that have ever come under his notice. Nay, more — on several
points hitherto involved in doubt and difficulty, Mr. F. 0. Ward has advanced explana¬
tions which the Reporter believes to be as original as they are (to this mind) satisfactory.

He therefore, with pleasure, adopted and indorsed his coadjutor’s work : contributing
himself, for incorporation into its text, much valuable information, of a special kind,
obligingly communicated to him by Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, Mr. Gruning, and others.
The completed section, thus jointly-produced, after having undergone careful digestion,
has been subjected, as well by his coadjutor as himself, to the most scrupulous revision,
in order to the elimination of any incidental errors or misconceptions. That perfect 'ac¬
curacy has been attained on all points, especially on those which are still the subjects
of vehement controversy, would be too much to expect. The Reporter will not, however,
affect to disbelieve that here and there some useful hint may be gleaned from these
pages ; some great truth of husbandry be found, set forth in novel aspects ; or even some
new link appear supplied, in the great chain of agricultural cause and consequence.

It may be indeed, and probably will, be objected, by the advocates of a theory herein¬
after somewhat freely disallowed, that neither the Reporter nor his friend can lay claim
to any experimental acquaintance with the subject they have undertaken to treat. This
disadvantage 'is admitted ; it is a very real one, and it should weigh much with every
reader in estimating the value of the opinions here advanced. But it may be alleged on
the other hand as a compensating advantage, that in the midst of a vehement controversy,
calm bystanders may sometimes discern truths, overlooked by more or less impassioned
disputants.

Be this as it may, these prefatory observations will at least prevent even a single reader
from attaching to the statements which follow more weight than they may intrinsically
possess. For the rest, on Mr.F. 0. Ward’s behalf as well as on his own, the Reporter can
truly say that no labour has been spared to elucidate in these pages the great agricul¬
tural problems, now everywhere so anxiously debated, and fraught with such momentous
issues, social, political, and economical.

84

REPORT ON THE INDUSTRY OF MANURES.

Early History of Manures .■ — Manures, in the form of cattle-dung and ordinary farm¬
yard composts, have been known and employed from time immemorial for the ferti¬
lization of the soil; but the manures termed, “artificial,” which have their origin
elsewhere than in the farm itself, and are for the most part of concentrated and portable
character, have but of late years come largely into use. Nevertheless, the manufacture
of these manures, and the trade to which they have given rise, already rank amongst the
most extensive of modern industries.

The British patent-rolls record the grant, previously to 1800, of only three patents for
manures, dated respectively 1721, 1729, and 1773 ; whereof the last only, taken out by
Baron van Haake, was duly specified. The claim in this case is for a composition of
common salt, saltpetre, lime, and Rhenish tartar, which is declared to “ possess a mag¬
netic quality, whereby it attracts fertility, and is productive of the effect of manuring
arable land,” etc.

This curious specification affords a rough measure of the state of popular knowledge
and opinion on the subject of manures towards the end of the last century.

The first manure-patent of the present century was granted, in 1802, to one Estienne,
for a method of converting human excrement into manure, by gathering it in tanks, de¬
canting its liquid part, drying the solid sediment in the sun (with or without addition of
lime), letting this ferment in heaps, and finally crushing it to powder. This was a step
in the right direction ; though we now know that the treatment suggested, by removing
frpm the compost all its soluble and volatile ingredients, must have destroyed nineteen-
twentieths of its value.

In 18'06, pounded oyster-shells and gypsum were patented, as a fertilizing mixture, by
John Fletcher. This was also a fair proposition. Oyster-shells are slightly phosphatic,
and gypsum is known to benefit many soils.

After these slight efforts, invention in this department seems to have slept during
more than a quarter of a century ; for the next manure patent on record bears date 1835.

In that year, one Pottevin patended a compost of nightsoil with calcined river or pond
mud, or other carbonaceous earth. This was a great improvement on Estienne’s proposal ;
seeing that the mud, charred by calcination, and brought to a porous, absorbent condition,
would tend to retain and partially disinfect the fertilizing matters, which Estienne’s
mode operated to volatilize or wash away.

Hence it appears that the first third of the present century produced as many manurial
inventions as the whole of the preceding century, and that the inventions produced had
improved in character and value, as well as in rate of development. Still there was little
to boast of ; and half-a-dozen projects, comprising two of moderate utility, represented
our total progress in this art (as measured by the patent records) some five-and-twenty
years ago.

Course of Early Scientific Research. — In the meantime, however, a vast store of
scientific information, tending more or less directly to the elucidation of this important
subject, had been in slow and silent course of accumulation, by the successive labours of
many eminent experimentalists.

Not to go back further than the last century, nor even than its latter half, we shall
find, concentrated in this brief period, a series of brilliant discoveries, bearing more or
less directly upon the manurial and agricultural questions, but far too numerous even for
the most cursory narration here. Space would fail us even to enumerate the names of
European celebrity that adorned this memorable epoch ; but if we had to select half-a-
dozen of the most illustrious to represent the philosophical activity, British and con¬
tinental, of the period, we "would venture to single out on the one hand, Black, Priestley,
and Cavendish : and on the other, Lavoisier, De Saussure, and Berthollet.

During the fifty years in question the nature and composition of air and water , of car¬
bonic acid and ammonia (the four main forms of volatile plant-food) were discovered,
their gaseous elements isolated, and their properties determined.

The sciences of geology and meteorology at this period also began to take shape and
form ; enabling an inside to be gained into the origin and nature of cultivable soils, and
into the climatic conditions of plant-growth.

At the same time the laws of the physical forces, particularly those of light and heat,
began to be better understood, as well in their general relations as in their special in¬
fluence on plants.

The introduction of more accurate chemical methods permitted, meanwhile, a closer

HE PORT ON THE INDUSTRY OF MANURES.

85

investigation than had before been possible of the tissues and products of plants, and of
the various transformations which those products undergo during the several stages of
vegetal development.

The sound physico-chemical principles thus established had the happiest influence on
physiological investigations. The organs of plants and of animals were studied in a
clearer light than before ; and their respiratory, assimilative, and excretory processes, to¬
gether with the relations established by those processes between the three great king¬
doms of nature, were gradually made out.

Among the many illustrious men who assisted in working out these great results,
Lavoisier probably deserves the highest place ; not, perhaps, as the largest contributor
of new truths to the accumulating store — though his contributions of this kind were
many and brilliant — but because his vivid imagination, and the eminent generalizing
powers with which he was endowed, enabled him to co-ordinate all the scattered re¬
searches of his time, and to display innumerable isolated facts in their true subserviency
to general laws ; so as (among other things) largely to extend our knowledge of the
cosmic equilibrium on which sound husbandry can alone be based. Everything, indeed,
that Lavoisier did, bore the impress of his master-mind. He it was who first applied the
Balance to the study of the phenomena of Life. He it was who first showed that, while
plants evolve oxygen, animals, on the contrary, consume it ; carbon being oxidized or
burned in their bodies as oil is burned in a lamp. His lofty tone of thought, and eloquent
language, powerfully impressed his contemporaries ; and chiefly to his influence and
example the admirable researches of his age owe their high scope and scrupulous pre¬
cision. Science never endured a severer loss than when Lavoisier met his untimely fate.
But his great spirit lived after him ; and researches bearing upon the noble themes he
had loved to treat were carried on, if possible, with increased activity after his death.
The scientific records of Europe were soon crowded with fresh masses of undigested dis¬
covery ; and in a few years such another mind as his was wanted, to grapple with the
growing mass of detail, and once more to create order out of the scientific chaos.

Early in the present century England, in her turn, produced a master-mind — that of
the illustrious Sir Humphry Davy — vast in scope and luminous in conception, as any,
the greatest, of foregone times. Davy was well fitted to wear the fallen mantle of La¬
voisier, and to continue his great work. It is, accordingly, to Davy’s genius we owe that
memorable treatise — truly described by Liebig as “ immortal ” — the ‘Elements of Agri¬
cultural Chemistry.’

In that imperishable work all the scattered results of foregone research in this branch
of science were collected and reduced to a system, -which was extended and enriched by
the author's own capital researches ; whereof, perhaps, the most signal (in this depart¬
ment of science) were his analytical investigations of soils (types of all that has since
been done in that way) ; his capital determinations of the composition and transformations
of vegetal products ; and his admirable experiments on the nutrition of plants, as well by
leaf as by root.

To the powerful impulse and just direction impressed by Lavoisier in France, and by
Davy in England, on subsequent investigations of like kind, may be ascribed in a great
measure their vigorous and successful prosecution by philosophers contemporary with
ourselves.

Of these, an encyclopaedic list cannot, of course, be given here ; and, among so many
equally illustrious names, it would be difficult to single out a few, as types to represent
the rest. Suffice it to say that to the exertions of these able men we owe a large pro¬
portion of the experimental data, on which, as on a firm foundation, the edifice of mo¬
dern agricultural science, physical, chemical, and physiological, has, so to speak, been
stone by stone built up. Honour and gratitude to those who have patientl}’ hewn out
those stones from the quarry of undiscovered truth !

But as the true value of the quarried stones is only made apparent by their judicious
collocation in the edifice, according to the plan of the architect ; so also do experimental
data, separately accumulated by the toil of many, only appear in their true value and
significance when comprehensively embraced, co-ordinated, and, as it were, fused into a
harmonious whole, by the fiery genius of one master-mind. Such a mind was Lavoisier’s in
the last century ; such a service was rendered by Davy to our fathers ; and such, to our¬
selves, are the mind and the service of Justus Liebig.

Thus have France, England, and Germany, in the course of about a century, succes¬
sively produced the three great Lawgivers of Modern Husbandry.

86

REPORT ON THE INDUSTRY OF MANURES.

It was in the year 1837 that the British Association for the Advancement of Science,
perceiving the immense accumulation of facts, for the most part unsystematized, which
had already taken place in organic chemistry, and was annually increasing therein, in¬
vited Justus Liebig, who had already attained to eminence by his extensive researches in
this branch of science, to write a report upon its then condition ; which honourable duty
the illustrious philosopher undertook.

In the year 1840, Liebig, in fulfilment of this engagement, produced his memorable
work on ‘ Organic Chemistry in its Applications to Agriculture and Physiology.’

In ordinary hands, such a report would, in all probability, have been but a compilation,
more or less compendious, of facts already known, and conceptions already proposed for
their co-ordination. But the original genius of Liebig, essentially philosophical and
constructive, impressed upon his work a very different character.

He began by sweeping away the fallacious theoretical views which were at that time
in vogue — particularly the so-called “ Humus theory,” — and replacing them by a theory
of his own, wider in scope, and more conformable with truth. With this, the so-called
“ Mineral theory,” as a general clue for his guidance, Liebig was enabled to thread the
labyrinth of intermingled facts and fallacies, which had necessarily resulted from so
many investigations, inductive and deductive, carried on for so many years, by so many
independent thinkers and experimentalists, and recorded in so many scattered memoirs.
All these he was enabled to weigh and appreciate, by the criterion of a new law, or
rather system of laws, themselves evolved during his large induction, and established (in
a great measure) by help of the very facts they served to elucidate and connect.

Profiting by the controversial criticism which his book, on its appearance, did not fail
to provoke, Liebig made it more perfect in successive editions ; and extended it by ad¬
ditional volumes, some modestly entitled ‘ Familiar Letters,’ some promulgated as codes
of Natural Law, but all forming parts of a connected series, in which, as in a mirror, is
displayed the progressive development of Liebig’s views, in the light of his own and of
contemporary researches. By these labours, pursued with unwearied industry during
upwards of twenty years, Justus Liebig has unquestionably shed upon his all-important
theme a flood of light, as copious and brilliant to the full as that which it successively
received, in former days, from the luminous minds of Lavoisier and Davy.

Indeed, of the affiliation of his labours to those of his immediate predecessor, Liebig
himself, in the dedication of his work to the British Association, speaks with becoming
humility, and justifiable pride: —

“ I have endeavoured,” he says, “ to follow the path marked out by Sir Humphry
Davy, who based his conclusions only on that which was capable of examination and
proof. This is the path of true philosophical inquiry, which promises to lead us to
truth — the proper object of our research.”

Of Liebig’s views, and of the rapid and profound revolution of opinion they brought
about, occasion will arise to speak in a subsequent page. Meanwhile, it may suffice to
remark that, amongst other things, they completely overthrew the conceptions pre¬
viously entertained as to the nature and operation of manures.

Modern History of Manures. — The impulse given by Liebig’s first book to manurial
industry is very distinctly traceable in the registry of British patents.

During the ten years which followed its publication, i. e. between 1840 and 1850, no
less than thirty-six patents for manurial processes and products were enrolled ; being six
times as many, in ten years, as had been obtained in ail preceding time since patents
were first granted.

During the next five years this manurial movement went on in an accelerating ratio ;
no less than ninety-six more patents having been registered between 1850 and 1855. The
lowering of the charge for patents, which occurred during this interval, no doubt had its
share of influence on this result.

The patent statistics since 1855 are not before the Reporter; but he is enabled to
state, in general terms, that the activity of research and invention in this department
has by no means declined during the last seven years, and that the manurial inventions
brought forward in England since 1840 may be apprcximatively estimated as numbering
at least 200.

This long series of inventions comprises plans and processes for turning to account, as
manure, almost all the known forms of animal waste and ejecta ; such as, for example,
the night-soil and sewage of towns ; the rags of woollen, silken, and leathern clothing ;

REPORT ON THE INDUSTRY OF MANURES.

87

the debris of manufactures in which horn, bone, hides, bristles, gut, and other organic
and nitrogenous materials are used ; the spent animal or bone-charcoal of the sugar re¬
fineries, and other phosphatic residua ; the ammoniacal liquors of gas-works ; the alka¬
line wash- waters of soap, dye, bleach, and many other factories : in a word, several
hundred forms of residua — nitrogenous, phosphatic, and alkaline — formerly cast away as
worthless rubbish.

These the respective patentees propose to subject to various processes, mechanical,
physical, and chemical ; such as, for example, in the case of liquors, to concentration by
boiling down, or precipitation by chemical agency ; in the case of solid residua, to crush¬
ing, grinding, or other process of comminution ; or to chemical disintegration by powerful
solvents, acid or alkaline, according to the circumstances in each case ; or to maceration
in water ; or to torrefaction by fire ; or to digestion, at low or high pressure, sometimes
in moist, sometimes in dry or superheated steam.

Several of the patents include recipes for mixing the products thus obtained with each
other, or with products of a different origin, to adapt them (as the inventors allege) for
special crops, or for peculiar soils.

Many ^of these proposals possess merit ; though a still larger number exhibit igno¬
rance on the projectors’ part ; while a certain percentage almost seem to have been con¬
cocted with a view to profit by the ignorance of others.

Superphosphate of Lime Manufacture. — First in importance, and nearly first also in
chronological order, among the manure patents enrolled since the publication of Liebig’s
book in 1840, stands the celebrated patent granted in 1842 to Mr. J. B. Lawes,* for con¬
verting tricalcic into monocalcic phosphate by means of sulphuric acid. The invention
of this process, so far as it applies to the treatment of recent bones, is not claimed by
Mr. Lawes, but belongs to Justus Liebig, who suggested it in his great work already
quoted. As this suggestion has become the foundation of the modern industry of ma¬
nures, and its authorship has been the subject of controversy, the Reporter feels bound to
record, in the foot-note below, Liebig’s own words on the subject.!

The great merit of Mr. Lawes consists, first, in his having extended the application of
sulphuric acid to phosphates of mineral origin, such as apatite, and to the fossil bone
phosphate known as coprolite ; and, secondly, in his having devised means and appli¬
ances for carrying out the manufacture on an industrial scale. Those upon whom it has
devolved to organize a new industry, and to overcome the difficulties that spring up, un¬
foreseen, at every stage of such a work, will know how to appreciate at their just value
Mr. Lawes’s services in this respect. Indeed, in his double capacity, as a manufacturer of
manures, and as an indefatigable experimentalist on their effects, Mr. Lawes merits re¬
cognition as one of the most active promoters of agriculture now living. Nor would it
be just, in such a mention, to overlook the large share of service rendered by Dr. Gilbert,
the able coadjutor of Mr. Lawes in the experimental and analytic department of his
labours.

Mr. Lawes appears to have made his first essays in the manufacture of superphosphate
in 1841-2 ; and, on the success of these experiments to have begun his great manufac¬
tory at Deptford in 1843. Many similar works have since sprung up, and the manufac¬
ture has grown to enormous magnitude. Mr. Lawes himself produces 18,000 to 20,000
tons of superphosphate annually ; and the total yearly production of superphosphate in
Great Britain is estimated by him as ranging from 150,000 to 200,000 tons.

' * Lawes (J. B.), Patent No. 9353, May 23, 1842.

f “ The form in which they [bones] are restored to a soil does not appear to be a matter
of indifference. For the more finely the bones are reduced to powder, and the more inti¬
mately that they are mixed with the soil, the more easily are they assimilated. The most
easy and practical mode of effecting their division is to pour over the bones, in a state of
fine powder, half of their weight of sulphuric acid diluted with three or four parts of water,
and after they have been digested for some time to add 100 parts of water, and sprinkle this
mixture over the field before the plough. In a few seconds, the free acids unite with the
bases contained ha the earth, and a neutral salt is formed in a very fine state of division.
Experiments instituted on a soil formed from gramvacke , for the purpose of ascertaining the
action of manure thus prepared, have distinctly shown that neither corn nor kitchen -garden
plants suffer injurious effects in consequence, but that, on the contrary, they thrive with
much more vigour.” — £ Organic Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physio¬
logy/ PP- 184-5.

88

REPORT ON THE INDUSTRY OE MANURES

Mr. Lawes has favoured the Reporter with the following interesting particulars as to
the most recent and improved mode of manufacturing superphosphate, its average com¬
position, and its present market price : —

“ The phosphatic materials are first ground to a very fine powder by mill-stones ; the
powder is then carried up by means of elevators, and discharged continuously into a long
iron cyliuder, having agitators revolving within it with great velocity. A constant
stream of sulphuric acid, of sp. gr. 1-66, enters the cylinder at the same end as the dry
powder, and the mixture flows out at the other end in the form of a thick mud, having
taken three to five minutes in passing through the machine. The quantity turned out by
such a mixing-machine is about 100 tons daily. The semi-fluid mass runs into covered
pits 10 to 12 feet deep, each of sufficient size to hold the produce of the day’s work. It
becomes tolerably solid in a few hours, but retains a high temperature for weeks, and
even months, if left undisturbed.

“ The composition of a superphosphate of good quality, made partly from mineral
phosphate and partly from ordinary bones, may be stated as follows : —

Soluble phosphate . 22 to 25

Insoluble phosphate . 8 „ 10

Water . 10 „ 12

Sulphate of lime . 35 „ 45

Organic matter . 12 „ 15

Nitrogen 0-75 to 1*5 per cent.

per cent.
??

55

“ If sufficient sulphuric acid were used to decompose the whole of the phosphate of
lime, the product would be too wet to be packed in bags, and would require either to be
mixed with extraneous substances of a dry and porous nature, or to be artificially dried.

“ The price of the best descriptions of superphosphate ranges from £5. 15s. to £6. 10s.
per ton, and of that made from purely mineral phosphate from £4 to £5. 5s. per ton.”

Of the raw materials annually worked up into superphosphate in Great Britain, Mr.
Lawes estimates that about half is derived from the deposits of fossil bone-earth, or co-
prolite, discovered of late years in several parts of England. Bone-ash, chiefly imported
from South America, animal charcoal from Germany, and bones from all parts of the
world, together supply about forty per cent, more of the raw material ; while the remain¬
ing ten per cent, of the total supply is made up by guano (chiefly of the less nitrogenous
and more phosphatic kinds) wish a little apatite (say 200 to 500 tons per annum) ob¬
tained from Spain, Norway, and America.

Importation of Manures into Great Britain. — These data alone might serve to indicate
that the industry of manures, since the impulse it received in 1840, has afforded occupation
not only to the inventive and manufacturing, but also to the commercial activity of the
English nation. But of this the origin and development of the guano trade affords
direct evidence,

The British guano trade can scarcely be said to have existed, as a regular branch of
commerce, before Liebig drew attention to the subject. Its principal importers, Messrs.
Gibbs and Sons, only began their trade in 1842, two years subsequently to the appear¬
ance of Liebig’s work, which dwelt strongly on the value of this deposit. In 1841
guano had already been tried on sixty English farms, as appears from a report published
in that year by the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society. A few such trials had,
in all probability, been made in the two or three preceding years ; seeing that several
cargoes of guano were imported and sold (at upwards of £20 per ton) by a Mr. Myers,
before Messrs. Gibbs engaged in the business. The statistics, of the entire guano trade
are not before the Reporter ; but of its development during the last twenty years some
idea may be formed from the experience of Messrs. Gibbs and Sons. That eminent firm
in the first year of their trade (1842) only imported 182 tons of guano ; in 1843 their
importations had already reached 46(17 tons ; and in 18G2, the twentieth year after their
commencement, tlieir total supplies (as well for foreign as for British consumption) had
attained to the enormous rate of 435,000 tons per annum. Of that vast total, from a
fourth to a third was retained for use in the United Kingdom. It may interest agricul¬
tural readers to know that at the outset of the regular guano trade the price ranged be¬
tween £10 and £15 per ton; that during the two years, 1846-48, it remained at £9, its
lowest point ; that during the next four years 1849-53, it advanced but slightly, to £9.

REPORT ON THE INDUSTRY OF MANURES.

89

5^.; reaching £10 in 1854 ; £11 in 1855 ; £12 in 1856; and £13, its highest recent
point, in 1857. Since that time it has slightly declined ; and now rules at about £12.*

The extraordinary success of the Peruvian guano trade led to voyages of discovery in
search of fresh deposits ; several of which have been found and extensively worked on the
islands of the West African coast and elsewhere. Nor has commercial enterprise confined
itself to guano. Nitrate of sodium, formerly valued chiefly as a substitute for saltpetre
in the sulphuric acid manufacture, has of late years come more and more largely into
use as a powerful fertilizer ; and the vast deposits of this substance successively opened
up in several parts of the South American continent are now extensively worked for the
supply of the English manure-market. As for bones and bone-ash, they have been im¬
ported by thousands of shiploads, not merely from the boundless South American pam¬
pas, — feeding-grounds and cemeteries of unnumbered herds, from immemorial time, — -
but also from populous European countries, whose soil could by no means spare them so
well, and whose fertility must have been seriously'impaired by "their withdrawal.

Good and Evil of the Trade in Manures. — The manure trade presents itself, there¬
fore, in two aspects ; the one advantageous, the other detrimental to mankind. Nothing
can be more advantageous than the collection and utilization of fertilizing residua formerly
cast away as worthless. The fossil phosphates quarried out of the bosom of the earth, and
the guano extracted (by the successive intervention of seaweeds, fishes, and penguins)
from the depths of the ocean, are evidently so much treasure fairly won from nature for
the legitimate enrichment of mankind. Even the withdrawal of recent bones and bone-
ash, from plains untenanted as yet save by wild cattle, to fertilize the corn-fields of the
populous old world, must be accounted a legitimate commerce. But the boundary line
is overpassed, and the manure trade becomes abnormal, when bones are withdrawn from
one populous country to enrich the exhausted fields of another.

Nor is the detriment thus occasioned confined to the country whose soil is impoverished.
In the closely-knit relations of modern commerce, the impoverishment of any one com¬
mercial country reacts on the prosperity of all the others, by diminishing the stock of
exchangeable wealth in the world. If Germany, for instance, grows less corn, her pur¬
chasing power for foreign goods, say French or British, is proportionately diminished, and
commerce suffers pro tanto. The gain to France or England is, therefore, but illusory, if
either robs a neighbour’s soil to fertilize her own.

In a work just published, Baron Liebig sternly rebukes England for her over-eager¬
ness to buy up, in the form of bones, the phosphatic wealth of countries less advanced
than herself in financial and industrial power, and for the apparent recklessness with
which she squanders forth these treasures (ill-gotten and ill-spent) down her innumerable
sewers to the sea. The great agricultural teacher manifests alarm at the superabundant
zeal with which the most diligent of his pupils obeys his lessons ; and to other nations
he earnestly points out the ruinous consequences that must ensue to them, from the ex¬
portation of phosphates, drawn from their soil, to stay the exhaustion of the English
fields. His cry of warning is couched in terms of almost passionate invective : —

England (he exclaims) is robbing all other countries of the conditions of their fertility.
Already, in her eagerness for bones, she has turned up the battle-fields of Leipzic, of
Waterloo* and of the Crimea; already from the catacombs of Sicily she has carried away
the skeletons of many successive generations. Annually she removes from the shores
of other countries to her own, the manurial equivalent of three millions and a half of
men ; whom she takes from us the means of supporting, and squanders down her sewers
to the sea. Like a vampire she hangs upon the neck of Europe, nay, of the entire
world, and sucks the heartblood from nations, without a thought of justice towards
them, without a shadow of lasting advantage for herself.

It is impossible (he proceeds to say) that such iniquitous interference with the Di¬
vine order of the world should escape its rightful punishment ; and this may perhaps
overtake England even sooner than the countries she robs. Most assuredly a time
awaits her, when all her riches of gold, iron, and coal will be inadequate to buy back
a thousandth part of the conditions of life, which for centuries she has wantonly
squandered away.

* The Reporter is indebted for this information to his friend Mr. J. F. Gruning.

X ‘Einleitung in die Naturgesetze des Feldbaues.’ Von Justus von Liebig. Braun¬
schweig: Vicweg und Sohn, 1863.

90

ACTION OF IODINE, ETC., UPON SUGAR.

It must be admitted that these strictures, though somewhat harsh in tone, are not
without a certain degree of truth. It may, however, be urged, on the other hand,
that they apply only to one branch, among many, of British manurial industry, and
even to that branch only partially ; for, since the British coprolite beds have been
extensively worked, they have supplied fossil phosphate at a price so low as to super¬
sede, in a great measure, the supply of recent bones, for agricultural purposes, from
continental countries. Nor do the laws of political economy permit us to doubt that
undue scarcity, artificially created, gradually raises market price, to an extent which
becomes at last prohibitory ; so that the evil provides its own corrective. Of this,
indeed, a very apposite illustration reaches the Reporter while he writes. M. Clemm-
Lennig, manufacturer, of Mannheim, informs him that English fossil phosphates are
being extensively exported to Germany ; he himself (M. Clemm-Lennig) receiving con¬
siderable supplies of this material from British ports. The balance of trade seems,
therefore, to be arriving at a just equilibrium in this matter, as indeed it always does,
if only it be left to swing freely.

(To be continued.)

ACTION OF IODINE, BROMINE, AND CHLORINE UPON SUGAR.

I do not know of any work upon chemistry,^ or of any chemist, having described the
action of iodine on sugar ; yet the changes "which take place between these two bodies
deserve being studied by scientific men.

1 have only to report a series of facts, the result of my experiments since 185G, in the
preparation of the syrup of the iodide of iron, which led me to study the action of iodine,
bromine, etc., upon sugar.

I have observed the two following facts : —

1st. The partial spontaneous decomposition of the syrup of iodide of iron by exposure
to the air is arrested at a certain point, and does not go further, even if exposed for
several months in a capsule only covered with paper.

2nd. This syrup, slightly decomposed, or even coloured by the addition of a small
quantity of iodine, becomes perfectly white after a long exposure to the sun’s rays or to
a moderate heat ; replaced in the dark, it resumes its amber colour.

However, two vials hermetically sealed, each containing the syrup of iodide of iron, one
coloured by natural decomposition, the other by the addition of a small quantity of iodine,
were exposed for a year to the sun’s rays, then both syrups were colourless, and they
remained so for more than a year, though they were left in a dark cellar, and in half-
filled bottles.

The first fact reverses the old theory of the decomposition of the syrup of iodide of iron,
which was explained by the formation of a protoxide of iron and iodohydric acid, by
means of the decomposition of the water into its two elements, and by the transformation
of the protoxide of iron into sesquioxide of iron by the oxygen of the air. Evidently,
should the decomposition of the water and of the iodide of iron operate thus, this process
should continue to that point when all the iodide of iron is decomposed ; this does not
take place. *

To explain the second fact, I asked myself what became of the free iodine? for surely
it could not combine itself with the protoiodide of iron to form a sesqui-iodide, the sesqui-
iodide of iron being red, should have remained so. We know, on the other hand, that
water dissolves hardly more than °f iodine, w'hich, after some chemists, is transformed
into iodic and hydriodic acids. The last question was, then, to know how free iodine acted
upon sugar.

To elucidate this question I made various experiments with iodine and simple syrup.
I soon found that, with a moderate and prolonged heat, this metalloid added to the syrup
was subject to a great chemical change.

One to ten grains of iodine, added to one ounce of simple syrup, in a strong bottle
closed with a glass stopper, the whole exposed in a water-bath at a moderate heat
(G0° C.), are dissolved little by little, and give the liquid a reddish-brown colour : but
after several hours, the whole being always kept at the same temperature, the syrup

See Gmelin’s Handbook, vol. xv. 252. — Ed. Am. Jour. Phann.

MISCELLANEA.

91

again becomes discoloured. The flask must be cautiously shaken from time to .time.
The whole operation occupies about forty-eight hours.

In operating with a syrup containing half a drachm of iodine to the ounce, I obtained,
with some trouble, however, a similar colourless product.

The greater the proportion of iodine, the more attention is required ; and towards the
end of the operation, care must be taken to remove the syrup as soon as it turns white.

Arrived at this point, if the preparation is left exposed to heat, it soon colours again ;
by -and-by the sugar is transformed into caramel ; and this burned sugar, quickly destroyed
in its turn, gives rise to carbonic acid, and to a blackish, light, and spongy substance,
partly soluble in water and alcohol. Treated by hydrochloric acid, potash,, etc., this sub¬
stance shows the same reactions as ulmin and ulmic acid. To carry on this operation to
the entire decomposition of the sugar, all necessary care must be taken to prevent a frac¬
ture of the flask by the expansion of carbonic acid gas, which is formed in quantities, and
can be collected.

The more the temperature is elevated, the larger is the proportion of iodine, and quicker
is the sugar decomposed.

This white syrup of iodine, or iodinized syrup, has sometimes an aroma of fruit ; it is
acid, unalterable by air, heat at 100° C. decomposes it ; it contains much glycose. Treated
with the reagents, it behaves like iodides in general.

These are the facts ; the theory remains to be given.

Does the iodine, all or in part, combine with the sugar Cj2HnOnI, or to the glycose
C12H14014I, to form iodides similar to the iodide of starch, C12H10O10I?

Or rather, in presence of sugar acting as a catalytic agent, should not iodine decom¬
pose the water into its elements, hydrogen and oxygen, and unite with them to form
hydriodic and iodic acids ? If so, these acids once formed, would decompose the sugar
precisely in the same way as the mineral and some other acids.

If not so, what are these acids, and how are they formed ? Is it from’ the decomposi¬
tion of the sugar, or of the water ?

Bromine acts upon sugar in the same manner as iodine, with the difference that the
diverse phenomena follow more rapidly.

Chlorine acts upon simple syrup still more promptly than bromine ; into water freshly
saturated with chlorine, at a very cold temperature, I have thrown sugar, and heated
the liquor as I have described for iodine. In less than half an hour the chlorine had dis¬
appeared, and the liquor was acid.

Chlorine 'was probably transformed into hydrochloric acid. — Amer. Journ. Pharm.

E. Fougera, Pharmacien , New York.

MISCELLANEA.

Poisoning by the Seeds of the Cure as Purgans (Jatropha Sluts). — x\bout
thirty boys, a short time since, had a narrow escape from being poisoned by eating
these nuts. It appears that by order of the London and North-Western Railway Com¬
pany a sale of several sacks of these nuts had taken place, and a quantity of them were
allowed to lie scattered about thd floor. The boys obtained access to them, and not only
ate the nuts, but gave some to their companions ; all the boys were taken very ill, and
some were conveyed to the General Hospital, where, by the employment of prompt treat¬
ment, they were restored. An interesting paper on the properties and uses of these nuts,
by Dr. Hamilton, will be found in this Journal, Vol. V. p. 23.

Poisoning by jDecoction of Tobacco. — On Wednesday, July 13, a lady named
Pickersgill, residing at Clapton, died from the effects of drinking half a pint of de¬
coction of tobacco, taken, it is supposed, medicinally, as she had been suffering from
illness for some time.

Suicide by Laudanum. — On Tuesday, May 10th, Mr. George Fielding, of Albion
Street, Bayswater, committed suicide by drinking laudanum. Shortly before live o’clock
he retired to his room, desiring his daughter to call him at six o’clock, having previously
expressed his intention of going to the theatre. On entering his room, Mr. Fielding was
found lying on the bed, and a bottle, which had contained laudanum, lying by his side.
Medical aid was obtained, but life was extinct.

92

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

Deaths from Chloroform. — An inquest was held on Friday, June 24th, at King's
College Hospital, on the body of Mrs. E. Ruth, aged 29, who died from the effects of the
vapour of chloroform during an operation for removing a tumour in the urethra. A
question arose as to the quantity administered to her on a former occasion, and the ab¬
sence of books of reference in such cases in the hospital. The following verdict was re¬
turned : — “ That the deceased died from the effects of the vapour of chloroform,” and the
jury expressed their opinion that proper case-books for reference should be kept in the
hospital. Another fatal case occurred at Middlesex Hospital on Tuesday, July 5th. This
was an operation for the removal of a large tumour from the face, during which the
patient died on the operating table. A third fatal case occurred at St. Mary’s Hospital,
where an inquest was held on Monday, July 18, on the body of James Birch, aged 56,
who expired while under the influence of chloroform, administered previous to an ope¬
ration for the removal of the bone of the great toe. A post-mortem examination showed
that there was extensive disease of the heart.

Poisonous Sheep Dressings. — Mr. Gamgee, in a letter to the ‘Lancet,’ July 23,
draws attention to the evils arising from the use of arsenic and mercury in sheep-dress¬
ings, and states that these, and other agents poisonous to man and animals, can be en¬
tirely superseded by products alone destructive to parasites. Mr. Gamgee states that
“ thousands of sheep, poisoned with mercurial ointment, are sold annually in the meat
markets, and cases of injury to man and animals by arsenic and mercury, direct and
indirect, are by no means uncommon,” and suggests that analyses of sheep-dips, and cases
of poisoning should be published in the ‘ Lancet,’ with the view of inducing some legis¬
lative enactment for the purpose of preventing the evils referred to.

BOOKS RECEIVED.

The Chemical Processes of the British Pharmacopoeia, and the Behaviour,
with Reagents, of tiieir Products. By Henry J. Church. London : Robert
Hardwicke, Piccadilly. 1864.

Half-Yearly Abstract of the Medical Sciences. January to June, 1864. John
Churchill and Sons, New Burlington Street.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

Mr. RastricJc, of Southsea, has called our attention- to the fact that the characters of
the two species of Sanguisuga have been transposed in the British Pharmacopoeia.

Herbarium (Lowestoft). — See ‘Pharmaceutical Journal,’ vol. v. 2nd series, p. 434 ;
Bentley’s ‘ Manual of Botany.

A Registered Apprentice (Newcastle). — Fownes’s ‘ Manual of Chemistry,’ Babington’s
‘ Manual of British Botany.’

Medical Student (London). — An abridged edition of Pereira’s ‘ Materia Medica and
Therapeutics ’ is advertised to be ready in October. It will be edited by Dr. Farre, Pro¬
fessor Bentley, and Mr. Warrington.

Chemicus (Chester). — The cost of a licence for the sale of Methylated Spirit in quan¬
tity of less than a gallon, is £2. 2s. per annum. A separate licence is not required for
the sale of Finish.

A Correspondent wishes for a good formula for making Blacking.

Mr. II. George is thanked for his communication.

Erratum. — For “ William Griffiths, Jersey,” read “ Swansea.”

Instructions from Members and Associates respecting the transmission of the
Journal before the 25th of the month, to Elias Bremridge, Secretary, 17,
Bloomsbury Square, W.C.

Advertisements (not later than the 23rd) to Messrs. Churchill, New Bur¬
lington Street. Other communications to the Editors, 17, Bloomsbury Square.

THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

SECOND SERIES.

VOL. VI.— No. III. — SEPTEMBER 1st, 18G4.

PHARMACEUTICAL RESPONSIBILITY.

The case recently decided in the Liverpool Court of Assizes, in which an ac¬
tion was brought by the representative of the late Mr. Lingard against Messrs.
Clay and Abraham, for having accidentally substituted strychnine for James's
powder in a medicine prepared at their establishment, thereby causing the death
of the patient, cannot fail to excite a deep interest among the members of our
body. This unfortunate accident has already been adverted to in our pages.
The medicine was supplied in the ordinary course of business by one of the first
dispensing establishments in Liverpool, and it was prepared by an assistant who
is admitted to have been a qualified, experienced, and careful dispenser. There
has been no imputation, in this case, of want of knowledge in those by whom
the medicine was sold, and the arrangements adopted in the house for securing
accuracy in dispensing are considered to have been unusually complete and good.
Yet even here an accident occurs by which the death of a respectable tradesman
has been caused, and the chemist is rendered liable for heavy damages. Every
dispensing chemist throughout the country must feel that the case of Messrs.
Clay and Abraham may at any time be his, for it is impossible to provide an in¬
fallible remedy against accidents of this kind.

We believe, however, that this is the first time such an action has been brought
against a chemist, and the result is calculated to occasion serious reflections upon
the responsibilities attending the practice of pharmacy. The action in this case
was founded upon a law passed in 184G, known as Lord Campbell’s Act, and
entitled “ An Act for Compensating the Families of Persons killed by Acci¬
dents.” It appears that this Act was principally intended to provide compen¬
sation to the families of persons killed by railway accidents ; but as accidents of
that particular class are not specified, the law applies to other cases of death
caused by the wrongful act, neglect, or default of some person other than the
deceased. As the Act is a very short one, and as the preamble explains the na¬
ture and object of the change it effected in the law of the land, we insert it
here verbatim. It is as follows : — ■

“ Whereas no action at law is now maintainable against a person who by his
wrongful act, neglect, or default, may have caused the death of another person, and
it is oftentimes right and expedient that the wrong-doer in such case should be
answerable in damages for the injury so caused by him : Be it therefore enacted
by the Queen’s most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of
the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assem¬
bled, and by the authority of the same, that whensoever the death of a person shall
be caused by wrongful act, neglect, or default, and the act, neglect, or delault is such
as would (if death had not ensued) have entitled the party injured to maintain an

VOL. VI. 1

94

PHARMACEUTICAL RESPONSIBILITY-.

action and recover damages in respect thereof, then and in every such case the
person who would have been liable if death had not ensued shall be liable to
an action for damages, notwithstanding the death of the person injured, and
although the death shall have been caused under such circumstances as amount
in law to felony.

“ 2. And be it enacted, that every such action shall be for the benefit of the
wife, husband, parent, and child of the person whose death shall have been so
caused, and shall be brought by and in the name of the executor or administrator
of the person deceased ; and in every such action the jury may give such damages
as they may think proportioned to the injury resulting from such death to the
parties respectively for whom and for whose benefit such action shall be brought ;
and the amount so recovered, after deducting the costs not recovered from the
defendant, shall be divided amongst the before- mentioned parties, in such shares
as the jury by their verdict shall find and direct.

“ 3. Provided always, and be it enacted, that not more than one action shall lie
for and in respect of the same subject-matter of complaint ; and that every such
action shall be commenced within twelve calendar months after the death of such
deceased person.

“ 4. And be it enacted, that in every such action the plaintiff on the record
shall be required, together with the declaration, to deliver to the defendant, or his
.attorney, a full particular of the person or persons for whom and on wdiose be¬
half such action shall be brought, and of the nature of the claim in respect of
which damages shall be sought to be recovered.

“ 5. And be it enacted, that the following words and expressions are intended
to have the meanings hereby assigned to them respectively, so far as such mean¬
ings are not excluded by the context or by the nature of the subject-matter ; that
is to say, words denoting the singular number are to be understood to apply also
to a plurality of persons or things ; and words denoting the masculine gender are
to be understood to apply also to persons of the feminine gender ; and the word
4 person ’ shall apply to bodies politic and corporate ; and the word 1 parent ’
shall include father and mother, and grandfather and grandmother, and stepfather
and stepmother ; and the word ‘ child 5 shall include son and daughter, and
grandson and granddaughter, and stepson and stepdaughter.

“ 6. And be it enacted, that this Act shall come into operation from and imme¬
diately after the passing thereof, and that nothing therein contained shall apply
to that part of the United Kingdom called Scotland.

“ 7. And be it enacted, that this Act may be amended or repealed by any Act
to be passed in this Session of Parliament.”

Previously to the passing of this law, although a person who had sustained
an injury by the act of another could recover damages from the person causing
the injury, yet in the event of the injured person dying from the effects of the
injury, his executors or administrators had no such remedy ; but a sort of fine of
the estimated value of the instrument or object by which the injury was im¬
mediately inflicted, and which was called a Deodand, was paid to the Crown.
A deodand ( Deo dandum ) is described by Sheridan as “ a thing given or for¬
feited to God for pacifying his wrath, in case of any misfortune by which any
Christian comes to a violent end without the fault of any reasonable creature.”
Thus, in the case of a railway or other accident, in which human life was
destroyed, the object, such as part of the railway train, by which the fatal
injury was inflicted, became a deodand; but the immediate relatives of the
■deceased could obtain no compensation for the loss they sustained. By Lord
Campbell’s Act, the means of recovering compensation in such cases are provided,
and in most instances in which the law has hitherto been applied, its operation
has been felt to be just and beneficial. When railway companies are called
upon to pay heavy damages for the loss of life caused by accidents on their lines,
it often happens that injuries which would otherwise be ruinous to the families
of the deceased are greatly mitigated, without any very sensible loss being in-

PHARMACEUTICAL RESPONSIBILITY.

95

fiicted upon any individuals, for the penalties imposed upon the railway com¬
panies, being spread over large constituencies, are scarcely felt by the separate
members of those corporate bodies. But it is far otherwise where individual
tradesmen incur similar penalties for acts committed in the exercise of their
legitimate occupations, and over which, possibly, they have no control.

There is no business in which the risk of such penalties is so great as it is
in that of the chemist and druggist. The pharmaceutical chemist has important
and very responsible duties to perform in supplying the public with medicines,
many of which, although valuable remedial agents when judiciously administered,
are highly dangerous and destructive to life when given in excessive doses. His
occupation, in dealing with these dangerous agents, is one in which there is a
greater liability to accidents than occurs in any other business, and yet the re¬
muneration he obtains for the onerous duties performed in the service of the
public is, in most instances, extremely small. For many years past, circum¬
stances have tended to reduce rather than augment the profits of a pharmaceu¬
tical establishment, and especially in the dispensing department. Frequent
have been the complaints of want of adequate remuneration for the toilsome,
responsible, and anxious duties of the pharmaceutist, caused partly by a change
in the nature of medical practice, and partly by an unhealthy competition, and
too great facility for men to enter the business at little cost and with limited
qualifications.

The introduction into medicine of the active principles of plants and the use
of concentrated preparations, in place of the milder medicines formerly em¬
ployed, has rendered the risk of accident greater and the profits of dispensing
less ; while a change in the law, which has been made at the same time, has
caused a new penalty to be imposed upon the ill-requited druggist for occur¬
rences which cannot be wholly obviated, and to which there must therefore be
some liability.

When it comes to be known — for we believe the fact has not until now been
realized, and probably by many of our members has not even been suspected —
that there is this new liability, — that in addition to all the other distracting cares
of his business occupations, the druggist is always subject to the occurrence of
an accident which may involve him in utter ruin, — an accident moreover which
may be the result of listlessness, or even ill-will, on the part of a paid assistant,
— great will be the depression produced in many anxious minds.

That this liability does exist there can be no doubt, for in the Liverpool case
the defendants consented to a settlement involving the payment of £1500
damages, besides heavy law expenses, on the representation of their legal ad¬
visers that the only question to be decided was as to the amount of compensa¬
tion that might be considered by a jury equivalent to the loss sustained by the
widow and children of the deceased. The Liverpool ‘ Daily Post,’ in comment¬
ing upon the case, says, — “ Counsel told them, and told them soundly, that
however excellent the regulations of their shop, however competent their ser¬
vants, however uniformly faultless the operations of their trade, they must pay
a penalty proportioned to the station and means of the victim of the accidental
error which was committed.” In this instance, the deceased having been a
plumber in a good business, the loss was estimated by mutual consent at £1500.
What might it not have been if it had happened to a barrister or civil engineer
in large practice, or to a bishop or judge ?

Messrs. Clay and Abraham will be deeply sympathized with by all their
brethren ; their case will be anxiously and painfully reflected upon by thousands
who will feel that a similar if not a heavier infliction may be impending to any
one of them.

And now, does it not behove us to consider how we can best turn this occur¬
rence to account in providing for the future ? Can anything be done to lessen

i 2

96

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

the risk of dealing with poisonous or dangerous drugs? We believe — but here
we express only an individual opinion — that not only may something be done
to lessen the risk of accidental poisoning, and thus to afford increased security
to sellers as well as purchasers of dangerous drugs, but that there is great room
for improvement upon existing arrangements, and that there is an urgent call
for prompt and energetic action with reference to this subject. We must not
be understood here to imply that the pharmaceutists or druggists of this country
are careless or inattentive to the interests of the public or of themselves. There
is no ground for such an imputation, and probably there is no country in which
the dispensers of medicine are more conscientious and anxious to fulfil their
duties in a satisfactory manner than they are in this country ; but there is a
want of concert and of uniformity of action. There are many plans and many
good plans, each thought by its author to be the best, but may there not, by
concentration of thought and combined application, be something done towards
the discovery of a system suitable for general adoption, the best that can be de¬
vised, and that which the greatest number of the wisest and most experienced
men would approve of ?

Whatever arrangements may be adopted, however, they will but lessen — they
cannot wholly obviate — the liability to accidents in dealing with poisonous
drugs. There will still be the reflection that an accidental error may entail
upon the most careful a ruinous penalty. Are there any means by which this
painful reflection may be dispelled or relieved ? It may be urged that the num¬
ber of accidents such as we refer to is very small. Hundreds of men engaged
in the same business pass through life without ever experiencing such a misfor¬
tune, yet when it does come it is grievous to bear. The reflection of having
accidentally but innocently caused the death of a fellow-creature, and the loss
of confidence which such an occurrence may occasion in the public mind, are
punishments enough to ensure the most careful attention to the arrangements
required for the public safety. May there not be something done to relieve the
individual who stands legally responsible for a fatal accident, when the most
approved precautions have been adopted, from the infliction of an unmerited
although it may be not an unjust penalty ?

BBITISH PHAEMACEUTICAL CONFEEENCE.

The time has just arrived for the first gathering of the British Pharmaceu¬
tical Conference ; we say the first gathering, because the meeting at Newcastle
last year could only be considered as preliminary, and at Bath the true business
of the Association will commence.

At Newcastle, the chief subject proposed for consideration was the desirability
of establishing an annual Conference, and although an evening was devoted to
science, the organization of the Conference was the one important business of the
year. We believe it will be proved at Bath that the promoters did not over¬
estimate the interest taken in pharmaceutical investigation throughout the
country ; and we hope by our next month’s report to be satisfied also that there
is in our body neither lack of talent to conduct such investigation, nor of public
spirit to publish individual experiences for the general good.

We learn that there are sufficient papers to be read on this occasion to give
ample occupation for the time at the disposal of the Conference (of course, care
must be taken to interfere as little as possible with the engagements of pharma¬
ceutists who are also members of the British Association) ; and glancing at the
questions “suggested” and “accepted,” scarcely one of which fails to"address

LIVERPOOL CHEMISTS’ ASSOCIATION. 97

itself to the practical pharmaceutist as well as the scientific chemist, we cannot
hut feel assured that the meeting will be a good one.

Mr. Pooley, the Local Secretary, offers his services to members of the Confer¬
ence needing accommodation during the meeting, and the hospitable example of
Newcastle will doubtless be followed at Bath.

TRANSACTIONS

OP

THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

AT A MEETING OF THE COUNCIL, 3rd August, 1864,

Present — Messrs. Bird, Deane, George Edwards, J. B. Edwards, Hanbury, Haselden,
Hills, Mackay, Morson, Orridge, Reynolds, Sandford, Savage, and Waugh,

The following were elected Members of the Society : —

Berdoe, Edward . London.

Hampson, Robert . Alderley Edge.

Willsher, Stephen H . Tenterden.

Professor Archer, of Edinburgh, was elected an Honorary and Corresponding Member.

The first Examination for Chemists and Druggists in business on their own account
was fixed for the 21st October.

The Reports of the Professors and Director of the Laboratory were read, and the
Sessional Prizes and Certificates awarded.

The Report of the Examiners on the competition for the Pereira Medal and Bell
Scholarships was read, and the awards made to the successful candidates — which will bo
duly announced at the October Meeting.

These prizes and certificates will be distributed at the Evening Meeting on the 5th
October next, when the successful competitors will be expected to attend.

BENEVOLENT FUND.

The sum of Twenty Pounds was granted to the orphan children of a late London
Member.

The following subscriptions and donation were announced as received during the
month of July : —

Aitken, William, Edinburgh ...£0 5 0

Baildon, Henry C., Edinburgh... 110
Carmichael, Lauchlan, Edinburgh 0 5 0

Gardner and Ainslie, Messrs.,

Edinburgh . 0 10 0

Kemp, David, Portobello . 0 10 0

Lindsay, Robert, Edinburgh . 0 10 0

Mackay, John, Edinburgh . 1 1 0

DONATION.

Messrs. Battlev and Watts, 32, Whitecross Street . £10 10 0

Macfarlan, John K. F., & w.,

Edinburgh . 1 1 0

Raimes, Blanshard, & Co., Edin¬
burgh . 110

Halliday, William J., Manchester 0 10 6

Orridge, Benjamin B., 30, Buck-

lersbury . 1 1 0

PROVINCIAL TRANSACTIONS.

EXCURSION OF THE LIVERPOOL CHEMISTS’ ASSOCIATION.

The annual excursion of the members and friends of the Liverpool Chemists’ Asso¬
ciation took place yesterday to St. Helen’s. As on former occasions, the trip was to a

98

LIVERPOOL CHEMISTS’ EXCURSION.

large extent of a professional character, and intended to afford an opportunity of ac¬
quiring information in regard to the application of chemistry to purposes of manufac¬
ture. Certainly the town of St. Helen’s and its neighbourhood, which was the object of the
Association’s visit, under other circumstances would have possessed no special attractions.
To go where smoke abounds and pure air may he esteemed a luxury, is scarcely conso¬
nant with rusticity ; hut as scientific inquiry was on this occasion paramount, the district
presented an extensive field. The party, numbering about forty, left the Lime Street
Station at twelve o’clock, and were conveyed by rail to St. Helen’s. Immediately on
their arrival, they proceeded upon a tour of inspection of several of the large establish¬
ments. The first establishment visited was the well-known chemical works of Mr. A.
G. Kurtz, where they were received by the manager, Mr. Duffey, who courteously con¬
ducted them through the whole of the manufactory under his charge. The works,
which are amongst the largest in the neighbourhood, cover an area of no fewer than
eight acres, and are fitted up with all the appliances that improved skill could suggest
for the speedy and successful conduct of the chemical business. At present there are
about 450 men employed, and the premises generally present a scene of great activity.
In the building known as the burning hall, where soda ash is produced from barytes,,
about 50 furnaces are in constant operation. The process of producing sulphuric acid,
in which extensive leaden cisterns are employed, is extremely interesting, as also the
formation of the soda crystals exposed in numerous iron pans. The manufacture of
muriatic acid forms, of course, an important feature in the business at these works.
Once a source of invariable annoyance to the surrounding district, it has, within the last
few years, been so simplified as to remove a great deal of the effluvia previously emitted..
By a late Act of Parliament the gas has to be condensed, and for this purpose two con¬
densing towers are erected, and are found to be highly successful. Upon leaving Mr.
Kurtz’s establishment, the party had a somewhat different treat afforded them by an
inspection of Mr. G. H. Daglish’s extensive iron foundry. The visit was an opportune
one, inasmuch as preparations were completed for the largest casting made in the works
— that of a block anvil, weighing upwards of 20 tons, for the new ironworks at Garston.
The operation of running the metal was successfully performed, and was attended with
no little interest to the spectators. A visit to the crown and sheet glassworks of Messrs.
W. and B. Pilkington formed the last item in the afternoon’s programme. Here the
party were shown the several processes employed in the manufacture of glass, which,
although familiar in principle to the visitors, were especially attractive on account of the
extensive scale whereon they are conducted. The mode of staining and enamelling the
glass, involving a vast deal of skilful manipulation, and displaying much artistic taste, was
especially interesting, and occasioned many an interesting inquiryr. Messrs. Pilkington’s
works are three in number, and employr an immense number of hands, no fewer than
2000. When the time allotted for the visit had expired, the party proceeded to Thatto
Heath, where dinner was provided at six o’clock at the Victoria Gardens. The chair was
occupied by the President of the Association, Mr. Shaw, and the vice-chair by Mr. Red-
ford, the Vice-President. A substantial dinner was provided by Mr. Whittle, the host.
The chairman gave the customary loyal and patriotic toasts, which were warmly received ;
that of “ The Army, Navy, and Volunteers” being acknowledged by Mr. Stewart. Mr.
Barley then proposed “Prosperity to the Chemists’ Association,” which, after being
drunk amidst loud applause, was responded to by the Vice-President, who said he must
congratulate them upon the fact that so many had been that day enabled to leave their
counters, for in this age of keen competition it required no small amount of moral
courage to leave the shop for a few hours. For himself, he might say that he should
take home a store of information which he hoped would be of some practical use to him.
After expressing the gratification they must feel in regard to the conduct of the pro¬
prietors of the several works for their kindness in throwing their establishments open,
remarking upon the intelligent industry collected within those manufactories, the
speaker said he thought the members might look with much pleasure upon the position
of their association. He considered that they held a very respectable place amongst
the learned societies of Liverpool. They had afforded a great deal of instruction to the
public in the past, and they had done much for the chemists of the town by advancing
them in knowledge and respectability. Though he could not say the numbers of the-
association were few, he should like to see them augmented ; for he felt sure there were
many who ought to join, and who would find it to their advantage were they to do so..

NOTES ON POISONING BY CALABAR BEANS.

99

He concluded by proposing “ The honorary members of the Chemists’ Association."
The toast having been drunk, Mr. N. Mercer gave u The health of the gentlemen whose
works had been visited — Messrs. Kurtz, Daglish, and Pilkington.” He thought the
liberality of those gentlemen was the more commendable because there were manufacturers
who had a great objection to their works being visited, especially by persons engaged in
the same trade. It had been his good fortune to visit most of the alkali works in the
district, and there was none in which such order and regularity prevailed as in that of
Mr. Kurtz. For himself he was surprised at the progress made in Mr. Daglish’s iron
foundry ; and as to the Crown Glass Company, it bore one of the greatest names in the
world. The toast was severally acknowledged by Mr. Duffey, on behalf of Mr. Kurtz ;
Mr. Young, for Mr. Daglish : and Mr. Gardner, for Messrs. Pilkington. Amongst the
remaining toasts were “ The Pharmaceutical Society,” by Mr. Wharrie ; “The town and
trade of St. Helen’s,” by Mr. John Matthews, and acknowledged by Mr Young, who pro¬
posed “ The town and trade of Liverpool,” to which Mr. Blighton replied. The party
shortly afterwards separated and returned to Liverpool, much gratified with their excur¬
sion and with the courtesy of the gentleman through whose kindness they were enabled
to make their tour of inspection.

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

The meeting for the present year will be held at Bath, — at 41, Milsom Street. It
will commence on Wednesday, the 14tli September, at 10 A.M., and be continued on
a subsequent day or days, according to the amount of business to be transacted.
Many interesting papers on pharmaceutical subjects are promised, and a large gathering
of members is expected. The presence also in the town of the members of the
British Association for the Advancement of Science, from the 13th to the 23rd of
September, will be sure to render a visit to Bath even more pleasant than usual.

Intending visitors to Bath, at the meeting in September, who will require accommo¬
dation, are requested to communicate their intention to the Local Secretary without
delay. The Committee are anxious to know what number to expect, but will only
take apartments specially if requested to do so.

John C. Pooley,

8, George Street , Hath. Local Secretary .

ORIGINAL AND EXTRACTED ARTICLES.

NOTES ON THE CASES OF POISONING BY CALABAR BEANS
IN LIVERPOOL, 10th and 11th AUGUST, 1864.

BY J. BAKER EDWARDS, PII.D., F.C.S., LECTURER ON CHEMISTRY AND MEDICAL
JURISPRUDENCE AT THE ROYAL INFIRMARY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE,

LIVERPOOL.

1. About seventy children were poisoned by eating the beans, of whom about
fifty were treated at the Southern Hospital in this town. The quantity taken
by each child was from half a bean to six beans. The nuts were cracked, and
the kernel eaten without the spermoderm.

2. The children were mostly under ten years of age, and the poison generally
produced nausea and vomiting in half an hour. The secondary symptoms,
trembling, dizziness, and loss of power in the limbs, came on within an hour of
administration. Within three-quarters of an hour to one hour after eating, the
children were brought to the hospital and at once treated with emetics. In the
one case which proved fatal, the emetics (sulphate of zinc and mustard water)
failed to act, and the child died by syncope within a quarter of an hour of his
admission. He was said to have eaten four beans.

3. The organs were found healthy, except some tuberculous disease in the
lungs. The blood was very fluid. The heart contained fluid blood and clot in

100

REPORT ON CHLOROFORM.

all the four cavities, indicating death by paralysis of the muscles of the heart.
Although there was no reddening of the coats of the intestines, there had been
purging, which had removed all faecal matter, leaving only in the intestines a
whitish semi-fluid emulsion of the seed. The bladder was perfectly empty and
contracted. There was really nothing in the post-mortem appearances to indi¬
cate the cause of death, except the peculiar contents of the intestines, and had
. these been removed by purging, there would have been nothing to distinguish
between death by this poison and death by cholera. From my chemical analysis
I should also infer that although in this instance circumstances favoured the de-
tection of the poison in the intestines after death, yet in a minimum fatal dose,
or a prolonged purging before death, nothing would be found in the body to
identify the poison or to account for death.

I am indebted to Dr. Frazer, of Edinburgh, who has investigated the subject
■with great ability, for a valuable communication during my analysis, and the
tests Nos. 3, 4, and 5 in my analysis were suggested by him.

Conclusions.

1. The bean is edible in poisonous quantities, and although slightly rough in
its flavour, does not appear to excite disgust or alarm when eaten alone, and
.would be undiscovered when mixed with food.

2. The symptoms are not always immediate, nor is vomiting induced, except
when the dose is excessive ; nor would the secondary symptoms, viz. dizziness,
faintness, and loss of power in the limbs, excite sufficient alarm to call for me¬
dical assistance until life was really in immediate danger.

3. The symptoms would scarcely be distinguished from sudden indigestion or
English cholera in time to save the life of the patient.

4. In criminal cases, nothing might be detected by autopsy or by chemical
analysis to reveal the cause of death.

5. So insidious a poison should not only be stored, but also handled with great
caution ; its alcoholic solutions or extractive, when introduced into the circula¬
tion, acting as a slow but certain poison, leaving no trace in the body which
can be identified by chemical tests in our present knowledge of the poison. #

ABSTRACT OF THE REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE ROYAL
MEDICAL AND CHIRURGICAL SOCIETY, ON CHLOROFORM.

In laying their Report before the Council of the Medical and Chirurgical Society, the
Committee on Chloroform desire to state that they have made comparatively little refer¬
ence to the medical portion of the subject. This is not due to their thinking the medical
uses of chloroform of little importance, but to the fact that but few replies to their in¬
quiries upon this point have been received.

In view of the great extent of the subject submitted to their consideration, the Com¬
mittee directed their attention to such points as appeared to them of chief practical import¬
ance. Thus their observations respecting the action of chloroform on the nervous system,
and their remarks on some other points, are less full than would have been desirable had
the Committee regarded such details as of equal importance with those specially elected
for investigation — such as its influence on the action of the heart and on respiration.

The Committee have chiefly confined their physiological report to observations which
they have themselves made. Without overlooking or neglecting the labours of former
investigators, they have endeavoured rather to furnish an accurate account of experiments
which they have observed carefully and together, and to compare the results thus ob¬
tained and agreed upon with the phenomena of cases in which death or peril of life has
arisen from the inhalation of chloroform in the human subject.

Physiological conclusions. — The sequence of the phenomena produced by chloroform
inhalation in animals is similar to that observed in man, and if the same percentage of

* For Analysis, see pp. 136-137.

REPORT ON CHLOROFORM.

101

the agent be administered, the results produced are nearly uniform. The first effect of
chloroform-vapour is to increase the force of the heart’s action ; but this effect is slight
and transient, for when complete anaesthesia is produced, the heart in all cases acts with
less than its natural force. The strongest doses of chloroform-vapour, when admitted
freely into the lungs, destroy animal life by arresting the action of the heart ; whilst by
moderate doses the heart’s action is much weakened for some time before death ensues,
respiration generally, but not invariably, ceasing before the action of the heart, death
being due both to the failure of the heart’s action and to that of the respiratory function.
The danger attending the use of chloroform increases with the degree of stupor it induces ;
the apparent irregularities in the action of the anaesthetic mainly depending on the
varying strength of the vapour employed, on the quality of the chloroform, and on the
constitution of the patient. In order that it may be administered with comparative
safety, it is necessary that the proportion of vapour should not exceed per cent. ; that
its effects should be carefully watched, and the inhalation suspended when the required
anaesthesia is induced.

In many respects the action of ether is similar to that of dilute chloroform. At first
its vapour increases the force of the heart’s action, — an effect which is both greater and
of longer duration than that observed with chloroform. The stimulation is followed by
a depression of the force of the heart’s action, but at the same degree of insensibility
ether does not depress the action of the heart to the same extent as chloroform. Even¬
tually ether kills, partly by enfeebling the action of the heart, but chiefly by arresting
the movements of respiration. Thus the energy with which chloroform acts, and the
extent to which it depresses the force of the heart’s action, render it necessary to exercise
great caution in its administration, and suggest the expediency of searching for other
less objectionable anaesthetics. Ether is slow and uncertain in its action, though it
is capable of producing the requisite insensibility, and is less dangerous in its operation
than chloroform. On the whole, however, the Committee concur in the general opinion
which in this country has led to the disuse of ether as an inconvenient anaesthetic.

A mixture of ether and chloroform is as effective as pure chloroform, and a safer agent
when deep and prolonged anaesthesia is to be induced ; though slow in its action, it is
sufficiently rapid in its operation to be convenient for general use. A mixture composed
of three parts of ether, two parts of chloroform, and one part of alcohol (by measure), is
to be preferred, on account of the uniform blending of the ether and chloroform when
combined with alcohol, and the equable escape of the constituents in vapour; and
the Committee suggest that it should be more extensively tried than it has hitherto been
in this country.

Effects of chloroform on the fauces. — The sudden administration by the mouth of
concentrated chloroform-vapour induces a spasm of the fauces, which lasts for some se¬
conds ; afterwards, when the animal has inspired, the phenomena of asphyxia are for a
time associated with those of chloroform poisoning, and death is finally induced as by di¬
lute chloroform. If, however, partial insensibility is first induced by weaker chloroform,
no spasm of the fauces eusues upon the sudden administration of the concentrated form
of the agent.

Post-mortem appearances. — Judging from the observations on animals, — the appear¬
ances in the human subject having been noticed in but few cases, and being insufficient
for yielding satisfactory conclusions, — it appears that though there may in certain cases
be an impediment to the free circulation of the blood through the lungs, yet the
appearances are very different after death has been caused by chloroform from those ob¬
served when life has been destroyed by asphyxia. In death from chloroform, all the ca¬
vities of the heart are distended, and the cases are only exceptional in which the left side
is empty. The rule, however, is alike in both, — that the cavities of the right side contain
more blood than those of the left.

Resuscitation — The most certain means of restoring life after poisoning with anaesthetics
is by artificial respiration. By this means resuscitation may generally be accomplished
after natural respiration has ceased, provided the heart continues to act, and it. may
sometimes be effected even after the cessation of the heart’s action ; but this result is ex¬
ceptional. Galvanism resuscitates within the same limits as artificial respiration ; it is,
however, far less to be relied on than artifical respiration in equal cases. With either
remedy it is found that animals quickly rendered insensible by a strong dose are more
easily recovered than those which have been gradually narcotized even by a small per¬
centage of the anaesthetic.

102

HE PORT ON CHLOROFORM.

Rules relating to the Administration of Chloroform.

The anaesthetic should on no account be given carelessly, or by the inexperienced >*
and when complete insensibility is desired, the attention of its administrator should be
exclusively confined to the duty he has undertaken.

Under no circumstances is it desirable for a person to give chloroform to himself.

It is not advisable to give an anaesthetic after a long fast, or soon after a ineal ; the
best time for its administration being three or four hours after food has been taken.

If the patient is much depressed, there is no objection to his taking a small quantity
of brandy, wine, or ammonia, before commencing the inhalation.

Provision for the free admission of air during the patient’s narcotism is absolutely ne¬
cessary.

The recumbent position of the patient is preferable ; the prone position is inconvenient
to the administrator, but entails no extra danger. In the erect or sitting posture there
is danger from syncope. Sudden elevation or turning of the body should be avoided.

An apparatus is not essential to safety, if due care be taken in giving the chloroform.
Free admixture of air with the anaesthetic is of the first importance, and, guaranteeing
this, any apparatus may be employed. If lint, or a handkerchief, or a napkin is used, it
should be folded as an open cone, or held an inch or an inch and a half from the face.

The anaesthetic should invariably be given slowly. Sudden increase of the strength of
the anaesthetic is most dangerous. Three and a half per cent, is the average amount,
and four and a half per cent, with ninety-five and a half of atmospheric air, is the maxi¬
mum of the anaesthetic which can be required. Given cautiously at first, the quantity,
within this limit, should be slowly increased according to the necessities of the case, the
administrator being guided more by its effect on the patient than by the amount exhibited.

The administrator should watch the respiration of his patient, and should keep one
hand free for careful observation of the pulse.

The patient who appears likely to vomit whilst beginning to inhale the anaesthetic
should be at once brought fully under its influence, and the tendency to sickness will
then cease.

The occurrence during the administration of an anaesthetic of sudden pallor or of sud¬
den lividity of the patient’s countenance, or sudden failure or flickering of the pulse, or
feeble or shallow respirations, indicates danger, and necessitates immediate withdrawal
of the anaesthetic until such symptoms have disappeared. On the occurrence of these
symptoms, and especially if they should become so urgent as to threaten death from
failure of respiration, of heart-action, or of both together, the following rules of treat¬
ment are to be observed : — Allow free access of fresh air ; pull forward the tongue, and
clear the mouth and fauces ; keep or place the patient recumbent ; dash cold water on
the face and chest, and aid the respiratory movements by rhythmical compression of the
thorax. In the more threatening cases artificial respiration must be commenced instantly ;
and this rule applies equally in all cases, whether the respiration has failed alone, or the
pulse and respiration together. Galvanism may be used in addition to artificial respiration,
but the artificial respiration is on no account to be delayed or suspended in order that
galvanism may be tried.

Few if any persons are unsusceptible of the influence of chloroform, from two to ten
minutes being required to induce anaesthesia. The time, however, varies with age, tempe¬
rament, and habits.

The mixture of chloroform, ether, and alcohol should be given in the same wray as
chloroform alone ; care being taken, wrhen lint or a handkerchief is used, to prevent the
too free escape of the vapour.

Use of Chloroform in Surgical Operations.

With heart disease the anaesthetic may be given in any case which requires an opera¬
tion, although when there is evidence of a fatty, weak, or dilated heart, great caution is
demanded. Valvular disease is of less importance.

In phthisis, when an operation is unavoidable, the anaesthetic may be given with im¬
punity.

For all operations upon the jaws and teeth, the lips, cheeks, and tongue, the anaesthetic
may be inhaled with ordinary safety. By care and good management the patient may
be kept under its influence to the completion of the operation. In these cases, blood, as
it escapes, if not voided by the mouth, passes into the pharynx. If any small quantity

REPORT ON CHLOROFORM.

103

finds its way through the larynx, it is readily expelled by coughing. In operations upon
the soft palate, fauces, pharynx, and posterior nares, if sudden or severe haemorrhage is
likely to occur, it is not advisable to induce deep insensibility.

In cases requiring laryngotomy and tracheotomy the anaesthetic may be employed with
safety and advantage.

For operations upon the eye, involving the contents of the globe, the use of anaesthe¬
tics is open to objection on account of the damage which the eye may sustain from mus¬
cular straining or vomiting. If employed, profound insensibility should be induced.

In operations for hernia, and in the application of the taxis, the anaesthetic acts most
beneficially. For most operations about the anus profound anaethesia is positively de¬
manded.

In the condition of shock, or of great depression, as after haemorrhage, careful admi¬
nistration of the anaesthetic diminishes the risk of an operation.

In all cases other than those specially referred to, it is sufficient to state, so far as a
mere surgical operation is concerned, that an anaesthetic may invariably be administered.

The continuous vomiting occasionally induced by, and following upon, the inhalation
of anaesthetics, may be injurious by consequent exhaustion, as well as by mechanically
disturbing the repair of a wound. With this reservation, they do not appear to interfere
with the recovery of patients from surgical operations.

Statistics. — The results of 2586 capital operations performed before, and of 1860 per¬
formed since, the introduction of anaesthetics, collected from all authentic available sources,*
prove that anaesthetics have in no degree increased the rate of mortality.

Use of Chloroform in Obstetric Practice .

(a) In natural labour. — The careful administration of chloroform during labour is not
attended with special danger, there being, either in this country or abroad, so far as is-
known to this committee, no well-authenticated instance of sudden death where it has
been given by a medical practitioner ; but the occasional occurrence of unfavourable
symptoms demands the exercise of caution during its employment. Administered in a
moderate degree, it does not, as a rule, weaken the expulsive powers, and is decidedly
beneficial in promoting dilatation of the maternal passages. It does not predispose to
puerperal convulsions or other like complications. The balance of opinion is nearly
equal as to whether it predisposes to imperfect contraction of the uterus after delivery.
As a rule, it in no way retards the convalescence of the mother ; nor has it any tendency
to interfere injuriously with the function of lactation ; nor has it any injurious influence
on the child.

( [b ) In abnormal labour. — The anaesthetic may be employed with advantage in various
obstetrical operations — as forceps, turning, craniotomy, and extraction of retained pla¬
centa, — unless the patient is much enfeebled by haemorrhage ; when, if given, it ought
to be accompanied by the use of stimulants. It may also be employed advantageously
to check the paroxysms in puerperal convulsions.

(c) As to the preference of JEther. Rules relating to the administration of chloroform. —
There are no reasons for giving preference to ether over chloroform, the latter being
much more desirable in obstetrical practice generally, the only exceptions being those
in which chloroform notably disagrees.

In addition to those given for its administration in ordinary cases, it is generally desi¬
rable to observe the following rules during its administration in labour, subject to modi¬
fications at the discretion of the practitioner: — In natural labour, begin to give it gene¬
rally at or after the termination of the first stage ; but it may be given earlier if the first
stage is unduly painful, or if the os uteri resists dilatation. Give it only during the
pains, and withdraw it in the intervals. When the foetal head bears on the perineum,
give it more freely, to promote relaxation and relieve the increased pain. Withdraw the
chloroform immediately after the child is expelled. If the patient is depressed or the
pains are sluggish during its administration, an occasional stimulant may be administered.
In cases where it seems to interfere with the progress of labour it may be necessary to
suspend its use for a time, and reapply it after an interval, or even to withdraw it alto¬
gether. In turning and instrumental deliveries deep anaesthesia must be induced, as in
surgical operations, and the administration should then be entrusted to a competent per¬
son, whose sole duty should be to attend to it. In midwifery a special inhaler for its ad-

* Appendix D to the Report, p. 149.

104

REPORT ON CHLOROFORM.

ministration is not generally necessary or desirable, a handkerchief or towel, so folded as
to prevent blistering of the face and to allow free admixture of atmospheric air, being
sufficient for the purpose.

(c/) Use of chloroform in diseases of women and children. — In the treatment of diseases
of women, chloroform may be employed to facilitate and lessen the pain of certain exa¬
minations. In cases of spurious pregnancy and phantom tumours, by relaxing the ab¬
dominal parieties, it may assist in demonstrating their true characters ; and acting in the
same way, it may help the practitioner to define more accurately the character and rela¬
tions of other abdominal and pelvic tumours, or to detect feigned disease.

As a therapeutic agent, its inhalation, and external application in the form of a lini¬
ment, may be usefully employed to allay pain in some cases of severe dysmenorrhcea,
neuralgia, and the like.

There is accumulated testimony in favour of chloroform inhalation proving serviceable
in various spasmodic diseases of women and children, as 'whooping-cough complicated
with convulsions, spasmodic croup, epileptic seizures, and some other forms of convulsion
in children ; hysterical convulsions, epilepsy, and various muscular contractions in women.

The President expressed in warm terms the obligations the Society were under to the
committee for their able and laborious Report.

Mr. Curling regretted that so much time had elapsed since the committee had been
formed. But, as would appear when the paper and the appendix were published, much
more work had been done than would be thought from the part of the abstract which
had been read. There had been a division of labour into three chief departments — phy¬
siological, surgical, and obstetrical. But the most work had been done by the first sec¬
tion — the physiological. This section had had seventy meetings, and had performed
very many careful experiments. When all this was taken into consideration the Fellows
would not be surprised that the Report had been delayed. The committee wished to ac¬
knowledge the support afforded by many Fellows of the Society and by the profession
generally. Mr. Curling said that he must allude more pointedly to the labours of the
reporters, Mr. Sibley and Mr. Callender. These gentlemen had attended all the meetings
of the committee, and it was, after hearing the Report, scarcely necessary to express any
opinion as to the great zeal, devotion, and intelligence they had displayed.

Dr. Kidd said a great debt of gratitude was due to Mr. Curling and the Physiological
Committee for their incessant labours ; yet he could not help thinking the great chloro¬
form question at present was, as to its safety or use, a question of practical or empirical
observation in hospitals, rather than a question of physiology. Nobody denied that very
large doses killed animals. We had similar experiments in vast number in books, but
the deaths in practice in the human subject are from idiosyncrasy (from which the lower
animals are free), from errors of administration, emotion, fright, in the convulsive or pre¬
liminary stage before deep anaesthesia at all, deaths from the spasm of the glottis, apncea,
almost always in trivial operations, like tooth-drawing, rather than in the half-hour’s
deep narcotism of large operations. Physiological experiments, such as dropping chlo¬
roform on the heart of a frog, or throwing it into the peritoneum, are fallacious ; the ex¬
periment kills, but not the chloroform. Then, as to “ mixtures ” of anaesthetics, they
have been used extensively in Austria and France, even by order of Government. The
ether was found to be first inhaled, then the chloroform, and the spirit of wine remains
behind and has to be squeezed out : they tend towards mystery and are cumbersome.
The best part of the Report is as to the value of electro-magnetism in resuscitation ; but
it is an error that the little magnet-box is not accessible in hospitals. It is equivalent to
saying saving life is not important. The midwifery portion of the Report does not offer
much that is new, and so of the general surgery part ; but both are good. But as to the
use of chloroform in medicine it is deficient, as this agent is most valuable in asthma, pain
of gall-stones, tetanus, convulsions of children, whooping-cough, and a dozen other affec¬
tions. There is at surgical operations now less arterial but more venous blood than for¬
merly: even vomiting will fill a wound with blood (secondary). Chloroform is safe in
what is termed shock or collapse. This is the “ law of tolerance” so well described by
Miller ; but surgeons do not read of empirical rules so much as physiological experiments.
The speaker fully agreed as to the great value of artificial respiration in accidents, but
that was best set up by the electro-magnetism box, as now extensively tried. It is true
also that resuscitation is more difficult in ether accident cases than from chloroform.

Dr. Hyde Salter said a point had been overlooked, but on wrhich it was not possible for

REPORT ON CHLOROFORM.

105

the committee to have investigated in so short a time as they had taken for their Report.
It was as to the effect on the human constitution of chloroform administered for months
or for years. He offered this as a suggestion for further investigation. Dr. Salter then
related the case of a gentleman who for three years had taken chloroform nearly every
night. The effects were somewhat like those of alcohol — general loss of nervous power,
insomnia, and vomiting in the morning. The chloroform was taken for asthma, and
sometimes as much as three ounces was inhaled in one night. The effect was most dis¬
tressing ; the patient lost appetite, became morose, and was unable to sleep. He for
one month was able to avoid it, and the improvement was most marked ; he got to
sleep earlier and earlier every night. This, however, the patient ascribed to Indian hemp,
which he took at the time ; but on taking the chloroform again, he again had insomnia,
and Indian hemp failed to help him. The vomiting in the morning was like that of
drunkards. Dr. Salter considered that in other respecfs the effects would be found to
resemble those of alcohol.

Mr. Savory asked under what circumstances and to what extent, in collapse from in¬
juries or from haemorrhage, chloroform might be administered. It was true that it
would tend to diminish shock ; but it would, on the other hand, be likely to render the
pulse almost imperceptible. It was a point of great interest that chloroform tended to
reduce the temperature, even, as some experiments showed, seven or eight degrees. In
collapse, too, the temperature was diminished ; and hence, if chloroform were given, there
would be two conditions tending to the same result.

Dr. C. J. B. Williams said there could be but one opinion as to the great debt the So¬
ciety owed to the committee, — a debt which the Society was scarcely able fully to appre¬
ciate until the publication of the Report. One important point was, however, settled, —
that chloroform depressed the action of the heart. This was an important result, as it
had been much disputed. It accorded with the results of experiments he himself had
performed ; and the histories of cases of death from chloroform all converged to the same
point. This in itself helped to suggest methods of counteracting the effect of too large
a dose. One obvious method was to add ether and alcohol to the chloroform. But there
was no reason why alcohol, ammonia, or any other stimulant, should not be given by the
mouth. Oxygen had been suggested, and had, it was said, been used in America with
success ; and it was not improbable that chloroform and oxygen might form a useful and
safe combination. One class of ansesthetics had not been alluded to — namely, nitrous
oxide. From his own observations some years ago, it appeared to be not so depressing,
and it was safe. But there were difficulties in procuring it, and in applying it. Dr.
Williams then alluded to the effect of chloroform on the blood, and asked what researches
the committee had made in this part of the subject.

Dr. Kidd observed that two deaths were published this year from nitrous oxide used as
an anaesthetic, so that it is not free from accident, as Dr. Williams might have supposed.
As to the use of a little brandy or ammonia before administration, the plan was a good
one, and always adopted by himself. Then as to the blood, it was perfectly known, from
hundreds of experiments, that chloroform does not disturb its character at all. But it
was not so with ether ; here the corpuscles are destroyed, and the ether was so dissolved
in the blood that it had been distilled over and over again from the blood of an animal
deeply narcotized by it. Crystals were of less moment in blood long drawn. Forty-one
deaths from ether had been published in America, and nineteen by Trousseau in France.
It seemed paradoxical that chloroform administered in small doses should be dangerous.
But it was small doses which produced convulsive vomiting ; and so death in hospitals
began as a sort of spasm or convulsive irritation of the fauces and glottis, while the pa¬
tient was half conscious, not in deep coma ; with a sort of reflex or tetanic rigidity of
the respiratory muscles: the heart still beating actively, till overpowered or engorged at
the right side. Hence the great value of artificial respiration. The breathing, in fact,
stopped ; and yet the patient did not inhale the large percentages given to animals, the
chloroform at boiling-point in balloons, etc. It seemed paradoxical to deny physiological
experiments, but we did not prevent glaucoma or ague by physiology, but rather by em¬
pirical rules ; so was it with regard to chloroform and prevention of accidents. Oxygen,
too, had been tried, but found wanting : the blood was not deoxygenized, at least by
chloroform. Anaesthesia was like hybernation. The blood would not take up pure
oxygen. In a case at a Borough hospital where oxygen was accurately tried, it proved
useless. There was a fear that students trusted too much to a complex apparatus. They

106

ON BOILING WATER.

did not detect the danger early enough. To them “mixtures” like those of the new
Pharmacopoeia, would be a sort of mitigation of danger, — a kind of drag to the wheel of
anesthetic progress. Nor did the heart first stand still, as supposed by some ; it was a
popular error. While as to nitrous oxide, and even ether, they were both now given up
in America, where they had been extensively administered.

Dr. Wynn Williams recommended that in collapse from chloroform warm port- wine
should be injected by an O’Beirne’s tube. He had tried this in collapses from other
causes, and had found it to act energetically. It seemed, he thought, by increasing the
warmth and by giving a stimulant at the same time, to meet Mr. Savory’s remarks.

Dr. Ballard objected to that part of the Report in which the use of chloroform in the
convulsion of children was recommended. He was satisfied that it had no beneficial
effect, and asked if its use had been recommended after a trial in cases.

Mr. Curling said it was not recommended that chloroform should be given until reac¬
tion set in after injuries, but then it acted beneficially in the operation by diminishing
shock. In reply to Dr. Ballard, he said that the recommendations of the committee were
based on a series of facts, and after a large experience.

Dr. Harley said the action of chloroform on the corpuscles was but slight, but if ether
were added, it dissolved the walls of the corpuscles. It had been long observed by Dr.
Japkson, of New York, that chloroform produced fonnic acid in the system ; but it was
impossible to trace the changes. If blood were shaken up with ether, it would sometimes
crystallize. Diseased blood would also sometimes crystallize spontaneously, while blood
after slow death from chloroform, when shaken up with ether, always became like a mass
of crystals.

(Dr. Harley then introduced to the notice of the Society an inhaler sent to him by
Dr. Skinner, of Liverpool, and also an ingenious apparatus, invented by Dr. Squire, for
measuring accurately the percentage of chloroform.)

Dr. Pearson said he was surprised to find that chloroform was more feared here than
in Edinburgh, where it was invented. In Edinburgh apparatus was altogether disregarded.
He felt certain that it was safer to give chloroform without an.inhaler than with one.

Dr. Hyde Salter said that chloroform might be given so as to prevent pain and yet
not produce insensibility ; for this he could vouch, as he had experienced it himself. If,
then, it could be discovered how to do this, it would not only lessen the risk, but would
-diminish the fear of the use of the drug.

Dr. Wright said that the inhaler had been used a year in Mr. Spencer Wells’s ova->
riotomy operations, but it was liable to the objection that a good deal of the chloroform
escaped, and thus affected the bystanders.

Mr. Birkett, one of the honorary secretaries, said that it had been impossible for him to
read the whole of the abstract, but he had only omitted those parts which the reporters
had agreed should be omitted. — Lancet , July 16, 1864.

ON BOILING WATER.

A Lecture delivered at the Royal Institution.

BY W. R. GROVE, ESQ., Q.C., F.R.S., M.R.I.

A paper by M. Donny (‘ Memoires de l’Acade'mie Royale de Bruxelles,’ 1843) makes
known the fact, that in proportion as water is deprived of air, the character of its ebulli¬
tion changes, becoming more and more abrupt, and boiling like sulphuric acid with sou-
bresauts , and that between each burst of vapour the water reaches a temperature above
its boiling point. To effect this, it is necessary that the water be boiled in a tube with
a narrow orifice, through vrhich the vapour issues ; if it be boiled in an open vessel, it
continually reabsorbs air and boils in the ordinary way.

In my experiments on the decomposition of water by heat, I found that with the oxy-
hydrogen gas given off from ignited platinum plunged into water, there was always a
greater or less quantity of nitrogen mixed. This I could never entirely get rid of, and I
was thus led into a more careful examination of the phenomenon of boiling water, and
set before myself this problem, — what will be the effect of heat on water perfectly de¬
prived of air or gas ?

Twro copper wires were placed parallel to each other through the neck of a Florence
flask, so as nearly to touch the bottom ; joining the lower ends of these was a fine plati-

ON BOILING WATER.

107

num wire, about 1J inch long, and bent horizontally into a curve. Distilled water,
which had been well boiled and cooled under the receiver of an air-pump, was poured
into this flask so as to fill about one-fourth of its capacity. It was then placed under
the receiver of an air-pump, and one of the copper wires brought in contact with a me¬
tallic plate covering the receiver, the other bent backwards over the neck of the flask,
and its end made to rest on the pump-plate. By this means, when the terminal wires
from a voltaic battery were made to touch, the one the upper and the other the lower
plate, the platinum wire would be heated, and the boiling continued indefinitely in the
vacuum of a very excellent air-pump. The effect was very curious; the water did not
boil in the ordinary manner, but at intervals a burst of vapour took place, dashing the
water against the sides of the flask, some escaping into the receiver. (There was a pro¬
jection at the central orifice of the pump-plate to prevent this overflow getting into the
exhausting tube.)

After each sudden burst of vapour, the water became perfectly tranquil, without a
symptom of ebullition until the next burst took place. These sudden bursts occurred
at measured intervals, so nearly equal in time, that, had it not been for the escape
from the flask, at each burst, of a certain portion of water, the apparatus might have
served as a timepiece.

This experiment, though instructive, did not definitely answer the question I had pro¬
posed, as I could not of course ascertain whether there was some minute residuum of
gas which would form the nucleus for each ebullition ; and I proceeded with others. A
tube of glass, 5 feet long and T%ths inch internal diameter, was bent into a V shape ;
into one end a loop of platinum wire was hermetically sealed with great care, and the
portion of it in the interior of the tube was platinized. When the tube had been well
washed, distilled water, which had been purged of air as before, was poured into it to
the depth of 8 inches, and the rest of the tube filled with olive oil ; when the V was
inverted, the open end of the tube was placed in a vessel of olive oil, so that there would
be 8 inches of water resting on the platinum wire, separated from the external air by
a column of 4 feet 4 inches of oil. The projecting extremities of the platinum wire
were now connected with the terminals of a voltaic battery and the water heated ; some
air was freed and ascended to the level of the tube — this was made to escape by care¬
fully inverting the tube so as not to let the oil mix with the water — and the experiment
continued. After a certain time the boiling assumed a uniform character, not by such
sudden bursts as in the Florence-flask experiment, but with larger and more distinct
bursts of ebullition than in its first boiling.

The object of platinizing the wire was to present more points for the ebullition, and
to prevent soubresauts as much as possible.

The experiment was continued for many hours, and in some repetitions of it for days.
After the boiling had assumed a uniform character, the progress of the vapour was
carefully watched, and as each burst of vapour condensed in the oil, which was kept
cool, it left a minute bead of gas, which ascended through the oil to the bend of the
tube : a bubble was formed here which did not seem at all absorbed by the oil. This
was analysed by a eudiometer, which I will presently describe, and proved to be nitrogen.
The beads of gas, when viewed through a lens and micrometer scale at the same height
in the tube, appeared as nearly as may be of the same size. No bubble of vapour was
condensed completely, or without leaving this residual bubble. The experiment was
frequently repeated, and continued until the water was so nearly boiled away, that the
oil, when disturbed by the boiling, nearly touched the platinum wire ; here it was neces¬
sarily stopped.

To avoid any question about the boiling being by electrical means, similar experiments
were made with a tube, without a platinum wire, closed at its extremity, and the boiling
was produced by a spirit-lamp. The effects were the same, but the experiment .was
more difficult and imperfect, as the bursts of vapour were more sudden, and the duration
•of the intervals more irregular.

The beads of gas were extremely minute, just visible to the naked eye, but were made
visible to the audience by means of the electric lamp.

In these experiments there was no pure boiling of water, i. e. no rupture of cohesion
of the molecules of water itself, but the water was boiled, to use M. Donny's expression,
by evaporation against a surface of gas.

It is hardly conceivable that air could penetrate through such a column of oil, the

108

ON BOILING WATER.

more so as the oil did not perceptibly absorb the nitrogen freed by the boiling water and
resting in the bend of the tube ; but to meet this conjectural difficulty, the following
experiment was made : — A tube, 1 foot long and ^-yths inch internal diameter, bent into
a slight angle, had a bulb of f-inch diameter blown on it at the angle ; this angle was
about 3 inches from one end and 9 from the other ; a loop of platinum wire was sealed
into the shorter leg, and the whole tube and bulb filled with and immersed into mer¬
cury ; water, distilled and purged of air as before, was allowed to fill the short leg, and
by carefully adjusting the inclination, the water could be boiled so as to allow bubbles
to ascend into the bulb and displace the mercury. The effect was the same as with the
oil experiment, no ebullition without leaving a bead of gas ; the gas collected in the
bulb, and was cut off by what may be termed a valve of mercury, from the boiling
water, then allowed to escape, and so on; the experiment was continued for many
days, and the bubbles analysed from time to time ; they proved, as before, to be nitro¬
gen ; and, as before, continued indefinitely.

A similar experiment was made without the platinum wire, and though, from the
greater difficulties, the experiment was not so satisfactory, the result was the same.

As the mercury of the common barometer will keep air out of its vacuum for years,
if not for centuries, there could be no absorption here from the external atmosphere, and
I think I am fairly entitled to conclude from the above experiments — which I believe
went far beyond any that have been recorded — that no one has yet seen the phenomenon
of pure water boiling, — i. e. of the disruption of the liquid particles of the oxy-hydrogen
compound so as to produce vapour which will, when condensed, become water, leaving
no permanent gas. Possibly, in my experiment of the decomposition of water by ig¬
nited platinum, it may be that the sudden application of intense heat, and in some
quantity, so forces asunder the molecules that, not having sufficient nitrogen dissolved
to supply them with a nucleus for evaporation, the integral molecules are severed, and
decomposition takes place. If this be so, and it seems to me by no means a far-fetched
theory, there is probably no such thing as boiling, properly so called, and the effect of
heat on liquids in which there is no dissolved gas may be to decompose them.

Considerations such as these led me to try the effect of boiling on an elementary liquid,
and bromine occurred as the most promising one to work upon ; as bromine could not be
boiled in contact with water, oil, or mercury, the following plan was ultimately devised: —
A tube, 4 feet long and T4<yths inch diameter, had a platinum hoop sealed into one closed
extremity ; bromine was poured into the tube to the height of 4 inches ; the open end
of the tube was then drawn out to a fine point by the blowpipe, leaving a small orifice ;
the bromine was then heated by a spirit-lamp ; and when all the air was expelled, and a
jet of bromine vapour issued from the point of the tube, it was sealed by the blow-pipe.
There was then, when the bromine vapour had condensed, a vacuum in the tube above
the bromine. The platinum loop was now heated by a voltaic battery, and the bromine
boiled : this was continued for some time, care being taken that the boiling should not
he too violent. At the end of a certain period — from half an hour to an hour — the
platinum loop gave way, being corroded by the bromine ; the quantity of this had
slightly decreased. On breaking off, under water, the point of the tube, the water
mounted and showed a notable quantity of permanent gas, which on analysis proved to
be pure oxygen. As much as a quarter of a cubic inch was collected at one experiment.
The platinum wire, which had severed at the middle, was covered with a slight black
crust, which, suspecting to be carbon, I ignited by a voltaic spark in oxygen in a small
tube over lime-water ; it seemed to give a slight opalescence to the liquid, but the quan¬
tity was so small that the experiment was not to be relied on. No definite change was
perceptible in the bromine ; it seemed to be a little darker in colour and had a few black
specks floating in it, which I judged to be minute portions of the same crust which had
formed on the platinum wire, and which had become detached.

The experiment was repeated with chloride of iodine and with the same result, except
that the quantity of oxygen was greater : I collected as much as half a cubic inch in
some experiments, from an equal quantity of chloride of iodine ; the platinum wire, how¬
ever, was more quickly acted on than with the bromine, and the glass of the tube around
it to some extent.

Melted phosphorus was exposed to the heat of the voltaic disruptive discharge by
taking this between platinum points in a tube of phosphorus, similarly to an experiment
of Davy’s, but with better means of experimenting ; a considerable quantity of phos-

ON BOILING W ATE It. 109

phuretted hydrogen was given off, amounting in several experiments to more than a
cubic inch.

A similar experiment was made with melted sulphur, and sulphuretted hydrogen was
given off, but not in such quantities as the phosphuretted hydrogen. I tried in vain to
carry on these experiments beyond a certain point ; the substance became pasty, mixed
with platinum from the arc, and from the difficulty of working with the same freedom
as when they were fresh, the glass tubes were always broken after a certain time. Had
I time for working on the subject now, I should use the discharge from the Ruhmkorf
coil, which had not been invented at the period of these experiments. At a subsequent
period, when this discharge was taken in the vacuous receiver of an air-pump from a
metallic point to a metallic capsule containing phosphorus, a considerable yellow deposit
lined the receiver, which, on testing, turned out to be allotropic phosphorus. No gas is,
however, given off. I had an air-pump (described Phil. Trans., 1852, p. 101) which
enabled me to detect very small quantities of gas, but I could get none. It was in ma¬
king these experiments that I first detected the striae in the electric discharge, which have
since become a subject of such interesting observations, which are seen, perhaps, more
beautifully in this phosphorus vapour than in any other medium, and which cease, or
become very feeble, where the allotropic phosphorus is not produced.

I tried also phosphorus highly heated by a burning-glass in an atmosphere of nitro¬
gen, but could eliminate no perceptible quantity of gas, though the phosphorus was
changed into the allotropic form.

It is not difficult to understand why gas is not perceptibly eliminated in the last two
experiments; the effect is probably similar to that described in my paper on the “De¬
composition of Water by Heat,” where, when the arc or electric spark is taken in aqueous
vapour, a minute bubble of oxyhydrogen gas is freed and disseminated through the va¬
pour, recombination being probably prevented by this dilution ; but, however long the
experiment may be continued, no increased quantity of the gas is obtained, all beyond this
minute quantity being recombined. If, however, the bubble of gas be collected, by al¬
lowing the vapour to cool, and then expelled, a fresh portion is decomposed, and so on.

So with the phosphorus in the experiments in the air-pump and with the burning-
glass; if any gas is liberated it is probably immediately recombined with the phosphorus ;
possibly a minute residuum might escape recombination, but the circumstances of the ex¬
periment did not admit of this being collected, as the gas was with the aqueous vapour.

When, on the other hand, the gas freed is immediately cut off from the source of heat,
as when the spark is taken in liquids, an indefinite quantity can be obtained.

Decomposition and the elimination of gas may thus take place by the application of in¬
tense heat to a point in a liquid, or also in gas or vapours ; but, in the latter case, it is more
likely to be masked by the quantity of gas or vapour through which it is disseminated.

I believe there are very few gases in which some alteration does not take place by the
application of the intense heat of the voltaic arc or electric spark. If the arc be taken
between platinum points in dry oxygen gas over mercury, the gas diminishes indefinitely,
until the mercury rises, and by reaching the point where the arc takes place, puts an end
to the experiment. I have caused as much as a cubic inch of oxygen to disappear by
this means. I at one time thought this was due to the oxidation of the platinum ; but
the high heat renders this improbable, and the deposit fonned on the interior of the
glass tube in which the experiment is made has all the properties of platinum-black ; so
if the spark from a Ruhmkorf coil be taken in the vapour of water for several days, a
portion of gas is frped which is pure hydrogen, the oxygen freed being probably changed
into ozone, and dissolved by the water in this case, while in the former it combined with
the mercury.

I have alluded to the eudiometer by which I analysed the gases obtained in these ex¬
periments ; it was formed simply of a tube of glass, frequently not above 2 ^ millimetres
in diameter, with a loop of wire hermetically sealed into one end, the other having an
open bell-mouth. By a platinum wire a small bubble of the gas to be examined could
be got up through Avater or mercury into the closed end of the tube, and by the addition
of a bubble of oxygen or hydrogen gas, a very accurate analysis of very minute
quantities of gas could be made : I have analysed by this means quantities no larger
than a partridge-shot.

I need hardly allude to results on the compound liquids, such as oils and hydrocarbons,
as the fact that permanent gas is given off in boiling such liquids Avould not be unex-

VOL. VI. K

110

ON BOILING WATER.

pected ; but the above experiments seem to show that boiling is by no means necessarily
the phenomenon that has generally been supposed, viz. a separation of cohesion in the
molecules of a liquid from distension by heat. I believe, from the close investigation I
made into the subject, that (except with the metals, on which there is no evidence) no
one has seen the phenomenon of pure boiling without permanent gas being freed, and
that what is ordinarily termed boiling arises from the extrication of a bubble of perma¬
nent gas either by chemical decomposition of the liquid,- or by the separation of some
gas associated in minute quantity with the liquid, and from which human means have
hitherto failed to purge it ; this bubble once extricated, the vapour of the liquid expands
it, or, to use the appropriate phrase of M. Donny, the liquid evaporates against the sur*
face of the gas.

My experiments are, in a certain sense, the complement of his. He showed that
the temperature of the boiling point was raised in some proportion as water was de¬
prived of air, and that under such circumstances the boiling took place by soubresauts.
I have, I trust, shown that when the vapour liberated by boiling is allowed to condense,
it does not altogether collapse into a liquid, but leaves a residual bubble of permanent
gas, and that at a certain point this evolution becomes uniform.

Boiling, then, is not the result of merely raising a liquid to a given temperature, it
is something much more complex.

One might suppose that with a compound liquid the initial bubble by which evapora¬
tion is enabled to take place might, if all foreign gas were or could be extracted, be
formed by decomposition of the liquid ; but this could not be the case with an elemen¬
tary liquid ; whence the oxygen from bromine or the hydrogen from phosphorus and
sulphur ? As with the nitrogen in water, it may be that a minute portion of oxygen,
hydrogen, or of water, is inseparable from these substances, and that if boiled away to
absolute dryness, a minute portion of gas would be left for each ebullition.

With water there seems a point at which the temperature of ebullition and the quan¬
tity of nitrogen yielded become uniform, though the latter is excessively minute.

The circumstances of the experiments with bromine, phosphorus, and sulphur, did not
permit me to push the experiment so far as was done with water, but as far as it went
the result was similar.

When an intense heat, such as that from the electric spark or voltaic arc, is applied
to permanent gas, there are, in the greater number of cases, signs either of chemical de¬
composition or of molecular change ; thus compound gases, such as hydrocarbons, am¬
monia, the oxides of nitrogen, and many others, are decomposed. Phosphorus in vapour
is changed to allotropic phosphorus, oxygen to ozone, which, according to present ex¬
perience, may he viewed as allotropic oxygen. There may be many cases where, as with
aqueous vapour, a small portion only is decomposed, and this may be so masked by
the volume of undecomposed gas as to escape detection ; if, for instance, the vapour of
water were incondensable, the fact that a portion of it is decomposed by the electric
spark or ignited platinum would not have been observed.

All these facts show that the effect of intense heat applied to liquids and gases is
much less simple, and presents greater interest to the chemist, than has generally been
supposed. In far the greater number of cases, possibly in all, it is not mere expansion
into vapour which is produced by intense heat, but there is a chemical or molecular
change. Had circumstances permitted I should have carried these experiments further,
and endeavoured to find an experimentum crucis on the subject. There are difficulties
with such substances as bromine, phosphorus, etc., arising from their action on the sub¬
stances used to contain and heat them, which are not easy to vanquish, and those who
may feel inclined to repeat my experiments will find these difficulties greater than they
appear in narration ; but I do not think they are insuperable, and hope that, in the
hands of those who are fortunate enough to have time at their disposal, they may be
overcome.

To completely isolate a substance from the surrounding air, and yet be able to experi¬
ment on it, is far more difficult than is generally supposed. The air-pump is but a rude
mode for such experiments as are here detailed.

Caoutchouc joints are out of the question ; even platinum wires carefully sealed into
glass, though, as far as I have been able to observe, forming a joint which will not allow
gas to pass, yet it is one through which liquids will effect a passage, at all events
when the wires are repeatedly heated.

GUN-COTTON.

Ill

In some experiments with the ignited platinum-wire hermetically sealed into a tube
of glass, the end of the tube containing the platinum wire was placed in a larger tube
of oil, to lessen the risk of cracking the glass. After some days’ experimenting, though
the sealing remained perfect, a slight portion of carbon was found in the interior liquid.
Tliis does not affect the results of my experiments, as I repeated them with glass tubes
closed at the end and without platinum wires, and also without the oil-bath ; but it
shows how difficult it is to exclude sources of error. When water has been deprived of
air to the greatest practicable extent, it becomes very avid for air. The following ex¬
periment is an instance of this:— A single pair of the gas-battery, the liquid in which
was cut off from the external air by a greased glass stopper, having one tube filled with
water, the other with hydrogen, the platinized platinum plates in each of these tubes
were connected with a galvanometer, and a deflection took place from the reaction of
the hydrogen on the air dissolved in the water. After a time the deflection abated, and
the needle returned to zero, all the oxygen of the air having become combined with the
hydrogen. If now the stopper were taken out, a deflection of the galvanometric needle
immediately took place, showing that the arr rapidly enters the water, as water would
a sponge. Absolute chemical purity in the ingredients is a matter, for refined experi¬
ments, almost unattainable ; the more delicate the test, the more some minute residual
product is detected ; it would seem (to put the proposition in a somewhat exaggerated
form) that in nature everything is to be found in anything if we carefully look for it.

I have indicated the above sources of error to show the close pursuit that is necessary
when looking for these minute residual phenomena. Enough has, I trust, been shown
in the above experiments to lead to the conclusion that, hitherto, simple boiling, in
the sense of a liquid being expanded by heat into its vapour without being decomposed
or having permanent gas eliminated from it, is a thing unknown. Whether such boiling
can take place may be regarded as an open question, though I incline to think it can¬
not ; that if water, for instance, could be absolutely deprived of nitrogen, it would not
boil until some portion of it was decomposed ; that the physical severance of the mole¬
cules by heat is also a chemical severance. If there be anything in this theoretic view,
there is great promise of important results on elementary liquids, if the difficulties to
which I have alluded can be got over.

The constant appearance of nitrogen in water, when boiled off out of contact with
the air almost to the last drop, is a matter well worthy of investigation. I will not
speculate on what possible chemical connection there may be between air and water ;
the preponderance of these two substances on the surface of our planet, and the proba¬
bility that nitrogen is not the inert diluent in respiration that is generally supposed,
might give rise to not irrational conjectures on some unknown bond between air and
water. But it would be rash to announce any theory on such a subject ; better to
test any guess one may make, by experiment, than to mislead by theory without suffi¬
cient data, or to lessen the value of facts by connecting them with erroneous hypotheses.

GUN-COTTON.

BY JOHN SCOTT RUSSELL, C.E., F.R.S.

The elements are proverbially good servants, but bad masters — Eire, water, wind, and
steam are fierce demons when they get the upper hand ; yet what would civilization be,
wanting the fire of the kitchen, the smith’s hearth, and the foundry ; how should we be,
without seas to carry our boats or rivers to turn our mills ? Commerce and merchandise
are mainly conducted by the wind and the sails of our merchantmen ; and steam clothes
us, and carries us from city to farm, and from island to continent ; yet the earthquake,
the volcano, the conflagration, the torrent, the storm, the hurricane, and the explosion
— what are they but servants become masters ?

It is peculiarly true of steam and gunpowder that they are among the most useful
and most dangerous of human inventions ; but danger in both is generally admitted to
be a matter merely of skill and care. No one proposes to put down railways because a
locomotive explodes, or to give up shooting because a gun has burst, or a gunpowder
manufactory blown up.

Gun-cotton is a new power coming under the same category as steam and gunpowder.
It is highly dangerous to those who do not possess the necessary knowledge and skill ;

K 2

112

GUN-COTTON.

but, like them, it enormously extends human power, and, like them, the skill to use it
can be rightly and certainly acquired.

The object of this paper is to extend the knowledge and skill of my countrymen in
the use of this new power. It is, I believe, of far more value to England than to any
other nation in the world. It is, in my opinion, a power capable of being extensively
used for a multitude of purposes yet unheard of ; and I believe it will play an important
part in the destinies of England.

The first question we naturally ask on the introduction of a new power is, what are
to be its advantages over existing powers and processes ? In regard to gun-cotton, we
at once ask, therefore, what are its advantages over gunpowder ? Is it stronger ? Is it
more convenient ? Is it cheaper ? Why should we give up gunpowder and take to
gun-cotton? The answers to these questions categorically will best introduce it to the
English reader.

I. Is gun-cotton stronger than gunpowder? The answer to this is, Yes, sixfold
stronger.

By this we mean that if we take a given weight of gun-cotton, say four ounces, if we
bore a hole 1| inch in diameter and 3 feet deep, into hard rock or slate, in a quarry, and
put 4 ounces of gun-cotton into it, it will occupy about 1 foot of its length, and the
aperture being closed in the usual manner, and a matchline led from the charge to the
proper distance from which to fire it ; and if we next take 24 ounces of best gunpowder,
bore a similar hole, and charge it similarly with gunpowder, and close it in the same
way ; it has been found that, on these being exploded, the 4 ounces of gun-cotton have
produced greater effect, in separating the rock into pieces, than the 24 ounces of gun¬
powder. The answer is, therefore, that in disruptive explosion the strength of gun¬
cotton is sixfold that of good gunpowder.

But the disruptive or bursting power of gunpowder is not always the quality for
which we value it most, nor the service we require of it. In mining rocks, in exploding
shells, in blowing up fortresses, this property is what we value, and this work is what
we require. But we do not want to burst our fowling-pieces, our rifles, our cannon. On
the contrary, we want to use a force that shall project the projectile out of the gun
without bursting the gun, without straining the gun beyond a given moderate limit,
which it shall be able to endure. We want therefore a service from gun-cotton which
shall be the contrary of destructive to, or disruptive of, the chamber in which it does
ihe work of giving motion to the projectile.

This moderated and modified work, gun-cotton can also perform ; and it is the modern
discovery of General Lenk which has enabled us to moderate and modify gun-cotton
to this gentler service. lie discovered how to organize, arrange, and dispose mecha¬
nically of gun-cotton in such a way that it should be three times stronger than gun¬
powder. Accordingly, one of his charges of gun-cotton, weighing 16 ounces, projected
a 12-pound solid round shot with a speed of 1426 feet a second, while a charge of
gunpowder of 49 ounces gave the same shot a speed of 1400 feet a second. One-third
of the weight of gun-cotton exceeded, therefore, the threefold weight of gunpowder in
useful effect.

II. Is gun-cotton more convenient than gunpowder? This is a larger and more
various question than the former, and divides itself into various subdivisions.

It is well known to sportsmen, to soldiers, to artillery-men, that gunpowder fouls a
gun. A foul residue of soot, sulphur, and potash soils the inside of the gun after every
charge. The gun must, somehow, be cleaned after a discharge ; if not, it fires worse, re¬
coils more, and ceases to do its best. If the gun be a breech-loading gun, its mechanism
is dirted, and works less easily. Gun-cotton deposits no residue, leaves the gun clean
and clear, and the utmost it does is to leave a gentle dew of clear water on the inside of
the bore, this water being the condensed steam which forms one of the products of its
decomposition. Gun-cotton is, therefore, superior to gunpowder in not fouling the gun,
• — a result favourable both to quicker and more accurate firing.

It is further a matter of no slight convenience that gun-cotton makes no smoke. In
mines the smoke of gunpowder makes the air unbreathable, and for some time after ex¬
plosion the miners cannot return to their work. In boring the great tunnel of Mont
Genis through the Alps, the delay from smoke of powder alone will postpone the open¬
ing of the line for many months. After a properly-conducted explosion of gun-cotton,
the workmen may proceed in their work at once without inconvenience.

GUN-COTTON.

113

In casemates of fortresses, gunpowder fills the casemates with foul smoke, and the
men speedily sink under the exertion of quick firing. By using gun-cotton it was
ascertained that the men could continue their work unharmed for double the quantity of
firing. This is partly attributed to the greater heat, and partly to the foulness of the
air produced by gunpowder.

But it is under the decks of our men-of-war that greatest benefit is likely to arise from
gun-cotton. Not only does the smoke of a broadside fill the between decks with hot
and foul air, but the smoke of the windward gun blinds the sight, and hinders the aim
of the leeward. When there is no smoke, as with gun-cotton, the aim of every gun may
be precise and deliberate. The diminished heat between decks will also tell powerfully
in favour of gun-cotton. In our armour-plated ships also there is more value in breech¬
loading guns than in any other use of artillery. It is one of the necessities of breech -
loading mechanism, that it be kept clean, and nothing tends more to derange its perfect
action than the greater heat which gunpowder imparts to the gun from which it is fired.

That gun-cotton has the convenience of not heating the gun has been thus proved : —
100 rounds were fired in 34 minutes with gun-cotton, and the temperature of the gun
was raised 90°. 100 rounds were fired with gunpowder, and triple the time allowed to

bool the gun, which nevertheless was heated so much as to evaporate water with a hiss¬
ing sound, which indicated that its temperature was much above 212°. Under these
circumstances the firing with gunpowder had to be stopped, while that with gun-cotton
was comfortably continued to 180 rounds.

It is also a matter of practical convenience that gun-cotton, insomuch as it is lighter,
can be carried more easily and farther than gunpowder ; and it may be wetted without
danger, so that when dried again in the open air, it is as good for use as before.

III. We have now to ask — is it cheaper ? The answer to this question must be qua¬
lified — pound for pound it is dearer; we must therefore judge of its cheapness by its
effect, not by weight merely. But where it does six times as much work, it can then be
used at six times the price per pound and still be as cheap as gunpowder. As far as we
yet know, the prices of gun-cotton and gunpowder are nearly equal, and it is only there¬
fore where the one has advantages and conveniences beyond the other, and is more
especially suited for some specific purpose, that it will have the preference. Effective
cheapness will therefore depend mainly on which of the two does best the particular
kind of duty required of it.

To illustrate how curiously these two powers, gun-cotton and gunpowder, differ in
their nature, and how the action of gun-cotton may be changed by mechanical arrange¬
ments, we may take one kind of work that is required of both : — If a General want to
blow open the gates of a city, he orders an enterprising party to steal up to the gate,
with a bag containing 100 lbs. of gunpowder, which he nails to the gate, and by a pro¬
per match-line he fires the gunpowder and bursts open the gate. If he nailed a bag of
gun-cotton of equal weight in the same place and fired it, the gun-cotton would fail,
and the gate would be uninjured, although the 100 lbs. of gun-cotton is sixfold more
powerful than the gunpowder. Here, then, gunpowder has the advantage — both weight
and effect considered.

But the fault here lies not in the gun-cotton, but the way of using it. If instead
of 100 lbs. of gun-cotton in a bag, 25 lbs. had been taken in a proper box made for this
purpose, and simply laid down near the gate, and not even nailed to it, this 25 lbs.
would shiver the gate into splinters. The bag which suits the powder happens not to
suit the gun-cotton.

Gun-cotton is therefore a power of a totally different nature from gunpowder, and re¬
quires complete study to know its nature and understand its use. It appears that both
gunpowder and gun-cotton have special qualities, and may be peculiarly suited for pecu¬
liar uses. It is the duty of a wise people to make use of both to the ends they each
suit best, without prejudice arising from the accident of novelty or antiquity.

The nature of gun-cotton requires a double study, chemical and mechanical. It is
not like steam, the same substance, whether in the form of ice or water or steam. It is
one substance when as gun-cotton it enters the gun, and quite a different one when it
has exploded and leaves the gun. Not only are the solids which enter converted into
gas, but they form totally new combinations and substances. So that the marvellous
changes which the chemist effects by the magic of his art take place in an instant of
time, and during that almost inconceivably minute period of time, in a laboratory in-

114

GUN-COTTON.

tensely heated, old substances are dissolved, their material atoms are redistributed, each
atom released selects by natural affinity a new partner, these new unions are cemented,
and at the end of this prolific instant totally new combinations of matter, forming what
we call new substances, issue from the gun. It so happens that of these new substances,
formed out of gun-cotton, all are pure transparent gases, while in the case of gunpow¬
der there remain 68 per cent, of solid residue, and only 32 per cent, are pure gases.

It is to chemistry, however, that we must look for full and authentic information as
to these wonderful changes ; first, from the innocent, gentle cotton-wool in which our
wives and daughters wrap their jewels for soft keeping, into the terrible and irresistible
compound of nitric acid and cotton fibre which forms tri-nitro-cellulose, the chemical
name of gun-cotton. Chemistry must also tell us how tri-nitro-cellulose is to be turned
by heat into transparent explosive gases of such tremendous power.

In short, chemistry has to supply us with the new material, and it is to the science of
mechanics that we must look for inventions, of the best way to manipulate and apply it
to use for doing the practical work we set it to, in the most effectual, convenient, and
economical way.

The chemistry of gun-cotton is therefore the first part of our study of this power, and
the mechanics of gun-cotton forms the second.

I. The Chemistry of Gun-Cotton.*

Although gun-cotton was discovered eighteen years ago by one of the first chemists of
Ihe day, Professor Schonbein, and researches on its nature and preparation were almost
immediately instituted in this country by Porrett, Teschemacher, Taylor, Gladstone, and
others, no accurate knowledge of the true constitution and chemical nature of this im¬
portant material was obtained until Hadow, an English chemist, published in 1854 the
result of some valuable investigations by which the mode of formation and composition
of gun-cotton were conclusively established.

Cotton, or cellulose as it is termed by chemists, is built up of a certain number of
atoms of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. Chemistry is scarcely yet able to point out
how these atoms are probably arranged ; but there appears to be no doubt that some of
the elementary particles are so intimately connected with the very existence of cotton,
that they cannot be displaced or removed without destroying the very existence of the
substance ; whilst other atoms, on the contrary, are more loosely held together, and are
gifted with a certain mobility which enables them to be taken out altogether without
materially altering the outward physical character of the cotton, provided the spaces
which these atoms would leave vacant are immediately filled up by certain other atoms.
Now, without entering into the details of chemical formulae, which would neither inter¬
est our readers nor render our meaning more intelligible, we may briefly say that, in
ordinary cotton, three atoms of the hydrogen (of which there are ten altogether) are in
this loose state of combination, and may be removed and their places filled up by a com¬
pound atom of hyponitric acid , without so far altering the character of the substance as
to render the name of cotton inapplicable to it. It may be just mentioned in passing,
that it is not necessary that the whole three atoms of hydrogen should be taken out and
their places filled up by hyponitric acid ; only one or two of them may be so replaced,
but as these are inferior for explosive purposes (although of great use to photographers,
inasmuch as when dissolved in ether they form collodion), we need only direct our atten¬
tion to the compound with the highest displacement. From its explosiveness and con¬
sequent similarity to gun -powder, this has been called gun- cotton. In scientific lan¬
guage, following the excellent custom adopted by chemists in the nomenclature of or¬
ganic compounds, a name has been given to it which fully expresses its composition :
cellulose being the scientific name for cotton, and the prefix nilro being added when any
of the hydrogen in an organic compound is replaced by hyponitric acid (by no means an
uncommon occurrence in organic chemistry), chemists call the product in this instance
tri-nitro-cellulose , signifying that it is cellulose, in which three equivalents of the hydro¬
gen are replaced by nitrous acid. It is also sometimes called pyroxylin , under the im¬
pression, we suppose, that by translating a useful English term into barbarous Greek it
becomes scientific. This system of pseudo-scientific nomenclature is, unfortunately, too

* For this portion of my paper I am indebted to the kinduess of Mr. Wra, Crookes, F.R.S.

GUN-COTTON.

115

common. If an expressive, convenient, but empirical name be desired, by all means let
us have the common English name in popular use. If, on the other hand, a scientific
term be required, let us, in the name of all that is scientific, build up this name accord¬
ing to the orthodox rules of science ; but we protest against a name like pyroxylin, which
leads to nothing but the inference that science is not indigenous to the soil of England.

Most European governments have attempted to utilize gun-cotton in warfare. Soon
after its discovery, Messrs. Hall, the well-known gunpowder makers at Faversham, com¬
menced its manufacture upon a considerable scale ; their factory had, however, not been
long in operation before a very disastrous explosion occurred, by which a number of men
lost their lives, and this was ascribed to the spontaneous ignition of the gun-cotton : the
manufacture was therefore abandoned in England.

As early as the winter of 1846 a French manufactory was established at the Govern¬
ment powder- works at Bouchet, near Paris, and much valuable information was obtained
respecting the comparative value of gun-cotton and gunpowder; but three disastrous
explosions occurring within a year (one taking place in a magazine near which it was
believed that no one had been for several days) put a stop, until quite recently, to fur¬
ther experiments.

In Austria, experiments were likewise instituted, and although the committee of the
German Confederation pronounced unfavourably upon it, one of the members, General
Lenk, devoted himself assiduously to its study, and with such success that the Austrian
Government were induced to reconsider their adverse determination. The manufacture
was commenced upon a large scale, and above forty batteries of guns were furnished
with this agent, and successfully used. The complete supersession of gunpowder by
gun-cotton was considered certain, when an explosion, which took place at the Austrian
gun-cotton magazines at Limering, again put a stop (to some extent) to its use in artil¬
lery. Another Austrian committee, however, reported so favourably on its value, sta¬
bility, and non-liability to spontaneous explosion, that gun-cotton was again restored to
favour.

The very favourable accounts respecting the value of gun-cotton for warlike purposes,
which were from time to time received by our government, led to experiments on a con¬
siderable scale in this country. The manufacture of this agent is now in full operation
both at the Government powder- works at Waltham Abbey, and also at a large private
manufactory at Stowmarket.

The great danger in tbe case of the early gun-cotton was its liability to spontaneous
explosion, and whilst there remained the slightest suspicion of such a possibility, its em¬
ployment for war puposes was out of the question. The investigations of General Lenk
have shown that this accident is due to imperfect preparation, and that by adopting the
precautions which he has pointed out, its spontaneous ignition is impossible. It has
been very clearly established that the lower nitro-compounds of cellulose, — that is, cotton
in which only one or two atoms of hydrogen are replaced by hyponitric acid, are much
more easily decomposed than the compound in which the replacement has proceeded to
its fullest extent. Tri-nitro-cellulose, or true gun-cotton, is a remarkably stable com¬
pound under all possible atmospheric conditions ; but it is by no means easy to ensure the
complete conversion of cotton into this body, and it has been shown to be in the highest
degree probable that the explosions which put a stop to the early attempts at utilizing
gun-cotton were due to its incomplete conversion. The directions given by Schonbein,
although successful on the small scale, fail when tried with large quantities, and to
General Lenk is due the credit of devising a process of manufacture which gives an abso¬
lutely uniform and true chemical compound when working on the largest scale. Ordi¬
nary gun-cotton is generally made by saturating cotton-wool with a mixture of one part
of concentrated nitric acid and three parts of oil of vitriol, and allowing the mixture to
stand at rest for one hour; it is then thoroughly washed and allowed to dry in the air.
This process is tolerably successful when only about half-an-ounce of cotton is treated at
one time, but it is found to be ineffectual in making a uniform and safe material for war
purposes. The most important of the precautions recommended by General Lenk are,
the cleansing and perfect desiccation of the cotton as a preliminary to its immersion in
the acids ; the employment of the strongest acids obtainable in commerce ; the steeping
of the cotton in a strong mixture of acids after its first immersion and its partial conver¬
sion into gun-cotton ; the continuance of the steeping for forty-eight hours ; and the
thorough purification of the gun-cotton so produced from every trace of free acid : this

116

GUN-COTTON.

is secured by its being washed in a stream of water for several weeks. Subsequently a
weak solution of potash may be used, but this is not essential. The prolonged continu¬
ance of these processes, which would appear superfluous at first sight, is really essential,
when we consider that each cotton fibre is a long, narrow tube, often twisted and even
doubled up, and the acid has first to penetrate into the very farthest depths of these
tubes, and has afterwards to be soaked out of them. Hence the necessity of time.

It appears that gun-cotton, prepared in this manner, is a true chemical compound, and
is not liable to the objections which have been urged against that mixture of compounds
which has been usually employed in experiments. The advantages which it possesses
may be classed as follows : —

1. It is of uniform composition, and thus the force of the gases generated on explosion
may be accurately estimated.

2. It will not ignite till raised to a temperature of 300° F. (as a rule, the temperature
must be raised much higher). This is considerably lower than the igniting point of
gunpowder, but, being much above the heat of boiling water, it can only occur when
artificially produced by means which would render gunpowder itself liable to ignition.

3. It is almost absolutely free from ash when exploded under pressure in a confined
space.

4. It has a very marked superiority in stability over other forms of gun-cotton, having
been kept unaltered for fifteen years.

One great advantage which gun-cotton possesses over gunpowder, and which ought
to have considerable weight in any discussion of their comparative uses for national pur¬
poses, is, that gun-cotton is unaffected by water. Gunpowder in a damp atmosphere
will soon be completely spoiled, and it cannot afterwards be restored to a serviceable
condition without being again submitted to the processes of manufacture, starting al¬
most from the commencement. Gun-cotton, on the contrary, although it gets damp in
a moist atmosphere, rapidly returns to its ordinary state when exposed to air of average
dryness. Complete immersion in water for an indefinite period has no injurious action
on it, for when afterwards dried by exposure to the air, it is as good as ever. The ab¬
solute safety which this property would confer upon the magazines of forts and ships
cannot be too highly urged ; the explosive material could be kept permanently in tanks
full of water, in which case a lighted candle or even a red-hot shot would be a harmless
visitant. When required for action, a centrifugal drying-machine and a hot- water closet
would supply the combatants with any quantity at a few hours’ notice.

When gun-cotton is ignited in a close vessel, such as a shell or the chamber of a gun,
it is at once converted into certain gases, the principal being carbonic oxide, carbonic
acid, nitrogen, light carburetted hydrogen, hydrogen, and steam. The introduction of
the hyponitric acid, a compound containing a large excess of oxygen, gives to the cotton
a sufficient amount of this gas to reduce it completely to the state of vapour ; but al¬
though only gases are produced, there is not enough oxygen for their complete com¬
bustion. About 40 per cent, are inflammable, and produce a bright flash when they
emerge into the air from the mouth of the gun.

II. — The Mechanics oe Gun-Cotton.

The mechanical application of gun-cotton may be considered to be due exclusively to
Major-General Lenk, of the Austrian service. Pure gun-cotton becomes either a power¬
ful explosive agent, or a docile performer of mechanical duty, not according to any
change in its composition, or variation in its elements or their proportions, but according
to the mechanical structure which is given to it, or the mechanical arrangements
of which it is made a part. It was General Lenk who discovered that structure was
quality, and mechanical arrangement the measure of power, in gun-cotton ; and
in his hands, a given quantity of the same cotton becomes a mild, harmless, ineffec¬
tual firework, a terrible, irresistible, explosive agent, or a pliable, powerful, obedient
workman.

The first form which General Lenk bestowed on gun-cotton was that of a continuous
yarn or spun thread. Gunpowder is carefully made into round grains of a specific size.
Gun-cotton is simply a long thread cf cotton fibre, systematically spun into a yarn of
given weight per yard, of given tension, of given specific weight. A hank of a given
length is reeled, just like a hank of cotton-yarn to be made into cloth, and in this state
gun-cotton yarn is bought and sold like any other article of commerc?.

GUN-COTTON.

117

This cotton-yarn converted into gun-cotton may be called, therefore, the raw material
of commerce. In this form it is not at all explosive in the common sense of the word.
You may set fire to a hank of it, and it will burn rapidly with a large flame ; but if you
yourself keep out of the reach of the flame, and keep other combustibles beyond reach,
no harm will happen, and no explosion or concussion will result. If you lay a long
thread of it round your garden- walk at night, disposing it in a waving line with large
balls of gun-cotton thread at intervals, and light one end of the thread, it will form a
beautiful firework, the slow lambent flame creeping along with a will-o’-th’-wisp-looking
light, only with a measured speed of 6 inches per second, or 30 feet a minute ; the
wind hastening it or retarding it as it blows with or against the line of the thread. This
is the best way to commence an acquaintance with this interesting agent.

Care must be taken not to become too familiar with gun-cotton even in this harmless
and playful guise ; cotton dresses will readily catch fire from it, and it should not be
treated with less care to keep fire from it than gunpowder. In one respect it is less
liable to cause danger than gunpowder. Grains of powder are easily dropped through a
crevice, and may be sprinkled about in a scarcely noticeable form ; but a hank of gun¬
cotton is a unit, which hangs together and cannot strew itself about by accident.

The second form of gun-cotton is an arrangement compounded out of the elementary
yarn. It resembles the plaited cover of a riding- whip ; it is plaited round a core or
centre which is hollow. In this form it is match-line, and, although formed merely of
the yarn plaited into a round hollow cord, this mechanical arrangement has at once con¬
ferred on it the quality of speed. Instead of travelling as before only 6 inches a second,
it now travels 6 feet a second.

The third step in mechanical arrangement is to enclose this cord in a close outer skin
or coating, made generally of India-rubber cloth, and in this shape it forms a kind of
match-line, that will carry fire at a speed of from 20 to 30 feet per second.

It is not easy to gather from these changes what is the cause which so completely
changes the nature of the raw cotton by mechanical arrangement alone. Why a straight
cotton thread should burn with a slow creeping motion when laid out straight, and with
a rapid one when wound round in a cord, and again much faster when closed in from the
air, is far from obvious at first sight ; but the facts being so, deserve mature conside¬
ration.

The cartridge of a common rifle in gun-cotton is nothing more than a piece of match¬
line in the second form enclosed in a stout paper- tube, to prevent it being rammed down
like powder. The ramming down, which is essential to the effective action of gunpow¬
der, is fatal to that of gun-cotton. To get useful work out of a gun-cotton rifle, the shot
must on no account be rammed down, but simply transferred to its place. Air left in a
gunpowder barrel is often supposed to burst the gun; in a gun-cotton barrel, it only
mitigates the effect of the charge. The object of enclosing the gun-cotton charge in a
hard strong pasteboard cartridge, is to keep the cotton from compression and give it
room to do its work.

It is a fourth discovery of General Lenk, that to enable gun-cotton to perforin its
work in artillery practice, the one thing to be done is to “ give it room.” Don’t press it
together — don’t cram it into small bulk ; give it at least as much room as gunpowder in
the gun, even though there be only one-third or one-fourth of the quantity (measured
by weight). 1 lb. of gun-cotton will carry a shot as far as 3 or 4 lbs. of gunpowder ;
but that pound should have at least a space of 160 cubic inches in which to work.

This law rules the practical application of gun-cotton to artillery. A cartridge must
not be compact, it must be spread out or expanded to the full room it requires. For
this purpose, a hollow space is preserved in the centre of the cartridge by some means or
other. The best means is to use a hollow thin wooden tube to form a core ; this tube
should be as long as to leave a sufficient space behind the shot for the gun-cotton. On
this long core the simple cotton yarn is wound round like thread on a bobbin, and
sufficiently thick to fill the chamber of the gun ; indeed, a lady’s bobbin of cotton
thread is the innocent type of the most destructive power of modern times— only the
wood in the bobbin must be small in quantity in proportion to the gun-cotton in the
charge. There is no other precaution requisite except to enclose the whole in the usual
flannel bag.

The artillerist who uses gun-cotton has therefore a tolerably simple task to perform if
he merely wants gun-cotton to do the duty of gunpowder. He has only to occupy the

118

GUN-COTTON.

same space as the gunpowder with one-fourth of the weight of gun-cotton made up in
the bobbin as described, and he will fire the same shot at the same speed. This is
speaking in a general way, for it may require in some guns as much as | of the weight
of gunpowder and -fi the bulk of charge to do the same work ; a little experience will
settle the exact point, and greater experience may enable the gun-cotton to exceed the
performance of the gunpowder in every way.

The fifth principle in the use of gun-cotton is that involved in its application to
bursting uses. The miner wants the stratum of coal torn from its bed, or the fragment
of ore riven from its lair ; the civil engineer wishes to remove a mountain of stone out
of the way of a locomotive engine ; and the military engineer to drive his way into the
fortress of an enemy, or to destroy the obstacles purposely laid in his way. This is a
new phase of duty for gun-cotton — it is the work of direct destruction. In artillery
you do not want to destroy directly, but indirectly. You don’t want to burst your gun,
nor even to injure it; and, we have seen, in order to secure this, you have only to give
it room.

The fifth principle therefore is, to make it destructive — to cause it to shatter every¬
thing to pieces which it touches, and for this purpose you have only to deprive it of
room. Give it room, and it is obedient ; imprison it, and it rebels. Shut up without
room, there is nothing tough enough or strong enough to stand against it.

To carry this into effect, the densest kind of gun-cotton must be used. It must no
longer consist of fine threads or hollow textures wound on roomy cores. All you have
to do is to make it dense, solid, hard. Twist it, squeeze it, ram it, compress it ; and in¬
sert this hard, dense cotton-rope or cylinder or cake in a hole in a rock, or the drift of a
tunnel, or the bore of a mine ; close it up, and it will shatter it to pieces. In a recent
experiment, G ounces of this material set to wrork in a tunnel not only brought down
masses which powder had failed to work, but shook the ground under the feet of the
engineers in a way never done by the heaviest charges of powder.

To make gun-cotton formidable and destructive, squeeze it and close it up ; to make
it gentle, slow, and manageable, ease it and give it room. To^make gunpowTder slow
and gentle, you do just the contrary : you cake, condense, and harden it to make it slow,
safe for guns, and effective.

To carry out this principle successfully, you have to carry it even to the extreme.
Ask gun-cotton to separate a rock already half-separated, it will refuse to comply with
your request. Give it a light burden of earth and open rock to lift, it will fail. If you
want it to do the work, you must invent a ruse, — you must make believe that the work
is hard, and it will be done. Invent a difficulty and put it between the cotton and its
too easy work, and it will do it. The device is amazingly successful. If the cotton have
work to do that is light and easy, you provide it with a strong box, which is bard to
burst, — a box of iron for example ; close a small charge, that would be harmless, in a little
iron box, and then place that box in the hole where formerly the charge exploded harm¬
less, and in the effort it makes to burst that box, the whole of the light work w'ill dis¬
appear before it.

Of the effect of such an explosion, an illustration accompanies this paper. The two
drawings represent two views of a stockade, in close contiguity to which a charge of
25 lbs. of gun-cotton, placed in an iron box, was employed, and the consequences will be
seen in the two rent and shattered trees, the largest 20 inches in diameter, which were
not only removed from their places, but by some unexplained action shattered through¬
out into matchwood. This explosion was the first trial of English-made gun-cotton,
and wras made at Stowmarket, in spring.

It is, therefore, the nature of gun-cotton to rise to the occasion and to exert force
exactly in proportion to the obstacle it encounters. For destructive shells this quality
is of the highest value. You can make your shell so strong that nothing can resist its
entrance, and when arrived at its destination no shell can prevent its gun-cotton charge
from shivering it to fragments.

These are the main principles in the mechanical manipulation of gun-cotton which
will probably render it for the future so formidable an instrument of war. Resistances
too great for gunpowder only suffice to elicit the powers of gun-cotton. On the other
hand, in its elementary state, as the open cotton-yarn, it is playful, slow, gentle, and
obedient ; there is scarcely any mechanical drudgery you can require of it that it is not
as ready and fit to do as steam, or gas, or water, or other elementary power.

ON LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC STUDIES,

119

la conclusion, I may be asked to say as a mechanic what I tliink can be the nature
and source of this amazing power of gun-cotton. In reply, let me ask, Who shall say
what takes place in that pregnant instant of time when a spark of fire enters the charge,
and one-hundredth part of a second of time suffices to set millions of material atoms
loose from fast ties of former affinity, and leaves them free every one to elect his mate,
and uniting in a new bond of affinity, to come out of that chamber a series of new-born
substances ? Who shall tell me all that happens then ? I will not dare to describe the
phenomena of that pregnant instant. But I will say this, that it is an instant of in¬
tense heat, — one of its new-born children is a large volume of steam and water. When
that intense heat and that red-hot steam were united in the chamber of that gun and
that mine, two powers were met whose union no matter yet contrived has been strong
enough to compress and confine. When I say that a gun-cotton gun is a steam-gun,
and when I say that at that instant of intense heat, the atoms of water and the atoms of
fire are in contact atom to atom, it is hard to believe that it should not give rise to an
explosion infinitely stronger than any case of the generation of steam by filtering the
heat leisurely through the metal skins of any high-pressure boiler. — Quarterly Journal
of Science.

ON LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC STUDIES IN CONNECTION WITH

MEDICINE.

BY J. H. BALFOUR, M.A., M.D., PROFESSOR OF MEDICINE AND BOTANY,

The following passages are extracted from Professor Balfour’s Opening Lecture of the
Course of Botany at the Edinburgh University, in May last : — Natural Science, in all its
departments, has now become an important part of education, not merely on account of
its connection with professional studies, but also from its value in mental training. It
exerts a most beneficial influence on the observant faculties ; it calls the perceptive powers
into action ; it teaches the student to note the resemblances and differences among ob¬
jects ; it promotes the formation of orderly and systematic habits ; and it enforces ac¬
curacy, both of observation and of expression. It also benefits the mind by investing
the objects around us with a new interest, and it supplies healthy and cheerful occupa¬
tion at all times.

The value of natural history as an educational science consists mainly in its teaching
the student to observe truly and to note accurately. The prosecution of it ought not to
be confined to any one profession, such as that of medicine. It should, to a certain ex¬
tent, constitute a part of a liberal education. Why should not a portion of the summer
be devoted to this subject by those who have been prosecuting their literary studies du¬
ring the winter mouths, and whose long vacation might thus be in part profitably em¬
ployed in preparing the way for their future professional career ? Such an arrangement
would, in my opinion, be much better than attempting to extend the curriculum of arts
in the direction of classics and mathematics. It is surely of importance that the student
of arts should know something of the objects in the material world with which he is
surrounded ; that he should enlarge his views of nature, and have a sympathy with that
science which teaches the structure, functions, and uses of the organized beings which
people the globe, and of the unorganized matter which forms the crust ?

In relation to medicine, botany must be viewed, not only as furnishing the medical
man with valuable information in regard to the affinities and properties of medicinal
plants, and enabling him to substitute one species for another with safety in circum¬
stances where the usual remedies are not at hand ; but it must be regarded as an impor¬
tant branch of preliminary study, which trains the mind of the student to those habits
of observation and diagnosis which are so essential to the successful prosecution of his
profession. The study of the physiology of plants, too, enables him to observe in a
simpler form many of those phenomena which are more complicated and obscure in the
higher orders of living beings. This is specially true of the functions of fertilization
and embryogeny, the examination of which by eminent botanists, both in this country
and on the Continent, has tended in no small degree to promote the advancement of ani¬
mal physiology.

The training of the mind in correct 'methods of observation gives to botany and the
other natural-history sciences their value as instruments of preparation for professional

♦

120

ON LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC STUDIES.

education. Edward Forbes justly remarks : — “ We must counteract the natural tendency
of purely professional studies — the tendency to limit the range of mental vision. We
can do this most beneficially through the collateral sciences, which are sufficiently allied
to the professional ones to prevent an undue dissipation of the student’s thoughts, and,
at the same time, are sufficiently different to give them a wider sphere of action. It is
in this point of view that we should regard the natural-history sciences as branches of
medical education. For my own part,” continues Forbes, “ after much intercourse with
medical men, who have studied at many seats of professional education, — some collegiate,
some exclusively professional, — I have no hesitation in saying that, as a rule, the former
had the intellectual advantage. There are noble and notable exceptions, old and young,
but the rule is true in the main. The man who has studied iu a seat of learning, such
as a university, has a wider range of sympathies, a more philosophical tone of mind, and
a higher estimate of the objects of intellectual ambition, than his fellow-practitioner,
who, from his youth upwards, has concentrated his thoughts upon the contractedly pro¬
fessional subjects of a hospital school. I will not believe that the practitioner of medi¬
cine, any more than the clergyman or the lawyer, or the soldier or the merchant, is
wiser or better able to treat the offices of his calling because his mind takes no note of
subjects beyond the range of his professional pursuit. It is a great pleasure, both to
patient and neighbour, to find in our doctor an enlightened friend — one who, whilst he
does his duty ably and kindly, has a sympathy and an acquaintance with science, litera¬
ture, or art.”

Those who magnify the hospital work so as to throw discredit on preliminary literary
and scientific study, are doing great harm to students of medicine. No one who knows
the duties of a physician or surgeon will ever think of underrating the value of clinical
instruction in hospitals ; but, at the same time, no one who looks at the true position of
medicine as a science, and of doctors as men of science belonging to a liberal profession,
will disparage those studies which, when taken in proper time, are so well fitted to en¬
large the mind, to call forth its powers, and give it the means of grappling successfully
with the various intricate questions in connection with bodily and mental diseases which
are constantly coming under the notice of the medical man.

A university is not merely a Board authorized to examine students and grant degrees
it is an educational institution, intended to exercise a surveillance over the studies of
youth ; to train their minds for the proper acquisition of knowledge ; and to direct their
energies in such a way as to insure that mental culture which will fit them for all the
duties of life. As food must be properly supplied to the body in order that it nmy be
duly nourished, so must food be supplied to the mind. It must be given in proper quan¬
tity and at proper intervals. The mind must be able to digest what is given, and time
must be allowed for this. The attempt to cram too much into the mind will fail in
giving due mental strength ; and the administration of nourishment in a fitful and irre¬
gular manner will not conduce to proper mental culture. As in the body, so in the mind,
quality and quantity must be regulated. The infant, the young man, and the old man,
require different kinds of diet, both corporeal and mental. Students who rush at once
into what is called the practical work of medicine, and do not contemplate anything
beyond the walls of an hospital, may become what some have called rough-and-ready
practitioners ; but, wanting due mental cultivation, and the advantages of a liberal edu¬
cation, they cannot be expected to advance the science of medicine, and to raise the tone
of the society in which they mingle. Enlarge as much as you please the strictly pro¬
fessional acquirements of the physician and surgeon, but never let them neglect those
Uterce humaniores which emolliuni mores , nec sinunt esseferos, and that knowledge of the
natural sciences which makes them valuable members of society.

There can be no doubt, that every one entering upon a learned profession, such as
that of medicine, ought to have in the first place a certain amount of literary education.
The study of languages, both ancient and modern, of the mathematical sciences, and of
mental philosophy, should precede in all cases the professional curriculum.

“ We must not overlook,” as our Lord Rector has remarked, “that kind of training in
which the subjects learned have for their chief aim, not to inure the hand (so to speak) to
the use of its tools in some particular art, but to operate on the mind itself, and by making
it flexible, manifold, and strong, to endow it with a general aptitude for the duties and
energies of life.” Dr. Hook has well said, “ By a university education we mean a liberal
education ; and by a liberal education we mean a non-professional education, — an educa-

ON BOTANICAL SCIENCE AND TIIE BIBLE.

121

tion which is to be regarded, not merely as a means to something else, but as in itself
an end. But here it will be necessary to explain, that when the word profess ion is used, it is
not intended to confine its application to what in former times were called the three learned
professions ; but we apply it to any calling which requires mental as distinguished from
manual labour. The professional man may be compared to a man whose eye is fixed
upon a microscope. All the rest of the world is abstracted from his vision ; and the eye,
though narrowed to a little hole, sees what is indescribable by others, and by revealing
his observations he becomes a benefactor of his kind. Now, all this we not only admit,
but assert; but then we stand opposed to those who, asserting this, at once conclude that
the minds of their children cannot be too soon directed to studies which will bear upon
their future vocation in life. The position assumed by the advocates of academical cul¬
ture is the very opposite of this. They would delay a young man’s professional educa¬
tion as long as possible, or rather, they would insist upon the importance of the concen¬
trated education being preceded by a liberal education ; and they would apply to the
training of the man a discipline analogous to that which common sense suggests in what
relates to bodily exercise. When in ancient times a father was ambitious for his son,
that he might win the prize at the Olympian games or Pythian fields, his attention was
directed, not to the technicalities of the game, but to the general condition and the
morals of the youth ; for the success of the athlete depended upon the fact of his first
becoming a healthy man. And precisely so we say, educate the man before you educate
the professional man ; before you send your grain to the mill, look to the raw material.
How often we see the mere professional man — the man who has not received a liberal
education early in life — fail when he is called unexpectedly, or in the ordinary course of
affairs, to some entirely new situation, or a different order of circumstances.” The mind
must be disciplined and subjected to culture, 'which will fit it for successful professional
study. Every candidate for a medical degree or diploma should therefore pass a literary
examination before attempting to enter on purely professional work.

Having thus considered the requirements in arts, we now proceed to professional
study. And here there are evidently two departments ; one specially connected with the
natural sciences, and the other strictly professional. These two departments should be
studied separately ; and the collateral sciences, such as botany, natural history, and che¬
mistry, ought to be prosecuted in the first instance, — an examination on these preceding
the student’s entrance on the second department. The objections urged against natural
history sciences have depended chiefly on the fact that they were studied at the same
time with purely professional subjects, and that thus the minds of the students wero
overwhelmed with the multiplicity of objects brought under their notice, and with the
necessity of preparing for an examination on one set of subjects whilst they were study¬
ing another. Natural-history sciences have been considered a hardship, not because the
students disliked them per se, or thought that the subject was not a good one for their
minds to work upon, but because the study of them came at a most improper time, be¬
cause far too much of it was attempted to be taught in the time, and because the little
that they could learn well was what they felt they ought to have learnt in their younger
days — which they ought to have acquired before commencing their medical education,
and which was not enough to enable them to apply it to practice in medicine or science.
The elements of these sciences should therefore occupy the student’s attention in the
first place, and he should master them, and be examined on them before proceeding fur¬
ther. Those who choose to devote their attention to these sciences more fully, will, no
doubt, gratify their taste by continuing to prosecute them afterwards ; and they will ne¬
cessarily be kept up to a certain degree in their subsequent medical studies.

PROFESSOR BALFOUR ON BOTANICAL SCIENCE AND THE BIBLE.

The subjoined remarks by Professor Balfour to the students of Edinburgh University
will be read with interest and profit : —

I have thus given a hasty sketch of the nature of botanical science and of its bearings
on other departments of knowledge, more especially on medicine. I have shown the
position which it ought to occupy, as a preliminary training science, in the medical cur¬
riculum ; and I have pointed out the importance of students passing an examination in
it, and other natural sciences, before entering on strictly professional studies. In conclu-

122

ON BOTANICAL SCIENCE AND THE BIBLE.

sion, I would remark that botany is a science calculated to give pleasure to every mind.
It can be prosecuted at all times, whether in the closet or in the field ; on the highway
or on the hill- side ; on the cultivated plain or in the wild mountain glen. Every flower
on which we tread becomes a useful object of contemplation, and a means of pleasing
recreation.

The associations connected with the practical prosecution of botany are peculiarly in¬
teresting. Those who have joined in botanical excursions know the feelings of delight
with which the floral treasures of the plain and of the mountain are gathered. They
will appreciate the friendships which are formed during such trips ; and they will be
ready to acknowledge their important bearing on the development alike of the physical
and mental powers. In the prosecution of science, however, we ought ever to remember
that, unless our studies are conducted with higher views than the mere acquisition of
secular knowledge, they will not promote their proper object. There is a knowledge
which puffs up, which spoils, through philosophy and vain deceit, and which does not
_ edify.

In the present day there is much of Pantheistic and Rationalistic error among the fol¬
lowers of science, and the student must be warned of the quicksands on which he is apt
to make shipwreck of faith and of a good conscience. Sometimes we find that persons
who spend their lives in the study of nature, flatter themselves that a love for the works
of God is an evidence of genuine religion. This is a great delusion. “ A sincere and
ardent love of Science may induce a man to devote his whole time, talents, and wealth to
the acquisition of facts, and the confirmation of brilliant theories. This may be all done
by one regardless of the mind of God, as revealed in his Word ; and, while enriching
his intellect, and widening the domain of scientific learning, the man may, in heart and
life, be a very enemy to the moral government of that Being whose works he is so fond
of exploring.”

It is pleasing to think that there are many men of science who are pointing out the
true method of God, and who are showing that secular and religious knowledge go hand
in hand. The attempts to produce opposition between the works and the Word of God
have utterly failed. True science is always in harmony with religion. We say this
most advisedly. We have never, and we can never arrive at a point where the discoveries
of science and the truth of Scripture are at variance. The more we advance in know¬
ledge, the more do we find of harmony between them. There is often apparent discrepancy
arising, not from an increase in our knowledge of true science, but from a deficiency of in¬
formation, and a perverted view of the phenomena of creation ; from men becoming vain
in their imaginations, and having their foolish hearts darkened, thinking themselves wise,
and becoming fools.

Recent scientific statements by men of authority have led to a more earnest study of
the Word of God, not merely by divines, but by Christian men of science ; and we are
daily seeing the clear light of truth dissipating those mists and doubts with which it had
been obscured.

It is often said that in science we may discard the Bible, for it is not meant to teach
science ; and that, even although, when viewed in the light of modern discovery, there
may be some lesser errors in it, still this does not take from its authority, as containing a
revelation from Heaven. This is most fallacious reasoning. It is true that the Bible is
not meant to teach science ; but we maintain that it is equally true that it is in no case
inconsistent with science. There is no scientific error in it. In this respect it is the
Book of books. It is the inspired Word of God, truly theopneustic throughout.

Unless we have verbal inspiration, we have nothing. The Book not merely contains a
revelation from God, but it is, in its words and minutest details, given by Him. Holy
men of old wrote as inspired by his Spirit. That the Bible should stand thus pre-emi¬
nent throughout all ages, and that it should ever be on a level with science, however
advanced, is sufficient to convince the most sceptical of its Divine origin. I cannot
better express this than in the words of an anonymous writer, -who says: — “A book so
written as to touch upon every subject of human research, and, without anticipating
discoveries which man can make for himself, not to contradict them when made, is a
miracle of wisdom and knowledge of the highest order. It implies not only an acquain¬
tance with the facts of science, but with the manner in which the human mind would
deal with them. The author of the words on which everything depends in the case must
possess, at once, perfect knowledge of the past of creation, and of the future development

HE POET ON THE INDTJSTEY OF MANUEES.

123

of human thought. This reasoning is altogether independent of the accuracy of our
scientific knowledge. This book is suited to the extent of our knowledge as it is, and
has been so for 3300 years. We do not believe that a single work can be produced on
any of the natural or experimental sciences, written a hundred years ago, in which some
gross errors cannot he discovered. All such hooks have grown old. Here is a hook
written 3300 years ago still green, and in which apparent discrepancies from advancing
knowledge invariably prove the germ of fresh agreements.”

The impossibility of producing a book thus adapted to the whole domain of science,
and the whole march of time, renders it a miracle of the highest order, and one, of all
others, fitted to convince us, by internal evidence, that in the words of the Bible we have
the very words of God.

Let your enlightened recognition of the facts of science be ever accompanied with
earnest study of revealed truth ; and, while you are active and zealous in the duties of
your worldly calling, be “fervent in spirit, serving the Lord.”

REPORT OH THE INDUSTRY OP MANURES.

BY A. W. HOFMANN, PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S.

{From the Reports of the Juries of the International . 'Exhibition .)

( Continued from p. 90.)

Modern Historical Events connected with the Development of the Manurial In¬
dustry. — But, were England a more signal offender than she is, or ever has been,
against what may be termed the manurial equilibrium of the world, she might plead
her justification in the train of modern historical events which have brought her
manurial industry into its present remarkable pliasis, — a phasis purely transitional,
and which marks the crisis of a momentous revolution, even now in course of accom¬
plishment.

The events here alluded to, like the revolution in which they are culminating, have
their common origin in the memorable invention of the steam-engine by Watt.

The new motive power placed by Watts’s genius at the disposal of mankind, after
having transformed in succession every other main branch of human industry — the
spinning and weaving of raiment, for example ; the arts of locomotion, by land and
by sea ; all the various forms of brute drudgery, such as lifting, hewing, pumping,
grinding, etc. ; all the technical plastic arts, from the shaping of the most stubborn
metals to the moulding of the most delicate clay — in a word, after having lightened
for mankind all the other forms of toil, is now making its way into the farm, and im¬
pressing upon the operations of husbandry an equally signal revolution.

It is important to observe that the transformations which have preceded this final
and most momentous change of all, have not only prepared the way for it, but have,
at the same time, rendered its advent an indispensable necessity ; as a very brief con¬
sideration will show.

It is, in the first place, by the operation of steam -power that the handicrafts, for¬
merly pursued by families dispersed in villages over the whole surface of the land,
have been replaced by manufactures , conducted in colossal factories, determining the
agglomeration of enormous populations, in rapidly developed towns and cities, located
usually (for the convenience of trade) upon streams and rivers leading to the sea.

Food lias naturally followed population ; and corn and cattle, vegetables and fruit,
are daily poured from the country into the towns, in streams of constantly-increasing
magnitude. The quantity of fertilizing residua resulting from the consumption of
these provisions, and requiring, in fair husbandry, restoration to the distant fields
from which they come, undergoes, of course, proportionate augmentation ; and the
problem of their reconveyance to the land has been, and still is, one of annually in¬
creasing difficulty.

During the earlier development of the factory system, the old mode of urban de¬
fecation, by means of cesspools emptied periodically, was in vogue ; and much of the
night-soil produced in the great manufacturing towns found its way back from these
stagnant receptacles to the land.

124

REPORT ON THE INDUSTRY OF MANURES.

But as the populations assembled in these industrial encampments grew vaster and
more dense, diseases of the so-called zymotic class became more and more rife among
them ; and, though the respective causes of the several forms which zymotic or febrile
disease assumes remained unknown, it was gradually established by professional in¬
vestigations, that they had all one common favouring condition in the putrescent
effluvia of stagnant filth.

To the few scientific inquirers who traced out this relation, it became apparent that
the stagnant-cesspool system was radically vicious, and must be rooted out at any
cost. They perceived that urban populations could only be preserved from febrile
disease by the daily removal of their ejecta before its entry into the state of putrefac¬
tion ; and for this end, a system of house and street drains, kept constantly washed
with abundant supplies of water, seemed to afford the readiest means.

Here again the power of steam wTas on the side of progress. The public water-
supply of towns, no longer led, as of old, in wooden pipes, to public fountains, thence
to be fetched in pail and pitcher to the dwellings, was urged by steam-pumps at high
pressure, through iron pipes having lateral branches, into the houses themselves, and
even up to their highest floors. This permitted the adoption of Bramah’s watercloset
(a capital invention) with its swift water-rush and trapped exit-drain, instead of the
noisome privy, untrapped and waterless, with its stagnant pit of putrescence beneath.
And though Bramah’s closet itself was a costly piece of mechanism, cheaper contri¬
vances of like kind soon followed, bringing within reach of the poor as wrell as the rich
the inestimable blessing of cleanly defecation.

These ameliorations had, however, gained but little attention, and were but slowly
making their way, when, in 1836, the views of their advocates received at once a terri¬
ble confirmation and a powerful impulse, by the sudden outburst of the Asiatic cholera.
To the horrors of this appalling pestilence reference lias already been made in the Re¬
port on Disenfectants. The consternation it produced was universal ; and it gave rise
to that remarkable series of researches, conclusions, and practical reforms, known col¬
lectively as the modem sanitary movement.

Under this new influence, the substitution of flowing drains for stagnant cesspools
was carried on with much increased activity, though obstructed by a vehement con¬
troversy as to the proper size and form of the drains. Small circular stonewrare tubes
were recommended by one party ; large brick flat-bottomed sewers by the other. The
tubular system happily proved to be the cheapest as well as the best ; and its advocates,
after a ten years’ struggle, finally carried the day. Whole towns are now drained
through 12-inch pipes, which would formerly have been deemed of scant dimension
for the drainage of a single mansion.

The application of the manurial streams from urban drains to irrigate farm lands
was also warmly advocated by the sanitary reformers, but as warmly declared imprac¬
ticable by several leading engineers, whose views upon that part of the question pre¬
vailed.

The second invasion of Asiatic cholera, in 1849, gave a new impulse to the abolition
of cesspools ; and the value of tubular drains, of small size and rapid scour, for their
replacement, had by that time obtained very general recognition. But the leading
engineers of England, while admitting, theoretically, the value of sewage to fertilize
land, still denied the soundness and economy of the mechanical arrangements pro¬
posed by the sanitary' reformers for its distribution. On an engineering question,
public opinion (not unnaturally) sided at the outset with the engineers. The new
system has had, therefore, to encounter a professional opposition, all the more formida¬
ble for being thoroughly conscientious. Probably that opposition, wTitli the controversy
it has engendered, and, above all, the experiments to which it has given rise, constitutes
a wholesome ordeal to test the soundness of the new plan, and to bring about the
correction of such weak points as it may present. But, in the mean time, the applica¬
tion of town sewage to farm lands, on an extensive, national scale, has stood, and still
stands, adjourned.

Hence the present condition, obviously transitional, of the great manufacturing and
commercial towns of England ; hence the insufferable pollution of her streams and
rivers ; hence that prodigious squandering of the elements of human blood, for which
she is so bitterly reproached by Liebig.

REPORT ON THE INDUSTRY OF MANURES.

125

But the same mighty power of steam which brought about the centralization of the
manufacturing population in great towns, with the evils thence ensuing, and the sani¬
tary ameliorations by which those evils were (in part) subdued, came fraught with
other principles also, and other events not less influential in the development of the
manurial industry.

Among these, the most conspicuously important, in their bearing upon this great in¬
dustry, were the doctrine and practice of free trade.

The histoi’ical affiliation of free trade to steam-power is direct and obvious.

The millions congregated by steam-power had to be fed. To the working of the new
factory system cheap corn was as necessary as cheap coal. The restriction of bread
supplies, and the consequent enhancement of their price by artificial means, to benefit
a class, became utterly inadmissible.

Protection, always a fallacy, was now also an anachronism ; and, after a severe
struggle, and a long series of transitional expedients, the ports of England were thrown
open freely to foreign supplies of food.

The cultivators of this cold northern soil were thus exposed to the competition of
rival food-growers, tilling, beneath warmer suns, the more prolific cornfields of the
south.

Upon this unequal competition the English territorial proprietors entered, as upon
a struggle for life or death. Abundant manuring seemed at the outset their main, if
not their sole resource ; hence the rapid and prodigious development (already noted)
of the guano trade ; hence the multiplication of manurial products from every form
of waste, as manifested in the patent records ; hence the celebrated “ nitrogen theory ”
and the “ high-farming ” system, to which allusion will presently be made ; hence,
lastly, that ransacking of the whole world for bones, so criminal in Liebig’s view.

Application of Steam-Power to Agriculture. — But steam-power, which has imposed
upon the British cultivator this struggle for existence, brings him also the means of
issuing victorious from the encounter.

Why may not the steam-urged ploughshare pass to and fro through the field, as the
steam-driven shuttle passes through the fabric in the loom ?

If pure water can be pumped by steam-power at an infinitesimal cost into a town
for its supply, why may not the very same water, enriched with the ejecta of the po¬
pulation, and so converted into a powerful manure, be also pumped out of the town
by steam-power, and applied to maintain the fertility of the land ?

In a word, why may not husbandry rise, in its turn, from the rank of a handicraft
to that of a manufacture ; the farm be organized and worked like a factory ; and food,
like every other commodity, be at length produced by steam-power ?

These questions are now in every mouth ; and the agricultural revolution they
imply appears to be, at this moment, in course of accomplishment by the English
people.

Already, on many an English farm, the characteristic tall factory-chimney is
seen rising among the trees ; the steam-engine is heard panting below ; and the
rapid thrashing-wheel, with its noisy revolutions, supersedes the labourer’s tardy flail.

Already, at somewhat fewer points, the farm-locomotive stands smoking in the field,
winding to and fro, round anchored windlass, the slender rope of steel which draws
the rapid ploughshare through the soil ; thus furrowed twice as deep, and thrice as
fast, as formerly by man and horse ; and thus economically enriched with propor¬
tionately increased supplies of atmospheric plant-food.

And lastly, already, at still rarer intervals, the subterranean pipes for sewage-irriga¬
tion ramify beneath the fields, precisely as the pipes for water distribution ramify be¬
neath the streets of the adjacent town ; the propelling power being, in both cases,
that of steam.

These innovations are, doubtless, still experimental ; and, like all innovations, they
are vaunted by some with premature zeal as perfect, while others, with pardonable
scepticism, decry them as utterly impracticable. Truth for the present seems to lie be¬
tween these extremes. The steam-plough, though answering well in large and level
fields with favourable soils, still requires adaptation to less easy conditions of tillage.
The tubular irrigating system is still liable to the sudden influx of storm-waters, over¬
burdening, and often overmastering the steam-pumps, so as seriously to interfere with
YOL. VI. L

126

REPORT ON THE INDUSTRY OF MANURES.

the economy of the distributive operation. But inventive research and practical ex¬
periment are rapidly proceeding side by side, and every year, not to say every month,
sees some fresh truth elicited, some previous “impossibility” achieved.

Utilization of Urban 'Ejecta as Manure. — The separation of surface-water from
sewage is, by a certain number, confidently relied on to solve the problem of sewage
utilization, in conformity with Mr. F. O. Ward’s formula, — “ the rainfall to the river,
the sewage to the soil.” Others are of opinion that sewage, even when diluted by
admixture with rain-swollen brooks, may be economically pumped on the land. A
third party believe gravitation to be the only economical distributive power for sewage,
and open gutters contoured along the undulating ground the only channels suited for
its conveyance.

On these mechanical questions the Reporter, as a chemist, has of course no opinion
to offer. But, that the reckless squandering of town-sewage to the sea, if continued
on its present prodigious scale, must, in a few generations, justify the worst forebodings
of Liebig, and that the same steam-power which has induced the evil can alone supply
the remedy, the Reporter confidently believes.

And here, perhaps, is the place to interpose a few remarks, in most respectful de¬
precation of the support which Liebig, in several of his works, and more especially in
his latest publication,* affords to the cesspool system of urban defecation. He devotes
an entire chapter (the seventh) to a description of the movable cesspools, or casks
upon wheels, employed in the soldiers’ barracks, in several garrison towns of Baden,
to receive and carry away the whole of the ejecta, fluid and solid. He states the aver¬
age cost of these cesspool-carts to be between £9 and £10 a piece ; their term of dura¬
tion, about five years ; and their maintenance-charge about 15 per cent, of their first
cost. He adds, that the sale of the manure collected and conveyed away in these carts,
from several garrisons, numbering in all 8000 men, brings in an amiually increasing
sum; the receipts having risen from £285 in 1852, to £680 in 1858, and the ten¬
dency of the price being upward still. Upon this system he bestows encomiums, made
weighty by his illustrious name and eminent authority. “ Sandy wastes,” he says,
“ more particularly in the vicinity of Rastadt and Carlsruhe, have thus been turned
into cornfields of great fertility.” And he adds that “ there might thus be established
a perfect circulation of the conditions of life, which would provide 8000 men with
bread, year after year, without in the least reducing the productiveness of the fields on
which the corn is grown.” He further devotes much space in his Appendix to a re¬
port upon Japenese husbandry, addressed to the Minister of Agriculture at Berlin, by
Dr. H. Maron, and containing a detailed account of the Japanese method of urban de¬
fecation, which is also accomplished by a system of movable cesspools, lifted out and
carried through the open streets by hand.

The Japanese, Dr. Maron states, use open privies, not constructed, as in Germany,
in some remote corner of the yard, but forming an essential part of the interior of their
dwellings. The aperture is level with the ground, and beneath it is set a bucket or
earthen pot, for removal, when full, by human hands. The Coolies thus employed
are to be met, he tells us, of an evening, marching in long strings along all the roads
leading out of the Japanese towns, each Coolie bearing two buckets or earthen pots of
night soil for conveyance to the neighbouring farms. Caravans of pack-horses, simi¬
larly laden, are sent, he states, 200 or 300 miles into the interior ; and canal-boats
leave each town daily as regularly as the mail, each loaded by Coolies with high-piled
buckets of the precious stuff, the effluvia of which, it is admitted, render the task of
conducting these barges “a species of martyrdom.”

It is precisely from this degrading and loathsome kind of drudgery that England is
now resolutely bent on emancipating mankind ; while yet restoring to the land, quite
as faithfully as the Japanese, the fertilizing residua of human food. It is precisely
against what may be termed the “ martyrdom of stench,” and the still fiercer martyr¬
doms of blood-pollution and loathsome pestilence which stench engenders, that the
English Sanitary Reformers protest and struggle with all their force. And the Re¬
porter is convinced that he will faithfully interpret their desire, in inviting for the

* ‘ The Natural Laws of Husbandry/ by Justus von Liebig. Edited by J. Blyth, M.D.,
Professor of Chemistry in Queen’s College, Cork. London ; Walton and Maberly. 1863.

THE MANUFACTURE OF VEGETABLE OILS. 127

system of defecation they propose the attentive consideration of Justus Liebig, and, if
approved, his powerful support.

The organization of the so-called “ continuous tubular circulating system,” by which,
with the aid of steam-power, the healthy and ceaseless interchange of pure water and
mammal liquor between town and country is now sought to be achieved, seems de¬
stined to constitute the mechanical complement of the great chemico-physiological
truths promulgated by Justus Liebig ; from whose powerful genius the promoters of
this plan anxiously anticipate not merely its adoption, but its incorporation in his
great agricultural edifice, as its crown and pinnacle.

It is not, however, pretended by the warmest advocates of this system, that it can
be accomplished by a single generation. It is admitted, on the contrary, that the
complete tubularization of the farms of Europe must be a task as gradual as the com¬
plete drain- and water-pipeage of her towns, or as the universal extension of her rail¬
way and electric communications. But as the magnitude of such a project may be,
for many minds, the very pivot on which their judgment of it, favourable or adverse,
may turn, the Reporter quotes here, from a speech of Mr. E. O. Ward (in 1855), some
remarks bearing on this point.

“ It is argued,” said the speaker, after adverting to the cost of the requisite pipeage,
— “it is argued from this vast expenditure and widely-extended range of distribution,
that the plan is impracticable. But I think this resembles the arguments urged
against gas-lighting at the outset. ‘ What !’ it was said in the old days of oil-lamps,
to the daring innovators who proposed gas-lighting, ‘ do you seriously ask us to tear
up all the streets of our towns, and lay down thousands of miles of subterranean arte¬
ries, to circulate a subtle vapour through every street and into every house, to do, at
a cost of millions upon millions, what our lamps and candles already do sufficiently
well ?’ Such was the language used ; and the proposal of gas-lighting was regarded
at the outset, by the majority of mankind, as the wildest and most visionary halluci¬
nation. But when Murdoch’s factory had been illuminated with gas, the whole pro¬
blem was virtually solved ; and when the first line of gas-lights burned along Pall Mall,
the illumination of all the towns of Europe became a mere question of time. Just so,
when the first farm was successfully laid down with irrigating tubes for the distribu¬
tion of liquid manure, there ceased to be any force in the argument about the quantity
and cost of pipeage for this purpose. ... N or should we be deterred from grappling
with the sewage problem by contemplating the vast magnitude of the results to which
it will lead in the course of time — of generations, perhaps, when the whole subsoil of
Europe will probably be piped for the distribution of liquid manure, just as all Flan¬
ders is already honeycombed with tanks for its storage.”*

( To be continued.)

THE MANUFACTURE OF VEGETABLE OILS.

Whether considered as a medium for the application of colour in works of art, or of
utility as the principal source of illuminating power where gas is unaltainable, or as the
lubricator without which all machinery, from the simple clock of the cottager to the
most complicated and powerful engine, would be all but useless, the value of oil is in¬
calculable ; and a few words on its manufacture and the process of refining it cannot be
uninteresting. To furnish these we were favoured with a visit to the extensive works of
Messrs. Pinchin and Johnson, who have two sets of premises : one, for the manufacture of
oil, called Albert Works, on the Middlesex bank of the Thames, near Hammersmith ;
the other, for refining purposes, in Cable Street, St. George’s-in-the-East. The oils they
manufacture are rape and linseed only, but their refining operations extend to the ani¬
mal as well as the vegetable oils. The Albert Works have a river frontage of about 200
feet, and recede from the bank about the same distance, thus covering an area of more
than three-quarters of an acre. The building consists of four stories ; the manufacture
is carried on in the lowest, the others being used as storage for the grain, which is hoisted
from the barges by means of cranes worked by steam-power. The first object which
arrests the visitor’s attention is the engine, which is a small but beautiful piece of ma-

* 4 Journal of the Society of Arts ’ (London), No. 120, for March 9th, 1855.

128

THE MANUFACTURE OF VEGETABLE OILS.

chinery of forty-five horse power. With the exception of the workmen’s meal-times and
Sundays, it is always at work night and day. From the engine-room the visitor is con¬
ducted to the manufactory, where, as soon as he can recover from the irritation in the
eyes produced by the volatile oil escaping from the heated and bruised seed, the whole
process presents itself before him.

The grain is received from the upper floor into a hopper , in which is a screen, the agi¬
tating of which removes all foreign substances, and suffers the seed alone to pass through
its meshes. This falls between two faced, hollow, iron cylindrical rollers, Which are
heated by steam, and which as they revolve crush, or, as it is termed, open the grain.
Thus opened, it is thrown on to a steel plate calf, J fixed on a bed of solid masonry, which
is constantly traversed by a pair of edge-runners, weighing from eight to nine tons, and
travelling at the rate of sixteen revolutions per minute. They revolve in a strong
framework attached to a vertical axis, which also, by means of a large cog-wheel at the
top, which engages a wheel upon the main shaft, revolves slowly. A double motion is
thus given to the grinders or edge-runners, one on their own axis and one on the iron
plate, which we may consider the nether mill-stone. A raised border or rim prevents the
seed from escaping from the plate, and the paste is brought regularly under the stones
by means of rakes or sweeps attached to the vertical framework, and revolving with the
runners on the surface of the plate. When the grain has been sufficiently ground, the
paste is brought to an open portion of the rim, and falls over into perforated troughs
placed to receive it. Through the perforations a considerable quantity of oil oozes, and
this, being considered purer than that which is obtained by expression, is conveyed to a
cistern set apart for the purpose. The paste is next put into a jacketed kettle, — that is,
one surrounded by a hollow chamber, into which steam is injected for the purpose of
heating it. Within this kettle is an agitator or stirrer, so that all the paste is in turn
brought to the heated surface and raised to an even temperature. Having remained in
the kettle six minutes, it is collected in woollen bags, about eighteen inches long and six
inches wide, each bag is placed between four layers of press hairs (a kind of horse-hair
mat), and eight of them being thus prepared, they are ranged in two perpendicular rows
between four grooved shelves of a hydraulic press. The pumps, worked by the steam-
engine, are set in motion, and a pressure of 400 tons is speedily realized. The oil, being
expressed, runs into an underground tank ; the bags are then withdrawn, and on being
removed, the residue presents itself in the form of what is known as linseed cake. These
cakes are placed in a rack to cool, when they become so hard as not to be easily broken ;
they are then orderly stacked, and from time to time sent away in waggons or barges to
supply the cattle-food market, for which purpose the cake is in great request.

A quarter of linseed, which only undergoes one pressure, yields an average of 120 lbs.
of oil and 35 cakes of nutritious food, each weighing 8 lbs., or an agregate of two hun¬
dredweight and a half. Rape seed, which is twice ground and pressed, yields per quarter
from 88 lbs. to 90 lbs. of oil at the first, and from 60 lbs. to 70 lbs. at the second pres¬
sure. Of these two kinds of oil-producing seeds upwards of 600,000 quarters are
annually imported, and this mill alone works up 35,000 quarters per annum. Calcutta,
Bombay, and Kurrachee are the great emporia for the seeds ; and it is a remarkable fact
that, whereas the last-named place, when it fell into the hands of the British in 1839,
consisted of only about fifty wretched huts, inhabited by fishermen, it is now a thriving
port, and one of the principal outlets for the oil-producing seeds of India.

After the oil has remained a few days in the receiving cistern, the parenchymatous
matter subsides ; it is then pumped into vats for a second settling, after which it is bar¬
relled and conveyed to the refinery. This is situated about a quarter of a mile down the
Blackwall line, of which property it occupies nine arches in its rear. The premises are
very large, and are used not only for refining vegetable but also animal oils. The
casks of unrefined oil are hoisted to the upper floor by means of a crane worked by
steam. Along this floor a large vat, capable of holding ten tons, is extended. It is
lined with copper, is fitted with a horizontal agitator or fan, and is called the reception
vat. Into this receptacle five tons of rape oil are decanted, an equal quantity of water
is added, and the whole treated by chemical process. The agitator is set in motion, and
after four or five hours the oil becomes thoroughly washed, its impurities having been
removed. The agitation is then stopped, and the water and bleaching ingredients are
allowed to subside. The oil is next drawn off into the boiling vat on the next story.
This vat also is lined with copper, fitted with fans or agitators, and a coiled perforated

ACCIDENTAL POISONING.

129

tube ; steam is admitted into the tube until a uniform temperature of 212 degrees is ob¬
tained. It is kept in this condition and continually agitated for about four hours, when all
impurities having been thrown off, it is allowed to cool, assisted by the fans, which bring
every portion in turn into contact with the air. At the end of eight or ten hours it is
sufficiently cool to be drawn off into the filters, which are on the lower story. Each
filter contains five tons. Having passed through the filter, the oil, fully refined, is
pumped into appropriate tanks to be ready for barrelling, and receives the name of
colza oil, on account of its illuminating properties ; the true colza being an oil expressed
from the Brassica oleracea , a variety of the cabbage plant, from whose seeds an oil much
used on the Continent is expressed.

Some idea may be formed of the vast quantity of purified rape-oil consumed for lubri¬
cating and illuminating purposes, when this refinery alone sends out upwards of two
thousand tons per annum. A single railway company consumes three hundred tons a
year, and the Great Eastern requires a thousand gallons for the single voyage to New
York. Whale, seal, and sperm oils are refined by a more simple process. They are
simply filtered through flannel bags ; the residue of the common kinds is called foots,
and is one of the ingredients used in the manufacture of soap. The deposit produced in
the filtration of sperm oil is called spermaceti, and is very valuable, commanding a ready
sale at £90 per ton. These oils are used for the purpose of illumination only, with the
exception of sperm, which is employed in the cotton districts for the lubrication of
spindles. Large quantities of olive oil are imported from Spain for lubricating ma¬
chinery, and immense quantities of American lard are imported, pressed, and filtered for
obtaining the oil known as lard oil, which is considered a good lubricator, and certainly
has the quality of cheapness to recommend it. — Mechanics' Magazine.

ACCIDENTAL POISONING.

LIVERPOOL SUMMER ASSIZE'S. — CROWN COURT. — (BEFORE LORD CHIEF JUSTICE

COCKBURN.)

Richard Poole surrendered upon an indictment, charging him with having, at Liver¬
pool, feloniously killed and slain one John Lingard, on the 11th of April last. Mr.
Aspinall, Q.C., and Mr. Samuell appeared for the prosecution ; the Hon. Mr. Liddell,
Q.C., and Mr. Potter for the defence. Prisoner pleaded not guilty.

It will doubtless be in the remembrance of our readers that the prisoner, a young
man about twenty-five years of age, was a dispensing assistant in the establishment of
Messrs. Clay and Abraham, chemists, Bold Street, and that the deceased was a
plumber and glazier, residing in Mount Pleasant. On the 11th of April last, Dr.
Nottingham prescribed a lotion and a powder for the deceased, who was suffering from
an affliction in one of his eyes ; the latter was to be composed of five grains of James’s
powrder and six grains of Dover’s powder. The prescription was taken, in accordance
with the directions of Dr. Nottingham, to Messrs. Clay and Abraham’s shop, in Bold
Street, by Miss Witter, who was at the time staying at Mr. Lingard’ s house. The
prescription was first handed to Mr. Whitton, who looked at it and then passed it
on to one of the assistants, whose duty it was to copy it. That having been done, the
prescription was giving to the prisoner, who made it up. In doing so he had to use
-two bottles, and it appeared that the one containing James’s powder was placed upon
the same shelf and almost side by side with another bottle of the same size, form, and
appearance, which contained strychnine. Between these two there wras only one other
bottle, of the same description, the strychnine bottle being the second, and the James’s
powder the fourth, from the end of the row. Before the powder was handed to Miss
Witter it was passed on to Mr. Whitton, who, after looking at it and smelling it, gave
it to the young lady. The powder was given to the deceased the same night, at bedtime,
and almost immediately afterwards he complained of feeling ill. His symptoms rapidly
developed into such as accompany strychnine poisoning, and in the course of an hour
he died.

Mr. Aspinall told the jury that the real question they would have to consider would
be, not so much what was the cause of death, as whether or not the circumstances under
which the prisoner made up the prescription had been such as would bring home to

130

ACCIDENTAL POISONING.

him the charge of manslaughter. In order to mate out the charge in a case of this
description, it would be necessary to show that the prisoner had been guilty of gross
and culpable negligence. The row of bottles, to which allusion had already been made,
had been placed in a box in precisely the same order as that in which they had stood
upon the shelf, and were in court ; and the jury would see that the strychnine bottle
had, in addition to the label “strychnia” on it, a second label, bearing the word
“ poison.” He submitted that if the other facts of the case were proved, the jury
would be of opinion that the negligence was made out, even though the two bottles
might at the time have been reversed as to position on the shelf.

Hr. James S. Smyth, of Rodney Street, deposed that he saw deceased before death.
He was sent for at half-past ten ; reached deceased’s house at twenty-five minutes
to eleven ; death took place a quarter before eleven. The deceased, when first seen by
witness, seemed in comparative repose. He inquired from Hr. Harris, who was in the
room on his arrival, if he had seen the previous convulsion, and what was the nature
of the attack. Hr. Harris said that it seemed to be epileptic. Mr. Merrick, partner
to the deceased, was present, and remarked that Lingard told him that there must
have been strychnine in the powder that he had taken. Witness asked Lingard what
he knew of strychnine ; he said that he had once taken it as a medicine, and recol¬
lected the taste. Witness asked for the prescription of the powder, and retired with
Hr. Harris to consult as to what should be done. They had not been more than two
minutes in the adjoining room before they were recalled. Lingard was then in strong
convulsions, and in these he died. Cross-examined : Are you aware that Lingard
suffered from gall-stones ? Witness: No. Would not they, if present, produce great
pain ? Witness : Yes ; but not cramp in the legs, which, as far as I understood from
those in attendance, was the only pain complained of.

Amongst the witnesses examined in support of the prosecution was Hr. Nottingham,
who gave evidence as to the appearance of the deceased’s body after death. He made
a 'post-mortem examination of the body eighteen hours after death, when the blood
was fluid ; the scalp, the membranes of the brain, and the membranes covering the
spinal cord, were charged with blood ; there was a considerable quantity of a reddish
watery fluid in the cavity of the skull ; the lungs were heavily gorged with dark fluid
blood ; the heart was empty. The stomach and contents were placed in a jar and
sealed, and other portions of the body were placed in three other jars, and these were
handed over to Hr. Edwards. Taking into consideration the symptoms attending the
death of the deceased, and the appearances visible at the time of the post-mortem
examination, he considered the cause of death to be poisoning by strychnine.

Hr. John Baker Edwards, analytical chemist and lecturer on chemistry and medical
jurisprudence at the Liverpool Royal Infirmary School of Medicine, stated that be had
examined the stomach portion of the duodenum, spleen, and heart, the liver, blood,
and kidneys, handed to him by the last witness. After detailing the analytical treat¬
ment to which he had subjected the contents of the jars severally, he said the results
of repeated and various tests applied to them corresponded in appearance with those
which would be produced by strychnine. He had poisoned two frogs and two mice,
with all the physiological effects of poisoning by strychnine, by administering to them
small doses of the substance extracted from the contents of the jars which had before
given the test results stated. From these experiments, he was satisfied that the stomach
of the deceased contained a fatal quantity of strychnine. He also detected strychnia in
the liver, in the kidneys, and in the structure of the tongue. He found traces of
meconic acid in the stomach, but no antimony.

The Lord Chief Justice, addressing witness, — Hr. Edwards, you have given your
evidence with great distinctness and lucidity.

Joseph Whitton, an assistant in Messrs. Clay and Abraham’s shop, said that on the
11th instant the prisoner was engaged as the regular dispenser, but had occasional
assistance. It was his duty to make up the medicine. When Miss Witter brought
Hr. Nottingham’s prescription to him, he entered it in an order-book, and then passed
it on to the prisoner. The powder contained James’s powder and Hover’s powder.
He did not see the bottles from which the prisoner made it up. One bottle separated
the bottle containing the James’s powder from that containing the strychnine. The
Hover’s powder was kept on the dispensing counter on a shelf facing the dispenser’s

ACCIDENTAL POISONING.

131

•counter. There were five rows of bottles in an upright position, forming part of the
dispensing counter, and in front of the dispenser. These bottles were in constant use,
and they had no other bottles containing strychnine in the whole shop. The bottles
were alphabetically arranged. The bottle between the strychnine bottle and the
James’s powder bottle contained Savine powder. When the lotion and the powder
had been made up, it was placed by the dispenser on a till. Witness then took out the
•cork, examined the lotion, and found it correct. Tie next took the powder out of the
wrapper, smelled at it, and being satisfied with it, he gave them both to Miss Witter.
He could detect the Dover’s powder by the smell ; he did not look at the powder ; the
James’s powder had no smell ; neither had strychnine any smell.

Cross-examined by Mr. Liddell. — The bottles on this shelf had been rearranged
since the 1 1th of April. That had been done in consequence of the presentment
made by the coroner’s jury. He was Messrs. Clay and Abraham’s senior assistant.
It was Mr. Knowles’s duty to arrange the bottles in that part of the shop, and also to
put the drugs into the bottles. James’s powder was very frequently used. James’s
powder and strychnine were so alike in colour that had he opened the powder he
would not have known the difference, but he could have detected it by the taste.

His Lordship. — But I suppose you are not in the habit of tasting the strychnine?
(Laughter.)

Witness. — Ho, my Lord. (Renewed laughter.)

Cross-examination continued. — Prisoner had been two years in the employment
of Messrs. Clay and Abraham. For some years previously he had been with a che¬
mist at Southport. Witness had always found him very careful and attentive to his
duties.

Richard Knowles, late assistant at Messrs. Clay and Abraham’s shop, said the
strychnine was kept at that establishment in a pulverized state. He had not examined
the shelves on the 11th of April ; but he did so the day previously, when he found
they were in their right places. He was of opinion they were arranged in their proper
order on the 11th of April.

Mr. Wliitton was here recalled, and, in answer to Mr. Liddell, said that when he
asked the prisoner what bottles he had made up the powder from, he pointed to the
James’s powder bottle and the Dover’s powder bottle.

This was the case for the prosecution.

The Hon. Mr. Liddell, Q.C., then proceeded to address the jury on the prisoner’s
behalf. He said he was not going to deny that the deceased died from strychnine, for
that would be utterly useless in the face of the evidence adduced. But there were two
points to which he intended to address himself: one was, wThether the strychnine was
contained in the powder which the prisoner dispensed ; and the second was, whether
that powder, if so dispensed, was issued by him, and whether that issue was the result
of gross and culpable negligence on his part. As to the point whether that powder
was the powder which the prisoner dispensed, it was not for him to disprove, but for
the prosecution to prove. Therefore, he had not any remarks to make upon that.
There was one very curious thing in the case, that though the attention of the medical
men were called to the deceased in a quarter of an hour after the powder was taken,
no search ever appeared to have been made for that paper in which the powder was
contained, and not one tittle of evidence had been given to show what had become of
it. The only scientific evidence that the prosecutors could bring before the jury to
show them that strychnine was taken from the powder dispensed by the prisoner was,
that they found traces of an acid called meconic acid. He did not say it was impossi¬
ble to discover even a minute portion of such an acid as that, but he did say this, and
he thought the jury would agree with him, that supposing this was a question of
poisoning by opium, and that the evidence had been that a small discoloration took
place, caused by so small a quantity that figures would not represent it, they would
have to pause well before they arrived at their verdict. It was remarkable that the
deceased had taken strychnine before that date, and it had not been shown them when
he discontinued taking it. He would now pass on to deal with what he considered
was the real and substantial evidence on behalf of his client. His learned friend, in
his opening remarks, said that in order to bring the evidence home against the pri¬
soner, they must make out a case against him of gross and culpable negligence. He

132

ACCIDENTAL POISONING.

(Mr. Liddell) would not attempt to define what negligence was, because he believed
it to be impossible to define it. He had looked through a great number of cases upon
the point, and had read many books upon the point, and he defied anybody to give an
accurate definition of what negligence was in that case. But this much he would say,
that the question of negligence 'was the question for the jury, and for the jury only ;
and he should submit to them and to his Lordship that to make out negligence suffi¬
cient to justify the jury in finding the prisoner guilty of the felony of manslaughter, to
say the least of it, it must be something more than mischance. Therefore, as he put
it to the jury, the point that they would have to try, assuming, without admitting,
that strychnine was given by the prisoner for James’s powder, the question for them
would be, did the evidence show that his conduct was the result of gross and culpable
negligence, or was it not rather proved that the accident was the result of mischance ?
Before examining the evidence adduced, he wished to make a passing remark, viz. that
experience would teach them that, in all cases of that kind, when preliminary in¬
quiries took place, when the matter was fresh in the mind of the public, and when the
public mind was a good deal excited by sympathy for the poor deceased, there was a
natural tendency to fix the blame upon somebody. And generally it very often hap¬
pened that with that natural tendency upon their minds to satisfy doubts, it was said
“ Oh! it was so-and-so’s fault,” and that that somebody was a subordinate, and that
he had to bear a great portion of the blame that attached to his superior. It was so
in the case of the Egham accident, and he (the learned counsel) could not help ex¬
pressing his surprise at reading the remarks made by the learned judge upon that case
in his address to the grand jury. He said that in his opinion it was not right to throw
the blame, when accidents of that kind took place, on persons in an inferior position ;
and that inferior persons employed upon the railway ought not to be made responsible
for anything that occurred in consequence of a want of proper management or proper
arrangements. Now he could not help drawing the attention of the jury to those re¬
marks, which were made by a very learned judge. In that case, when the evidence
was sifted, it turned out that proper arrangements were not made, and the prisoners
arraigned were acquitted. If the jury, in considering the evidence in this case, should
find that proper precautions were not taken to separate the poisons from the ordinary
drugs ; if they found that even in the state in which they were proper precautions
were not taken to mark the poisons, not only by putting a label upon them, but also
to make them distinguishable to the touch ; if they found the prisoner was a well-con¬
ducted, careful person, bearing a high character for his position in life, who had al¬
ways conducted his business in a careful and proper manner, and who had conducted
his business upon that day in the ordinary manner, and had taken the ordinary pre¬
cautions — there was no suggestion that he was drunk, that he was careless ; there was
nothing offered to show that by any act of his he was incapacitated to do his duty —
and then if they found that in the hurry of his business, and possibly, in the gloom
of the dark part of the shop, at half-past five o’clock in the evening, by a mere slip of
the hand he took down the wrong bottle, and that, having done so, there was nothing
to attract his attention to it, he made up the prescription in the usual way, taking
the usual precautions before sending it out ; — he hoped, if he was able to make that
out, the jury would exercise their discretion, and say it was rather a mischance acci¬
dent than one due to gross and culpable negligence. After carefully going through
the evidence, the learned counsel said that, supposing the strychnine had been kept at
Messrs. Clay and Abraham’s establishment in a crystallized state, and had been kept
in corrugated bottles, the accident never would have arisen. There was the clearest
admission on the part of the prisoner’s superiors that they had not exercised proper
precaution, in the fact that since the coroner’s jury had made a presentment that the
drugs should be separated from the poisons, they had been placed in a separate cup¬
board. Therefore the whole of these precautions being omitted, the prisoner was not
answerable for that. He (Mr. Liddell) did not ask the jury for their sympathy, — he
scorned to ask for it ; but he asked them as honest men and Englishmen, when they
found that all the precautions he had alluded to had been omitted, — if they thought
the accident arose in consequence of it, — he entreated them not to visit it upon the
head of the young man who was then at the bar. The learned counsel called wit¬
nesses as to the prisoner’s character.

POISONING BY STRYCHNINE.

133

Dr. Nicholl said lie had always found him an unusually careful dispenser, in com¬
parison with many others he knew.

Mr. Abraham said the prisoner had been two years in his employment, and during
that time he had been one of the most careful, able, and attentive young men he had
ever had in his shop.

His Lordship, in summing up, said that if the jury were of opinion that the death
of the deceased was caused by an accident that might have happened to any careful
and attentive man, it would be their duty to acquit the prisoner. According to the
analysis of the very scientific gentleman (Dr. Edwards) who has been called before
you, and who gave his evidence with a clearness and scientific precision which ap¬
peared to me extremely deserving of praise — if James’s powder had been present, it
would have been inevitable that antimony would have been discovered, and there was
none. Dover’s powder was to a certain extent traceable, because there was that which
indicated the presence of opium. Therefore it is suggested that strychnine was sub¬
stituted by mistake for James’s powder, the strychnine bottle being in most dangei’ous
proximity to the James’s powder. It was to be regretted that the arrangement since
made by the firm of Clay and Abraham with respect to their drugs and poisons had
not been made before the death of the deceased, as in that case the accident would
never have occurred.

The jury, after consulting together about five minutes, returned a verdict of “ Hot
guilty,” and the prisoner was immediately discharged.

CASE OF POISONING BY STRYCHNINE.— ACTION AGAINST THE

CHEMISTS FOR DAMAGES.

LIVERPOOL ASSIZES. — NISI PRIUS COURT, AUGUST 17. — (PEEORE MR. BARON PIGOTT.)

Lingard, Administratrix, v. Clay and Abraham.

This was a special jury cause, brought under Lord Campbell’s Act, for the recovery
of damages. The circumstances which were the cause of action have excited consi¬
derable attention, and gave rise to a trial for manslaughter during the present assizes.
— Mr. Attorney- General James, Q.C., Mr. Aspinall, Q.C., and Mr. Samuell, were re¬
tained for the plaintiff ; Mr. Temple, Q.C., and Mr. Quain, were counsels lor the de¬
fence.

When the cause was called on,

Mr. Attorney- General James, addressing his Lordship, said — We are going to take a
verdict, my Lord, for £1500.

His Lordship. — A verdict by consent, is it ?

The Attorney- General. — If your Lordship will wait for one moment, it is necessary
to say a few words. The action is brought under Lord Campbell’s Act, and as there
must be an apportionment, no doubt the jury will take what we suggest. The verdict
will be for £1500 ; £500 to the widow, and £500 each to the two younger children.
The eldest child comes in for some property by the death of the father.

His Lordship. — You must give the eldest child something.

The Attorney-General. — Yes, my Lord, we will give him, say, £1 ; though I don’t
know that it is necessary.

His Lordship. — Well, I thought that he had sustained some injury.

The Attorney-General. — Well, say a shilling to the other ; then the verdict will be
for £1500. Is.

Mr. Temple. — Now, my Lord, this was an action brought by the administratrix of
a person who met with his death in consequence of a person in the employ of the de¬
fendants, who are eminent chemists in this town, having unfortunately mixed strych¬
nine, instead of James’s Powder, with the medicine that had to be administered.
Now, I was prepared with a large body of evidence, comprising nearly all the most
eminent physicians and surgeons in this town, and also a great number of chemists
from different parts of the country— amongst the rest, from the chemists of Her Ma¬
jesty, who have dispensed the medicines of the Royal lamily for the last thirty years
— for the purpose of making out that, although this sad mischance had taken place,

1U

POISONING BY CALABAR BEANS.

the defendants had always conducted their business with great care, and had so
arranged the various medicine bottles, including poisons, as in their best judgment
would be most likely to guard against accidents. I have this vast body of evidence to
express approval of the mode adopted by the defendants, and also to show that it
was very commonly adopted and most approved of by the profession. I think it but
justice, with the consent of the Attorney- General, to make that statement ; but, as
your Lordship knows, it would have amounted to no defence. W e still should have
been liable -at law. And I may say that Messrs. Clay and Abraham have said to me
that, even supposing they could have hoped for a verdict on any strictly legal ground,
they should feel it their bounden duty, under the circumstances, to pay to the widow
such a sum as might be considered reasonable and proper. For these reasons the de¬
fendants have consented, as has been stated, to a verdict for £1500.

His Lordship said — Gentlemen of the jury, I think we may all say we approve of the
course the defendants have taken. For my own part, I must say, we all know acci¬
dents will happen, as the common saying is, in the best-regulated establishments ;
but I would make this one further observation, that in these matters of dealing with
poisons I think it would be an excellent practice for everybody to keep them under
lock and key, and separate from any other and harmless drugs. I do not by any
means say the defendants have not done so. I am glad there would have been
all this testimony to the good management of the establishment ; and their having
consented to a verdict is, I think, an act of good feeling on their part. The damages
will be £1500, £500 of which will go to the widow. Under the Act of Parliament,
you are to say how the damages shall be divided between the widow and children, if
it is the case of a parent. In this case it is the parent, and £500 wall go to the widow
and £500 each to the younger children. The eldest child comes into some money by
the death of the parent, and one shilling is sufficient, in the view of the parties who
are watching the case in his interest. You will find a verdict to this effect.

The jury found accordingly.

POISONING- BY CALABAK BEANS.

We extract the following particulars from a Liverpool paper : — *

Yery great alarm was excited in the neighbourhood of Greenland Street, yesterday
afternoon, by the sudden manifestation amongst a large number of children of symp¬
toms of poisoning. During the whole of the afternoon young children thus afflicted
were being conveyed to the Southern Hospital, at which institution upwards of forty
sufferers were received, one of whom died shortly after admission. It appeal’s that
about noon yesterday a quantity of rubbish — taken from the ship c Commodore,’ be¬
longing to Messrs. Tobin and Co., now lying in the Queen’s Dock Basin, and which
has recently arrived from the western coast of Africa — was carted to Greenland Street,
and deposited on a piece of waste ground between that street and New Bird Street,
adjoining the Baffles Memorial Building. This rubbish, which consisted principally
of ships’ sweepings, shavings, etc., was soon overhauled by the children playing about
the neighbouring streets, who found amongst it a number of beans, which, probably
mistaking them for nuts of some kind, they cracked and ate. Almost immediately
afterwards several of them became violently sick, and so unwell that it was thought
necessary to take them without delay to the hospital. The first child taken was Mary
Ann Foster, six years of age, residing in a court in Bell Street. She was quickly fol¬
lowed by Mary Pierce, a little girl living in 4 Court, Bell Street ; and the third patient
was Michael Bussell, six years of age, who resided with his parents at No. 15, New
Bird Street. This boy is said to have eaten six of the beans ; when taken to the
hospital he was almost dead, and though remedies were promptly applied, he died in
a very short time. This was the only case which had terminated fatally, and the fact
that the effects have not been more serious is attributed by the surgeons in a great de¬
gree to the circumstance that the majority of the children had had their dinners be¬
fore eating the poison, so that it was taken on a full stomach. Two of them, besides
the deceased, were extremely unwell, but they are now much better. The whole of
the children were very ill, the pupils of their eyes were contracted, they had severe

POISONING BY CALABAR BEANS.

135

griping pains, and vomited constantly. For several liours Dr. Wollaston and Mr.
Evans were busily employed in attending to tliese patients, and their efforts were so
far successful that by last evening the greater number of the children were in a fair
way of recovery, although it will be some days before they are quite well. Several
children were also taken to the Southern Dispensary, where they were properly at¬
tended to. It is probable that others were provided for at their own homes, so that
altogether about fifty children were affected by the poison. Upon examination, the
poisonous agent was ascertained to be the Old Calabar Bean {JBhy so stigma venenosum) .

Inquest. — An inquest was subsequently held by Mr. P. F. Currey, the borough
coroner, for the purpose of inquiring into the circumstances attending the extraordi¬
nary poisoning of children in Toxteth Park, on Wednesday, the 10th instant, and
more particularly into the death of Michael Bussell, a little boy six years of age, whose
parents resided at 15, New Bird Street.

The first witness called was Jane, wife of Michael Bussell, a joiner, who said that
on Thursday week the deceased, who had been out to play, came home about two
o’clock. He was crying, and on entering the house fell on the floor, and in answer to
his mother, said he had been eating some nuts which he had found on some waste
ground close by the school in Greenland Street. She took him to the Southern
Hospital.

Thomas Costain, overlooker for the Company of African Merchants, carrying on
business in Walmer Buildings, Water Street, stated that the barque c Commodore,’
which belonged to them, and lay in the Queen’s Basin, was discharged eight or nine
days ago. Her cargo consisted of palm oil, Calabar beans, and ebony. He did not
know that there were any beans taken from the vessel, as he had given strict orders to
the porter on the quay, and the lumpers engaged in discharging the vessel, to pick
them all up, as they were valuable. He said this because he had seen some of them
scattered about. On leaving the vessel last Wednesday week he gave orders to the
foreman porter, William Frith, to send for Mr. Griffiths, who was in the habit of buy¬
ing the sweepings of the company’s vessels. He did not give orders to any carter to
remove the rubbish.

Samuel Price, a carter, living at 15, Crump Street, stated that on Wednesday or
Thursday week he was employed by one of Mr. Tobin’s workmen to remove a load of
rubbish from the quay of the Queen’s Basin, but the man gave him no direction where
to take it. He was to have 2s. for removing it, and he deposited it on the waste land
between New Bird Street and Greenland Street. He never laid anything down in
that place before from ships, and he thought he was doing no harm. He did not
observe any beans like those produced amongst the rubbish.

Inspector Moore deposed that having had his attention drawn to a number of
children who were being conveyed to the hospital, in consequence of having been
poisoned by eating the beans, he iiad the rubbish buried in the soil-yard in Vauxhall
Boad, having first separated the beans from it and taken them to the Jordan Street
Bridewell. The carter Price, having been brought to him as the person by whom the
rubbish had been deposited on the land, said he had been employed by the overlooker
for the barque ‘ Commodore ’ to remove the rubbish, and that he was desired to take
it to the north end, but the price being so small he deposited it in the waste land in
Greenland Street, being nearer.

Mr. James Irvine, general merchant, No. 31, Temple, Dale Street, stated that the
Calabar beans had latterly been brought as part of cargoes in ships from Calabar. In
this country they were used as a lotion for the eye ; but in Calabar they were used for
poisoning entirely. They varied in their effects ; sometimes half a bean would poison
a man, when twenty beans would not if they induced vomiting.

Police-officer James Storey, 802, deposed to the steps which he took for the reco¬
very of the beans in the possession of children in the neighbourhood, at home, in the
streets, and at school. He found out Price the carter, who said he had been engaged
by some one from Mr. Tobin’s to remove the rubbish to the north end, but the pay
was too small for taking it so far, and he thought it no harm to place it where he did.

Dr. Galston Wollaston, house-surgeon at the Southern Hospital, said when the de¬
ceased was brought to that institution he was in a state of extreme collapse, from
which he never rallied, and died in less than half an hour. Upon making a post-mortem

136

POISONING BY CALABAlt BEANS.

examination of the body, he found all the organs healthy, with the exception of the
lungs, which were somewhat tuberculous. The stomach and upper part of the small
intestines contained a substance resembling slightly-digested nuts. He attributed
death to the poisonous effects of the Calabar beans taken into the stomach.

Dr. Cameron, residing at 17, Rodney Street, who was in attendance at the hospital,
gave similar evidence, and added that forty-six children were admitted suffering from
the effects of the same poison.

Dr. John Baker Edwards deposed, — I am an analytical chemist and lecturer on
medical jurisprudence at the Royal Infirmary School of Medicine, Liverpool. On Friday,
the 12th instant, I attended a 'post-mortem examination of the remains of the deceased
Michael Russell, and removed the stomach, intestines, and parts of the viscera of
deceased in jars, which I conveyed to my laboratory at the Royal Institution for che¬
mical examination. On the same day I received from Inspector Moore a parcel of
beans, said to be similar to those of which the said Michael Russell had eaten. The
beans are those known in medicine as Calabar or ordeal beans ( Physostigma vene-
nosum). I proceeded to make an alcoholic extract of the beans, also of the contents
of deceased’s stomach, and of the contents of deceased’s intestines. The stomach con¬
tained only five fluid ounces of fluid, consisting of a few fragments of the bean and the
remains of a mustard emulsion which had been administered shortly before death.
The quantity of alcoholic extract from the stomach was therefore very small, and its
reactions were obscured by the mustard. After further purification by ether, an ex¬
tract was obtained which caused marked contraction of the pupil in the eye of a rabbit
when applied to it externally. From the intestines of deceased I obtained seventeen
fluid ounces of an emulsive fluid, which, after digestion with the alcohol, yielded an
extract, which was then purified by ether and evaporated. This ethereal extract
corresponded in its reactions with a similarly-prepared extract of the beans under exa¬
mination. The chemical reactions on a watery solution of the ethereal extract are as
follows : — 1. A pink colour, struck by caustic potash, which gradually increases in in¬
tensity to a deep red, and when mixed with chloroform forms a deep red cliloroformic
solution, which separates from the clear yellowish supernatant liquor. 2. A red
colour, struck by strong sulphuric acid, with separation of a resinoid coagulum. 3.
A violet colour, changing to red by sulphuric acid and crystals of bichromate of
potash. 4. A similar colour, with sulphmuc acid and binoxide of manganese, retain¬
ing the purple colour for a long time. 5. A yellow precipitate, with solution of iodine
in iodide of potassium. 6. A purple colour, with terchloride of gold and reduction of
metallic gold. 7. A yellow colour, struck with caustic ammonia, which, exposed for
some hours to light, turned green, and finally a deep blue. I applied a few drops of
the aqueous emulsion of this ethereal extract obtained from the intestines of deceased
to a frog’s back, by insertion under the skin- In a short time the animal manifested
an indisposition to movement, and became very quiet. In the course of an hour it
became unable to jump, or to remove the position in which its limbs were placed, and
in about two hours it became perfectly flaccid and insensible to any external irritation ;
although stimulated by strychnine, it was incapable of being roused to muscular exer¬
tion, and soon expired, having previously exhibited very irregular respiration and pul¬
sation. A second portion of the emulsion was exhibited to a mouse, which became
soon paralysed in its limbs, and died after a few hours. A third portion was intro¬
duced into the circulation of a mouse by the ear, and after twenty-four hours the
poison operated fatally, by complete paralysis of the limbs and senses, and the animal
died by syncope. A fourth portion of the emulsion from the intestines of deceased,
applied to the eye of a rabbit, caused strong contraction of the pupil after three-quar¬
ters of an hour. Similar results were obtained by an ethereal extract of the bean
itself.*

The Coroner, hj addressing the jury, remarked that the case was one of a distress¬
ing character, there being no doubt from the evidence that the death of the deceased
was occasioned by the poisonous action of the Calabar beans which he had eaten.
The only question for the jury was, whether there was negligence on the part of any

* For further particulars see “Notes on the Cases of Poisoning by Calabar Beans,” by
Dr. Edwards, p. 99.

TI1E LATE ACCIDENT AT LIVERPOOL.

137

one who was connected with the beans. It appeared by the account of the carter, that
2s. was to be given to him for taking them to the north shore ; but that, as this was
too far, considering the price lie was to receive, he had deposited the bean3 in the
piece of waste land in Greenland Street, this being nearer, and lie thought there was
no harm in doing so. He also said he was not aware that there were any of the beans
amongst the rubbish. Care should be taken in discharging ships whose cargoes con¬
tained articles of a poisonous character, because children would play about rubbish to
wdiich they could have access, and serious results might follow. In this instance 46
children ate of the beans and were carried to the Southern Hospital, though only one
had died. It wras a singular fact that the one who died was not sick ; he must there¬
fore have retained a portion of the poisonous bean in his stomach. The Coroner then
read an extract from the ‘ Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,’ contain¬
ing a description of the plant that produces the ordeal bean of Calabar. The extract
was from a paper read before the Society by Professor Balfour, of the University of
Edinburgh. It was as follows : — “ It lias long been known that in various parts of
Africa the natives are in the habit of subjecting to the ordeal of poison parties who are
suspected of crimes. On the east coast we meet witli Tanghinia venenata , yielding the
Tanghin poison-nut of Madagascar, and on the west coast seeds and barks of different
kinds have been employed as ordeals, the sources of wdiich, however, have not been
hitherto fully ascertained. Dr. Kirk, naturalist to the Livingstone expedition, states
that the Manganja tribe, in the south-east of Africa, believe in a god and in medicine,
or the ordeal which he directs as the means of discovering crime. If the ordeal
causes vomiting, it shows innocence ; if it acts by the bowels, crime ; and the person
is put to death. But the doctors have a good knowledge of which to give, for there
are different plants used. In the district of Old Calabar a bean is used for an ordeal
poison, to which the name of Esere is given. It possesses extraordinary energy, and
the attention of the missionaries of the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland in
that quarter was directed to this poison several years ago. The Rev. H. M. Waddell,
one of these missionaries (now in Edinburgh), brought some of the beans to this coun¬
try ; and of late numerous specimens of them have been sent or brought to Edinburgh
by other missionaries.” There wras no doubt, the Coroner observed, that the beans
wrere brought as part of the cargo of a ship, and extreme caution should have been
used in disposing of the rubbish, amongst which a part of the cargo might have es¬
caped. There was no law that he knew of affecting any of the parties in this case, as
the poor boy had injured himself by eating the beans. He thought, however, that
more caution should have been used.

The jury, after a short consultation, returned a verdict to the effect that the de¬
ceased had “ died from the effects of incautiously eating a poisonous bean, called the
* Calabar Bean,’ which had been incautiously delivered from a ship in some rubbish.”
The jury accompanied with their verdict an expression of opinion that the captains of
ships bringing cargoes wrhich contained articles of a dangerous character should exer¬
cise caution with regard to the place in which the rubbish was deposited. The
Coroner told Mr. Costain, the overlooker, that it would be well, when Calabar beans
and articles of that nature were brought as part of the cargoes of ships, to give the
captains strict instructions with regard to the discharge of the vessels, in order that
due precaution might be exercised. He hoped that a case of this kind would never
occur again. He highly commended Inspector Moore and police-constable Storey for
the prompt measures which they took in connection with the occurrence. He thought
their conduct was deserving of great praise.

THE LATE ACCIDENT AT LIVERPOOL.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — The astounding fine which, with the heavy costs, Messrs. Clay and
Abraham have to pay for the carelessness of an assistant, may well alarm the
whole trade at their terrible responsibility.

If the error had been committed by one of the “ Principals ,” so heavy a
fine might, with some reason, have been deserved ; but when it occurred through

138

MISCELLANEA.

the act of a paid assistant, and a similar mistake may any hour be made by any
young man in any establishment, however well-conducted, it appears to me that
though the weight of the blow falls upon Messrs. Clay and Abraham, it in
reality concerns the whole of the chemists and druggists in the kingdom, who
ought and (I have no doubt) will sympathize with these gentlemen.

But ought we only to sympathize with them ? Would it not be more to the
purpose if a subscription were entered into by the whole trade to pay the fine
and costs ? Yours respectfully,

A Birmingham Chemist.

LEGISLATION AFFECTING PHARMACY.

At the end of the Session, the Metric Weights and Measures Bill — the text of which
will be found in our July number, page 36 — passed the Legislature, and with some slight
alteration and the following addition to the 2nd clause, has now become law : — “ Or on
the ground that decimal subdivisions of legal weights and measures, whether metric or
otherwise, are used in such contract or dealing.”

At the same time, for the purpose of extending the “ Poisoned Grain Prohibition Act of

1863, ” was passed an Act to prohibit the placing of poisoned flesh and poisonous matters
in plantations, fields, and open places, and called

The Poisoned Flesh Prohibition Act, 1864.

Whereas it is expedient to extend the provisions of an Act passed in the Session of
Parliament held in the 26th and 27th years of the reign of Her present Majesty, intituled
“ An Act to prohibit the Sale and Use of Poisoned Grain or Seed Be it enacted by the
Queen’s most excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords
spiritual and temporal, and Commons in this present Parliament assembled, and by the
authority of the same, as follows : —

1. This Act may be cited for all purposes as “The Poisoned Flesh Prohibition Act,

1864. ”

2. Every person who shall knowingly and wilfully set, lay, put, or place, or cause to
be set, laid, put, or placed, in or upon any land any flesh or meat which has been mixed
with or steeped in or impregnated with poison or any poisonous ingredient, so as to render
such flesh or meat poisonous and calculated to destroy life, shall, upon a summary convic¬
tion thereof, forfeit any sum not exceeding £10, to be recovered in the manner provided
by the Poisoned Grain Prohibition Act, 1863 : Provided always, that nothing herein
contained shall prevent owners or occupiers of land in Ireland from laying or causing to
be laid any poisonous matter as hereinbefore described, after a notice has been posted in a
conspicuous place, and notice in writing has been given to the nearest constabulary
station.

3. Nothing in this Act shall make it unlawful for the occupier of any dwelling-house
or other building, or the owner of any rick or stack of wheat, barley, oats, beans, peas,
tares, seeds, or of any cultivated vegetable produce, to put or place, or cause to be put or
placed, in any such dwelling-house or other building, or in any enclosed garden attached
to such dwelling-house, or in the drains connected with any such dwelling-house, provided
that such drains are so protected with gratings or otherwise as to prevent any dog from
entering the same, or within such rick or stack, any poison or poisonous ingredient or
preparation for the destruction of rats, mice, or other small vermin.

4. This Act shall not apply to any grain, seed, or meal within the provisions of the
Poisoned Grain Prohibition Act, 1863, and the provisions of the 5th section of the said
Poisoned Grain Prohibition Act, 1863, shall apply to any proceedings instituted under
this Act, and shall come into operation on the 1st October, 1864.

MISCELLANEA.

The Poisoning Ordeal of the Africans, — The recent case of poisoning by Ca¬
labar beans in Liverpool has brought into publicity the particulars of a strange custom
which prevails amongst the natives on the west coast of Africa. The following in¬
teresting account of the ordeal is contained in a letter received from Mr. W. C. Thom-

MISCELLANEA.

139

son, of Glasgow, by Mr. James Irvine, of this town, and was written in order to furnish
some reliable information regarding the bean that caused so much distress in Liver¬
pool : — “ The Calabar bean, as an ordeal, is given in various quantities, from below a
dozen to over a hundred, but a very small portion — less than half— of a bean is suf¬
ficient to destroy life ; while, on the other hand, entire dozens of the bean have been
taken with impunity, being quickly rejected by the stomach and bowels. One bean
halved between a brace of infatuated duellists, has cut both off; and a woman who
was tried for witchcraft some years ago, and who must have taken some dozens in
the process, was still living and in vigorous health last year. When used by duellists,
it is customary for the challenger to bite a bean in two, consume his half, and hand
the other to his opponent, who is obliged to eat it up. This is said to be a common
thing among the Ibebios. When it is administered in public trial, the accused is com¬
pelled to eat up a few beans just as you see them, while others were being pounded to
pulp in his presence. This is afterwards well mixed with water, and one part of the
mixture given as a drink and the other administered in the form of an enema. If the
poison so irritates stomach and bowels as to be completely ejected, which is often
the case, the party escapes and is pronounced innocent ; if not, he dies, and is there¬
fore guilty. The plant grows to a large size, one plant climbing sometimes over
several trees, and almost entirely enveloping them in its foliage. It is often to be
met with on the banks of the Calabar river. The flower is not unlike that of the
sweet pea.”

Poisoning by Laudanum. — On Monday, August 15th, an inquest was held at
the Town Hall, Lancaster, on the body of Thomas Wilson, 15 weeks old, who died
from the effects of laudanum contained in some syrup of rhubarb, administered by his
mother, who stated in evidence that the child being very cross, she sent to Mrs. Cooper,
who keeps a druggist’s shop, for “a pennyworth of syrup of rhubarb, with a drop or two
of laudanum.” The quantity sent was about 2 teaspoonfuls, the whole of which was
given to the child in two doses, in the morning, and about the middle of the day the
child became very drowsy, and was carried by the mother to Mrs. Cooper, who advised
that a doctor should be sent for immediately. Mr. Watson, surgeon, was accordingly
called in, who used all the means in his power to revive the child, but without effect.

Mrs. Cooper, in her evidence, stated that she had put 15 drops of laudanum in the
quantity of syrup of rhubarb given to the child ; but that when she purchased laudanum,
she “let it down” by adding 3 ounces of water to about 2 lbs., the quantity her bottle
held. There was some discrepancy in the statement of the person who wras sent for the
mixture, and that of Mrs. Cooper ; the former stating that she was told to give a tea¬
spoonful, the latter asserting that she said half a teaspoonful.

The Coroner in summing up quoted from Dr. Taylor’s ‘Medical Jurisprudence,’ to
show how liable infants were to be affected by very small doses of opium, and cases
were mentioned — one, a child 4 months old, was nearly killed by the administration of
1 grain of Dover’s powder ; another child, 4f years old, died from the effects of 4 grains
of the same medicine ; also, one of a child 9 months old, to whom 4 drops of laudanum
were fatal. In conclusion, he observed that as Mrs. Cooper, so to speak, dealt in the
health of Her Majesty’s subjects, she was bound to bring proper skill and knowledge to
bear upon her business. If by negligence she had caused the death of the child, how¬
ever painful it might be to the jury to do so, they would return a verdict of manslaughter.
The jury, after a consultation of about two hours, returned the following verdict : —
“The jury are of opinion that Thomas Wilson died from the effects of an overdose of
laudanum, administered to him by his mother in ignorance ; but that his death is at¬
tributable to the carelessness of Mrs. Cooper in dispensing poisonous drugs, she being
wholly unacquainted with their nature and strength ; we consequently return a verdict
of manslaughter against Mrs. Cooper.”

Mrs. Cooper was admitted to bail, herself in £50, and two sureties of £25 each.

Poisoning' by Hemlock. — A lady and her two children, living at Litherland, were
lately taken seriously ill soon after dinner. Medical aid was sought, when the symptoms
were attributed to poison, and it was found that hemlock had been mixed with the herbs
used for flavouring the soup, and, as the parsley had been gathered in the garden, it is
supposed that hemlock seed had been accidentally mixed with the parsley seed when
sown. The symptoms soon gave way to the remedies used, and the patients recovered.

140

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

Accidental Poisoning by Laudanum. — An inquest was held on Monday, August
8, before Mr. Coroner Swann, at Sneinton, near Nottingham, on the body of a child
named Joseph Henry Ellicock, aged six months. It appeared from the evidence that the
mother of the deceased sent a child for some Godfrey’s cordial, but she asked for lauda¬
num by mistake. The druggist’s assistant put a label of “ poison ” on the bottle, but
the mother not being able to read, gave the child a portion of it, and death was the re¬
sult. The verdict was, “ Death from laudanum, administered in mistake for Godfrey’s
Cordial.” The coroner and the jury expressed an opinion that there had been great care¬
lessness in the matter by all the parties concerned.

Accidental Poisoning by Corrosive Sublimate. — On Friday, July 26, Miss
Lydia Hale, of Chichester Place, Bayswater, expired from the effects of a solution of
corrosive sublimate, which she took in mistake for camphor julep.

BOOKS RECEIVED.

Die Merkmaxe der Aechtheit und Gute der Arzneistoffe ees Pflanzen-
tjnd Thierreichs, nebst Anleitung zur Prueung derselben attf iiiren
Gehalt an wirksamen Bestandtheieen, zegleich ein Leitfaden bei Apo-
thekenyisitationen. Von Dr. J. B. Henkee, Prof, der Pharmacie, Pharmaco-
gnosie und medicinischen Botanik zu Tubingen. Tubingen, 1864. Verlag der II.
Laupp’schen Buchhandlung, — Laupp and Siebeck.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

Patent Medicine Licence. — We remind our readers that this Licence becomes due
on September 1st, and should be paid within thirty days of that date.

Intending Pupil (London). — • Fownes’s ‘Chemistry;’ Mohr and Redwood’s ‘Phar¬
macy Bentley’s ‘ Manual of Botany.’

Leptandra (Manchester). — Professor Bentley’s papers on “New American Remedies”
will be shortly resumed.

Brit. PJiarm. (Bristol). — See “Lectures on the British Pharmacopoeia,” by Pro¬
fessors Redwood and Bentley, and Dr. Attfield, in the March, April, May, June, and
Jnly numbers of the ‘ Pharmaceutical Journal ’ of the present year.

A Junior. — When Liquor Antimonii Tartarizati is ordered, that made with spirit,
according to the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, is intended; but if written with the lettex*s
“ P. L.” affixed, that made with wine should evidently be used.

Chemicus. — They are practically the same.

Chemicus (Aberdeen). — (1) We believe there is no such intention at present. (2) We
have no recipe for that purpose. (3) Apply to the Secretary.

Mr. Long's communication has been received, but he has evidently misunderstood the
subject.

A Registered Apprentice (Cork). — Fownes’s ‘Chemistry;’ Garrod’s ‘Essentials of
Materia Medica;’ and Bentley’s ‘Manual of Botany.’ Wi’ite to the Secretary of the
Pharmaceutical Society, and he will forward you all the Regulations, etc., of the
School and Board of Examiners.

Pharmaceutist. — Datura Tatula has similar properties to Datura Stramonium. It
is generally regarded as a distinct species, although probably only a variety of Datura
Stramonium.

A Lover of Justice (Liverpool) and S. J. Weston (Pai’is) are thanked for their com¬
munications, which will receive notice in our next number.

W. Gr. Hag ward (Reading). — There is no recognized formula for Tinctura Podo-
phglli.

Chemicus (Canterbury). — Henfrey’s ‘ Rudiments of Botany.’

Instructions from Members and Associates respecting the transmission of the
Journal before the 25th of the month, to Elias Bremridge, Secretary, 17,
Bloomsbury Square, W.C.

Advertisements (not later than the 23rd) to Messrs. Churchill, New Bur¬
lington Street. Other communications to the Editors, 17, Bloomsbury Square.

THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

SECOND SERIES.

YOL. YI.— No. IY.— OCTOBER 1st, 1864.

THE SIXTH REPORT OF THE MEDICAL OFFICER OF THE
PRIVY COUNCIL, WITH APPENDIX.

Embodied in a “blue book” bearing the above title, we have one of the
most important documents concerning “ Poisoning, and the Dispensing , Vending,
and Keeping of Poisons,” which has for many years appeared ; it will be read
with interest by all chemists, with surprise by many, and seems to be big with
the fate of pharmacy.

Mr. Simon, under instruction of the Lords of the Privy Council, proceeds
first to ascertain to what extent accidental or criminal poisoning causes death
in England, and what security the public enjoys against an indefinite multipli¬
cation of such cases of poisoning. He puts down the suicides by poison during
a period of four years at 509, the deaths by accidental poisoning in the same
period 1059. Thus far the report proceeds on certain data, and then, diverging
to conjecture, presumes “a considerable though not ascertained proportion” of the
1880 murders occurring in four years to have been committed by poison. We
think it would have been better, and quite easy, here to have given the exact
number. On his next point, some of our readers will be inclined to dispute the
conclusion that many accidental cases of poisoning occur and are not distinguished
from deaths by natural causes.

It is however most important to consider how far carelessness and incompe¬
tence exist among dispensers of medicine, with a view to remedying the evil ;
and to what extent unnecessary facilities are given for the purchase of poison for
criminal purposes, or rather to what extent those facilities could be abridged
without inconvenience to the public.

The assistance of Dr. Taylor having been called in, he has handed a very
lengthened report to the Medical Officer, opening at once with the indisputable
assertion “ that a large number of persons wholly unacquainted with the pro¬
perties of powerful drugs and medicines are allowed to retail them to the public,
on demand, without any check or control.” lie then cites many accidents which
have arisen from this cause, frequently referring to the reports contained in
former numbers of this Journal for authority. Dr. Taylor bears testimony to
the desire of respectable druggists, both in town and country, to throw “ every im¬
pediment in the way of the purchase of poison,” but dwells largely on the care¬
less custody of poisons as a fertile source of danger to the public. Our readers
will have the opportunity of judging for themselves how far, as a body, drug¬
gists are open to animadversion on this point ; but there is one thing we cannot
pass without notice, namely the alleged practice of trusting rather to the posi¬
tion of the bottle on its shelf than the label it bears as to the nature of its contents.

VOL. VI. M

142 REPORT OF THE MEDICAL OFFICER OF THE PR1YY COUNCIL.

We have seen lamentable instances where the result has seemed to justify
such an inference, — some indeed where the word “ Poison,” in addition to the
name of the article, has been apparently disregarded — and we confess that we
tremble for the result when we think of a dispenser who can, under any circum¬
stances, weigh or measure from a bottle without first reading its label. This
is just the kind of carelessness which men of the greatest experience, when
discussing the merits of “ Poison Bills,” have believed wTould be increased by
cunningly-devised bottles. A dispensary contains so many poisons, that poison-
bottles must be common therein. Morphia is a poison, so is strychnia, so is
aconitine ; but there is as much care required in distinguishing between these
three medicines as between tincture of opium and many other tinctures of the
same colour and appearance. The label only must be the dispenser’s guide,
however much poisons, as a class, may be hedged about with further precau¬
tions.

Dr. Taylor concludes with certain suggestions, which in the main are doubt¬
less good, for diminishing the evils he has been considering. He commences
with the one broad and important provision, u That none but qualified persons,
educated to the trade of druggists, should be allowed to vend by retail drugs
or medicines capable of acting as poisons.”

This is but an extension of the principle set forth in the Pharmaceutical
Society from the beginning, and acted upon continuously, that the public safety
should be secured and the status of the trade advanced , by the requirement of a
certain educational qualification of those who intend to practise Pharmacy . Sug¬
gestion 2 may seem unnecessary if No. 1 be enacted ; 3 is a due acknow¬
ledgment of this Society and testimony to its usefulness ; but here the diffi¬
culty of schedules will come in, as it always has done when legislative enact¬
ments have been proposed, and the impossibility of making a catalogue of
“ noxious substances, such as ” seems almost insurmountable. The labelling
is but enforcing a practice which is invariable with all careful druggists at
present. Provisions for age on the part of dispensers are wise and possible, not
so the requirement that buyers shall bring proof of being twenty years old ;
that is a point which must, and may safely, be left in the hands of the properly
qualified vender.

We bring this report prominently before our readers, because it treats of sub¬
jects of considerable interest and anxiety to our whole body — such anxiety
as none but those engaged in the daily practice of pharmacy can appreciate.
Those who have taken an interest in the proposed legislation affecting pharmacy,
will hail it as another aid in the right direction, and an assurance that our
course has hitherto been wise ; it is another recognition of our Society, which
up to this time has had only power to give a distinctive title without trade pri¬
vileges, and an evidence that men in a position to form a sound judgment are
prepared to take that Society as a means already in existence to ameliorate
existing evils.

It is true that our proposed extension of the Pharmacy Act contains no sale
of poisons prohibition clauses; but it is equally true that some of the persons
acting on the Committee which framed the new Bill, as well as those indeed who
prepared the first Pharmacy Bill, were fully impressed with the necessity of
adding them, and were only deterred by the fear of risking what may be called
an educational measure by the introduction of regulations belonging in some
sort to police. It will be better in many respects that the demand for such pro¬
visions should come from without, and our wisdom will consist in complying
with that demand.

143

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

The Pharmaceutical Conference at Bath, of which a full report will be found
in another part of this Journal, has been attended with at least as much success
as its best friends had any right to expect. The meetings extended through
four days, and a considerable number of communications were read, the purport
and character of which may be judged from the abstracts we have given. The
attendance was by no means bad, for we know how reluctant chemists and
druggists are to leave their shops with the heavy responsibilities that rest upon
them, and recent events will have added to this feeling. In addition to the
druggists of Bath, who may be looked upon as the hosts, there appear to have
been twelve members of the Conference from London, three from Liverpool,
and sixteen from other parts of the country. We might, it is true, have ex¬
pected a larger attendance from Bristol, but, on the whole, the result must be
considered to have been a decided success. We are glad to observe that many
of the communications have been contributed by provincial chemists, and espe¬
cially that several of them are from places where no associations exist for pro¬
moting and encouraging scientific investigation. It is by inducing our brethren
in different parts of the country to look beyond the mere drudgery of trade, to
accustom themselves to the investigation of phenomena which are frequently
coining under their observation, to confer together on the results of these in¬
vestigations, and thus to cultivfite a love for science and mutual friendship one
with another, that these provincial meetings may be made most useful. In
■carrying them out in the form of a new institution, it is to be hoped that care
will be taken to weaken as little as possible the means of support of previously
existing local associations having similar objects. This is an evil which in many
cases has been severely felt, from the long-existing tendency to split up socie¬
ties into associations having special and limited objects, for which there is often
barely matter enough to maintain the interest of their proceedings.

The President’s address, and the report on the prevention of accidental
poisoning, are the only communications read at the meetings that we have re¬
ceived otherwise than in abstract. Some of the scientific papers are on inter¬
esting subjects, and we hope to have the means of publishing these more fully
than is done in the brief abstracts contained in the report.

TRANSACTIONS

OF

THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

AT A MEETING- OE THE COUNCIL, *Wi September , 1864,

Present — Messrs. Bird, Bottle, Davenport, Deane, Hanbury, Morson, Orridge, and
Standring,

Davids, George Ware . Hackney,

was elected a Member of the Society.

The Report of Professor Bentley on the Herbaria presented for competition was
read, and awards were made of a Bronze Medal and Certificate ot Merit.

The Report of the Examiners on the competition for the Minor Examination Prize
of Books to the value of two pounds was read, and the award made to the successful
candidate.

These prizes will be distributed at the evening meeting on the 5th October.

M 2

144

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

BATH MEETING-, 1864.

The first sitting of the Conference was held on Wednesday, September 14, 1864,
at 41, Milsom Street, Bath, at 10 A. M.

The members present at this and subsequent sittings included Messrs. II. Deane,
F.L.S.; Daniel Bell Hanbury; Daniel Hanbury, F.L.S. ; J. C. Brough; S. Gale,
E.C.S. ; W. E. Heathfield, E.R.G.S. ; J. Robbins ; J. Wade; W. Symons, F.C.S;
II. Hodge ; H. Matthews, F.C.S. ; and Dr. Attfield, F.C.S., — of London : H. B.
Brady, F.L.S. , of Newcastle: R. Reynolds, F.C.S. , of Leeds : S. U. Jones, of Leam¬
ington : T. B. Groves, F.C.S., of Weymouth : W. Groves, of Blandford : J. Abraham ;
N. Mercer ; and Dr. Edwards, F.C.S., — of Liverpool : W. Hearder, of Torquay : J.
Leay, of Chilcompton : R. W. Giles and G-. F. Schacht, of Clifton : F. C. Clayton, of
Kelvedon : Dr. Parkinson, of Bradford : A. P. Balkwill, of Plymouth : W. W. Stod-
dart, of Bristol : F. W. Joy, of Cardiff : W. A. Hope, of Wellingborough : F. Roberts,
of Stroud : and F. Barnitt, W. Bright, W. Clatworthy, R. Commans, C. Ekin, R. O.
Harding, T. Harding, W. C. Jameson, F. W. Kent, J. R. King, J. H. Marsh, J. Mer-
rikin, F. Nurthen, M. Parker, J. C. Pooley, H. Rickwood, J. P. Tylee, and W. Walker,
— of Bath ; and many other gentlemen whose names could not be ascertained.

The President, H. Deane, Esq., F.L.S., delivered the following address : — -

It must necessarily be a somewhat embarrassing task to take the chair at a first
meeting of this sort. In an older Association, after a few gatherings have taken
place, a President might, by consulting the conduct of his predecessors by walking in
the line of their successes as far as lay in his power, and avoiding the shoals on which
they might have foundered, possess a fair chance of steering his course to a happy
result. As it is, my one advantage is that there is no standard for comparison, though
I might perhaps add to it the confidence which is inspired by the kindly feeling of
those who have placed me in the position I occupy.

I need not enter into the history of the causes which have led to our meeting here.
It was a happy thought of those who were instrumental in the organization of this
little body, that something might be done towards the proimdgation of brotherly
feeling and sympathy, not less than towards the advancement of pharmacy, in a way
which could scarcely be compassed by any existing society ; that an Association might
be formed in which a social element might be combined, meeting in different parts
of the island so as to give all interested in its objects an opportunity for co-operation,
and labouring systematically towards the end in view, yet still free from the drawbacks
of a complicated constitution and expensive working. The experiment was not an
untried one ; our brethren on the other side of the great Atlantic had weighed the
scheme in the balance of practical experience, and had not found it wanting. And
without unduly exalting their example or depreciating our own powers, we may point
to many of the researches which have been made under their auspices as patterns
which we shall do well to imitate. That the profession in which we are all interested
is in some of its conditions different from its corresponding transatlantic development
is a fact which speaks only in the favour of a principle so elastic. If, as some think,
we in this country are more divided amongst ourselves, more split up into sections,
each section with a different interest, and pursuing it in a diverging line, it is all the
more important that a body of neutral politics, open to all, should exist, to bind
together the links that ought to form one chain. It seemed to me that this increase
of fellow-feeling, of sympathy in its best sense, was no small object at which to aim ;
but I confess my views did not go further than the boundaries of our own kingdom.
It seems that a still wider prospect is open to us, and that we are to become the
means of a manifestation of the same idea as relating to two continents. A letter
will be laid before you from the Secretary of the American Pharmaceutical Associa¬
tion. Through some accident the engrossed copy of the resolutions alluded to in it
has not yet come to hand, but we have their substance in the resolutions recorded
in the copy of their Transactions now laid on the table, which, for our purposes, will
answer the same end ; and I trust that you will see fit to direct that a reply be sent
to these, expressing our high appreciation of the offers of friendly intercourse therein

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

145

contained, and of our desire to move with them hand in hand towards the end we
mutually have in view.

Gentlemen, since my youth I have taken, as some of you know, the deepest interest
in the same objects as those for which the Conference is established, and when
applied to to associate myself with others in its formation, I could only reply, that
whatever service I could render them should be cheerfully given. It has pleased you
to say that this would be best accomplished by my assuming the chair during this
your first year, and however much I might doubt the wisdom of your judgment, I
could but bow to the decision.

So many matters of vital interest to our profession have been mooted during the
past year, that I could not attempt any succinct review of them without interfering
with the important duties of the Conference : 1 shall therefore, with your permission,
confine my remarks to two or three of the most important. Firstly, the national
Pharmacopoeia, which lias appeared since our last meeting, a matter which some may
think has already had ample discussion. Secondly, the state of the law with respect
to accidental poisoning. As the last-named is a subject which will come more fully
under your notice in the Report of the Committee which will be presented to you, I
will reserve a portion of what I have to say to the discussion which may then take
place.

In the first place, I may mention the publication of the new British Pharmacopoeia,
a work which, with many merits characteristic of advancement, has been attended with
much disappointment and dissatisfaction on the part of those most interested in its
appearance.

The necessity for one national Pharmacopoeia in place of three distinct works
issued at irregular intervals, and never simultaneously, by the three Colleges of
London, Edinburgh, and Dublin, had been for many years a conviction growing and
forcing itself upon all concerned in the dispensing of medicines. When in 1855 the
Pharmacopoeia Committee of the Royal College of Physicians of London requested
the co-operation and assistance of the Pharmaceutical Society in the preparation of a
new edition of the Pharmacopoeia, the Society’s committee then formed thought it
highly important that an attempt should be made to induce the three colleges to unite
and agree to publish their fornmlae in one national undertaking, to be called the Bri¬
tish Pharmacopoeia, and accordingly our late lamented friend Jacob Bell, with his
characteristic energy and determination, made several journeys to Scotland and Ireland,
for the purpose of conferring with the leading men of those colleges on the subject,
and after some considerable difficulty obtained something like a general acquiescence
in the proposal. At the commencement of its labours the committee made out a list
of all drugs, chemicals, and preparations contained in the Materia Medica of the three
coheges, and had it printed and issued, with certain questions, to every member of the
Pharmaceutical Society, with a view to elicit a correct knowledge of what medicines
were in use, and to what extent, and what medicines were obsolete or nearly so. A
large mass of evidence was thus obtained from all parts of England and Scotland, on
the strength of which there was little difficulty in determining what should be retained
and what omitted. The next step was to go through the preparations, with a view to
revise where needful, to select the processes best calculated to produce the best results,
to select the best formulae where there were more than one under the same or similar
names, and to leave the rest in their integrity, to meet the wishes of prescribes in
each country ; at the same time it was intended to add formulae for every new prepa¬
ration that could be said to be fairly established. The result would have been a very-
comprehensive work, adapted to all requirements, and interfering but slightly with
the routine of medical practice or public demands and prejudices, with none, or very
few, of those violent alterations which have taken us all by surprise in the book now
before us.

No doubt those who have had the framing of the British Pharmacopoeia have had
many and great difficulties to contend with in the reconciling of prejudices ; and in
doing this, probably to a much greater extent than was desirable or necessary, a series
of compromises has been made, breaking up many old-established and popular for¬
mulae, and omitting others, whereby dispensers and venders of medicines are placed in
a very false and difficult position, besides being involved in needless expenses to meet

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the new order of things. It must still however be borne in mind, and this does not
seem to be generally understood, that many of the formulae and preparations that
stand so conspicuously before us now, are essentially Scotcli or Irish, and, as such,
are little more likely to be prescribed in England for a long time to come than they
have hitherto been. In this respect we are more frightened than hurt, as will be ren¬
dered evident to any one who will take the pains to go carefully through the new
book with the Pharmacopoeias of Edinburgh and Dublin, and putting E. or D.
against the respective formulae.

The extensive alterations made in such old and popular remedies as Decoction of
Aloes, Tincture of Ehubarb, Tincture of Senna, Confection of Senna, Infusions of
Orange and Gentian, Ipecacuanha Wine, Liq. Ammon. Acetatis, etc. etc., are quite
incomprehensible, and to many minds very pernicious and needless. The extracts,
both solid and liquid, have had a large amount of labour bestowed upon them by the
committee of the Pharmaceutical Society, who spared no pains to render them work
complete and efficient. Much of their recommendation was adopted, and others
altered, to meet the views and wishes of the medical profession. Indeed, every por¬
tion of the work has been attended with great labour and expense.

An attempt has evidently been made to render the tinctures more uniform in cha¬
racter and strength ; but there are some curious inconsistencies, of which Tincture of
Arnica, now introduced, is an illustration. The preparation is universally known,
having been brought prominently forward by the homoeopaths, and is made with one
part of root to ten of rectified spirit ; but the new Pharmacopoeia tells us to use one
in twenty ! Why deviate from an established formula F Morphia lozenges, and
morphia and ipecacuanha lozenges, which for many years have been made to contain
of a grain, are now to be ^ . The change may be safe, but was it needed ?

On the chemical portion of the work a great amount of skilful labour has been be¬
stowed ; still there is room for improvement, and much work is cut out for such mem¬
bers of the Conference as are willing to undertake it.

The alteration of the weights from troy to avoirdupois possesses two great advan¬
tages ; first, that all confusion between the two weights is done away with, and se¬
condly, in the circumstance of an ounce avoirdupois being just the weight of a fluid
ounce of water, — but here the advantages end. The ounce of 437'5 grains not being
divisible without inconvenient fractions, its practical utility is greatly diminished.
Thus, 4 drm., 30 grs., T\j of an ounce troy, is much more convenient than 5 of a quar¬
ter of an ounce av. =27 ’3. Thus, anything like facile accuracy is almost impossible
in many cases. The old weights of fractional parts of an ounce troy are ordered to
be set aside, but their convenience and the facility with which they are used will never
allow them to go out of use, and, the grain weight being the same, there is no neces-
ity for it until a true decimal system be adopted. They are simply weights of so
many grains, whose characters are easily written, and with no greater, perhaps less,
liability to error than Roman numerals.

The introduction of the modified process of percolation and maceration in making
tinctures, etc., is good, and likely to be more generally useful than a strict adhesion to
simple percolation, which in many hands is difficult, and involves some curious errors
of manipulation.

With regard to the omission of old-established formuke for preparations, most of
which are in constant use and demand, I cannot but express my regret, feeling, as I
ever have done, that an authorized formula for every established preparation in use,
wrhether by one section of the medical profession or another, or by the public, and
whether they have ever been in a pharmacopoeia or not, should form an integral por¬
tion of any national pharmacopoeia. These omissions are much to be regretted, and
are a source of much disappointment and dissatisfaction amongst a large number of
our professional brethren.

The omission of doses, as authorized in the translation of the old Latin edition,
too, is much more serious than the framers of the book are aware of, and may lead to
disaster, when the dispenser can no longer correct the clerical errors of prescribers by
some authorized rule or standard.

However, with all its imperfections, which fall heaviest on England, the new
British Pharmacopoeia has marked improvements, winch place it far above all its

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE. 147

.predecessors. Let us make the best of it, and do all wo can to promote and ensure an
improvement in every future edition.

The next subject I have to refer to is one the importance of which to us, as respon¬
sible persons in the sale and dispensing of medicines, it is scarcely possible to over¬
estimate. It is one so large, complicated, and difficult, that I am quite incompetent
to lay it before you in that clear and logical matter it requires to impress you fully
with its importance, and I am inclined to think it would be well for us to endeavour
to fix on a day for its full and free discussion. At the present time, I will simply
refer, in as few words as possible, to a recent disastrous case of poisoning at Liverpool,
and leave the question of the sale of poisons, which arises out of that case, and the
Report on Public Health, for future discussion.

The result of the trials on the late ease, the acquittal of the assistant, who is supposed
to have dispensed the medicine, from the charge of manslaughter, on the score of its
being a pure misadventure, and the unavoidable compromise with the friends of the
deceased, — show that every one of us is standing on a mine which may at any moment
explode, and send us to pecuniary perdition and despair. It matters nothing what
amount of care and expense has been bestowed on arrangements to secure the public
from accident ; it matters not that the proprietor of an establishment is in no way to
blame, or that the patient has died through a pure misadventure, — the law requires that
a jury shall award compensating damages to the injured family. We all know what
that means to nineteen in twenty of those following the business, — it means utter ruin.

Allow me to state our case and position in society, as an important branch of what
is called a liberal profession. In the first place —

All the responsibilities of professional men' are laid upon chemists, without either
the dignity or emolument. We are treated as shopkeepers, with profits less than those
of an ironmonger.

Rich and poor of all grades do not hesitate to consult them in all sorts of difficul¬
ties, and obtain freely and gratuitously that for which a physician or consulting
chemist would charge a handsome fee.

That the information thus freely accorded to all is truly valuable is proved by the
fact of the constancy of the practice, and the needless jealousy of many professional
men.

To obtain this amount of public confidence, a large expenditure of means, careful
observation, energy, study, and integrity of purpose, are required.

The more extensive the business of a chemist, the greater the responsibility ; but
not so the profits.

When the public confidence is secured, it is the interest of the chemist to maintain
it by all and every means in his power.

Toremost amongst the means are the obtaining good assistants, and making such
arrangements in the establishment as shall, as far as practicable, obviate all chances of
accident, and ensure the detection of errors, and the sources of them. Having done
this, and exercising constant watchfulness, all that a man can do has been done.
Proof of successful care is shown in the small number of known errors made by dis¬
pensing chemists.

Thus, a man may dispense 50 prescriptions daily, on an average of 300 days in
a year, equal to 15,000 prescriptions, each of which will average 10 doses, or 150,000
doses annually ! He goes on thus for many years, and never has the faintest trace of
an accident arising from any fault or oversight of his own, and for which he rarely
gets a fair share of credit. But during those years he has probably corrected number¬
less errors of prescribers, many of them of no trivial nature ; but for this he has no
credit, professional etiquette requires he should be silent. If the skill and foresight of
the dispenser were not habitually turned to such contingencies, serious accidents
would frequently be recorded. Hence, the educated and careful dispenser, in the
exercise of his skill, tact, and judgment, in avoiding the dangers incidental to his
grave and responsible duties, is a benefactor to the community, and deserves better
pay and higher consideration than the world is disposed to give. Let a man, though
gifted with clear intellect and sound discretion, and possessing a thorough knowledge
of his business or profession, cannot after all claim exemption from that common im¬
perfection of humanity — fallibility, and is not a bit less liable to error than the pro-

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BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

fessedly more highly educated man who writes prescriptions, or the patient who carew
lessly takes up an opium liniment, and swallows it for a black draught, without exer¬
cising that common sense which we may safely state is the only true preventive of
such accidents.

No regulations could be devised nor Act of Parliament enforced to prevent a phy¬
sician from making a wrong mark, which might lead to fatal results, nor prevent the
recurrence of such facts as the following.

A lady of our acquaintance lately took into her hand an oval , fluted , half-pint
bottle of chloride of zinc, having thereon a large red label , and Poison , in large red
letters , on the top of the bottle, and took a dose therefrom, instead of from a round
pint bottle, having a small plain label , which she had used for two years for a sooth¬
ing syrup in daily and frequent use.

Another lady of our acquaintance went to a cupboard wdiere medicines are kept on
a middle shelf to procure a dose of fluid magnesia, but instead of taking the proper
bottle standing before her face, got a chair and took a bottle of chloride of zinc from
a distant corner of a top shelf, and, in spite of the red label and the word Poison , took
a dose, which killed her in a week.

Such cases can be quoted by the dozen, together with numberless little inexplicable
instances in daily life, of temporary absence of common sense, which serve to prove
the frailty of human nature, and how powerless are all rules and regulations must be
to prevent their recurrence entirely.

The case at Liverpool brings all these considerations before us in the most vivid
manner. No men amongst my acquaintance in the profession have taken more pains
to render their dispensing establishment a model one than the defendants ; none can
take more pains to secure good assistants than they have done ; yet a calamity has
fallen upon them in a most inexplicable manner. A customer dies from the effects
of a dose of strychnia, supposed to have been supplied instead of James’s Powder, from
their pharmacy. The assistant who compounded the prescription is tried for man¬
slaughter, and acquitted, because it was a mischance , — a just verdict. His principals
are sued for damages, laid at £10,000 ! which they were preparing to defend, when it
was discovered the law, as laid down in “Lord Campbell’s Act,” compelled the jury
to award damages in compensation to the friends of the deceased. Thus in the ope¬
ration of an unjust law, the proprietors of an old establishment, as perfect as human
forethought could make it, and who were perfectly innocent of the death of their cus¬
tomer, were forced to compromise the affair by paying £1500 to the widow and
children, and £500 or £600 for law expenses.

Is a man to suffer destructive and ruinous spoliation because his assistant is not
more than human ? It is monstrous injustice. Who is safe amongst us if a ruinous
prosecution is to follow an accident, however sad and fatal it may be, which may
any day occur to any one of us, — a class of men proverbially and necessarily careful
for their own existence’ sake ? And who will enter a profession liable to such fatal re¬
sponsibility ?

A general practitioner may, and does, make numberless mistakes with impunity, be¬
cause the facts are confined to himself and his own surgery. The eyes of the physi¬
cian and the public are not on him or his dispenser, to stimulate to vigilance and
care ; thus few accidents under such circumstances ever see the light, and perhaps it is
well it should be so. But cases do occasionally come before the public which contrast
most favourably for the order and care exercised in every well-regulated pharmacy.

The prosecutor in the Liverpool case was probably led away by the popular delu¬
sion that every chemist’s profits are enormously large, and that they must of necessity
get rich out of the public, — not being aware that one-half of the chemists in the country
do not, as a gross return, take 20s. per day, or £365 per annum ; and that the net
profit earned by the other half little more than sufficed to keep soul and body together.
Very few save anything, and fewer still enough to retire upon in their old days. It is
questionable whether one in a thousand can save, by the legitimate exercise of his
business in the course of a laborious life, so much as £10,000. And if a man in the
course of an honourable and useful career has saved as much or more, it is no reason
why he should be robbed of the same, and simply because he has it ; for a man known
to be poor would not be prosecuted.

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

149

Although it is now shown that the law makes the employer of an assistant respon¬
sible for the acts of the latter, I am at a loss to conceive on what principle of justice
it is so, when it can be shown that no pains have been spared to prevent accidents. If
the assistant were a lifeless machine of man’s construction, and a man the worker of
it, I can well understand how he would and might be solely responsible for the lives
of all risked by its use. Again, it seems a monstrous thing that the only guilty party
should be acquitted, and the perfectly innocent employer mulcted of £2000, — a sum
that it would probably ruin three-fourths amongst us to have to pay. Every one
henceforth will be in constant danger and dread of some calamity befalling him, which
may at once reduce him from a position of honour and comfort to one of perfect de¬
stitution and misery. Without some change in the law, this must ultimately lead to
the abandonment of the profession by educated and high-minded men, and their
places taken by others, ignorant and reckless, and thus public safety will be jeopar¬
dized. The twelve pence now demanded for as many doses of pills, can only be ade¬
quately replaced by a sum equal to the fee of the prescriber, for it is clear we have the
responsibility of two professions on our shoulders, which ought in common justice to
be paid for.

For some admirable remarks on this case, I may refer you to the ‘ Liverpool Daily
Post,’ of August 16th last, where you will find much that I have said, and a deal
more, stated in the most lucid and forcible manner; and it will be seen how unjustly Lord
Campbell’s Act may be brought to bear upon a particular class of the community, and
in cases where it could never have been intended it should take effect. I cannot re¬
frain from quoting one passage, for reasons which I will not record here : — “ Nay, more
unlikely things have happened than for a man to commit suicide after surreptitiously
mixing poison with a dose from a chemist, and so Virtually bequeath to his family the
damages obtainable by an action under Lord Campbell’s Act. The deed is an unlikely
one ; but as the Insurance Companies deem it worth while to except suicide from the
causes of death allowed by their policies, our supposition is not beyond the bounds of
possibility.”

I must now conclude ; but it would be wrong in me to resume my seat without
sayiug how greatly we are indebted to our members in this city, and especially to our
local secretary, Mr. Pooley, for the energetic kindness they have displayed in welcom¬
ing the Conference on the present occasion, and in making arrangements not only for
the comfort of the members, but for the convenience of the meetings. I am sure we
all feel how much we owe to them in this matter.

And now, Gentlemen, I must bring these remarks to a conclusion. The subjects
which will be brought before you for consideration and discussion will be many and
various. In scientific subjects, and in matters of fact, the end of all discussion is
simply the elucidation of the truth ; but there are other questions which may come
under your notice, in winch the balance of opinion must hold the sway ; and with
respect to the discussion which may take place in this room, you will perhaps not
consider me sermonizing if I quote the words of a great man, spoken, it is true, with
reference to religious matters, but none the less applicable in their spirit to those of
secular bearing: — “In essentials, unity; in non-essentials, liberty; in all things,
charity .”

On the motion of Mr. Tylee, seconded by Mr. Iving, the best thanks of the Meeting
were offered to the President for his able and opportune address.

Dr. J. B. Edwards presented a resolution of the Liverpool Chemists’ Association,
expressing a wrarm interest in the objects of the Conference, deputing Mr. Abraham
and himself to act as delegates, and offering a wrelcome to the Association wdienever it
should think it desirable to visit Liverpool.

The Report of the Executive Committee wras read as follows : —

“ REPORT OP EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

“ At this, the first Annual Meeting of the Conference since its formation at New'castle-
upon-Tyne, your Committee have but a very short Report to lay before you. Its first
business consisted in issuing a general circular of invitation to membership, accompa¬
nied by an account of the establishment of the Conference. Upwards of one hundred
and fifty gentlemen responded to that invitation, and have been enrolled as members ;

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BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

a list of them is in your hands. The Committee next drew up a list of subjects requi¬
ring investigation, and requested members to accept one or more and report thereon
to the Annual Meeting. The result is that twenty-eight papers have been received
— every one of considerable pharmaceutical interest ; they will be read to you at the
present and subsequent sittings of the Conference. In addition to the papers, a Re¬
port of the Sub- Committee appointed to consider the best means of preventing acci¬
dental poisoning will be brought before you.”

Its adoption was moved by Mr. Jones, seconded by Mr. Bright, and carried.

The Treasurer’s statement of accounts was presented and accepted.

The Treasurer in Account ivith the British Pharmaceutical Conference.

Dr. Account made up to August 31<s£, 1864. Cr.

£ s. d.

To 108 Subscriptions for tbe year 1863-4 27 0 0
„ 45 „ „ „ 1864-5 11 5 0

£ s. d.

By Account for Printing . 10 17 6

,, ,, Stationery . 3 1 9

„ „ Postage . 7 8 3

„ „ Advertising . 3 8 6

,, Expenses connected with Prelimi¬
nary Meeting at Newcastle . 2 9 0

,, Petty Disbursements . 0 7 4

,, Balance in hand . 10 12 8

£38 5 0

£38 5 8

1864.

August 31st, Balance in hand . 10 12 8

22 Subscriptions for 1863-4 (still unpaid) 5 10 0

110 ,, 1864-5 ,, 27 10 0 Audited and found Correct ,

R. D. COMMANS,
CHARLES EKIN.

Bath, September 12th, 1864.

Dr. Attfield introduced the Papers which had been sent in by reading one “ On
the Extraction and Preservation of Aromata,” by Mr. C. R. Ticliborne, F.C.S. : —

<e ON THE EXTRACTION AND PRESEEYATION OF AROMATA. BY C. R. C. TICH-
BORNE, F.C.S., CHEMIST TO THE APOTHECARIES’ HALL OF IRELAND.

[. Abstract .]

11 Observing the preservative powers of glycerine for vegetable substances, the author
packed different kinds of scented flowers in jars, and covered them with glycerine. In
this way he had kept some for two years. If flowers, etc., so preserved be pressed, it
is found that the glycerine has absorbed all the volatile oil, and when diluted and
distilled furnishes a water in all cases superior to that from flowers preserved by salt.
If the odoriferous glycerine be diluted and agitated with oils or fat, ointments, etc., of
excellent quality are produced. In all these cases the glycerine is recovered by mere
evaporation of wTater from it. The delicate oils of orange, jasmine, heliotrope, etc., are
best isolated by steeping the flowers in the glycerine, pressing, and again steeping more
flowers, and so on ; finally diluting with water and shaking with chloroform, which
removes the oil. The low boiling-point of the chloroform admits of its being separated
from the oil by a temperature which does not injure the oil.”

Mr. D. Hanbtjry remarked that the objects of the author were divisible into two
classes, firstly, the preparation of distilled waters, and secondly, that of the more
delicate volatile oils. He feared that the cost of pure glycerine and the difficulty of
recovering it would prove serious obstacles to such a process. For the second purpose
that had been named, a better method was required than the system of enjleurage ,
now in use in the south of Franee, etc. His friend Dr. De Ary, when travelling in
Java, had extracted the delicate odoriferous principle of some species of jasmine, Pan -
dora odoratissima, etc., and by the use of ether got minute quantities of butyraceous
volatile oils. It would be an important desideratum if this method would answer
in such cases, and he (Mr. H.) was satisfied that it well deserved more extended inves¬
tigation.

Mr. Reynolds had found that the quantity of chloride of sodium in elder-flower
water made from salted flowers was almost infinitesimal, and not to be determined
quantitatively. The superior quality of water so made could not be doubted.

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

151

■Mr' Abraham said that the desirability of using pickled elder-flowers in order to
obtain a water of good keeping properties was incontestable.

Mr. Pooley remarked that the odour of this water was finer than that from the
fresh flowers.

“ ON COMMERCIAL CARBONATE OF BISMUTH. BY MR. C. UMNEY.

[Abstract.^

“ Commercial carbonate of bismuth having been suspected to be contaminated by
basic nitrate, the author had analysed six samples, and gave in his paper the nume¬
rical results. In one case no nitrate was present, and the other five contained but
small and probably accidental quantities.

“ In preparing carbonate of bismuth, by precipitating a solution of the nitrate by
an alkaline carbonate, carbonate of soda was preferable to that of potash, but carbonate
of ammonia with subsequent ebullition yielded the purest precipitate.”

“ ON THE PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATIONS OF GLYCERINE.

BY MR. F. BADEN BENGER.

[Abstract. ]

“ In this paper a short history was given, and a resume of its applications in phar¬
macy. The preparations known as ‘ plasma,’ in which glycerine with starch is sub¬
stituted for lard, as a basis of ointments, had been made the special subject of experi¬
ment by the author. He had found tous-les-mois starch superior to any other in
making the simple plasma. Fifty grains of tous-les-mois were to be rubbed with one
ounce of glycerine, and the mixture heated to 240° for a few minutes or till it became
translucent. lie thought that plasma might replace lard in ointments having a ten¬
dency to become rancid, but its relatively great expense would preclude its general
adoption. The glyceroles, or solutions of different substances in glycerine, were then
noticed. A good ‘tincture of myrrh and borax’ could be made by dissolving one
part of borax in two of glycerine, and adding tincture of myrrh. As substitutes for
syrup, the glyceroles did not appear to possess any superiority. Its use as an exci¬
pient in pill-making was strongly advocated.”

The President referred to a series of experiments upon plasmata, a variety of
which "were prepared and put away in jars, but in a few months all the specimens
were mouldy. The use of glycerine as an excipient for pill masses must be extremely
sparing, or the pills would lose their shape.

Mr. Abraham said that glycerine had the property of irritating the skin to some
extent. On behalf of the class of fatty preparations condemned by the author of the
paper, he thought that the blame more properly attached to their faulty manipulation.
They need not necessarily become rancid, and he thought the chief reason why they
did so was because the lard was not freshly rendered.

Glycerine had been used for dissolving the extract of Calabar Bean in use in
ophthalmic medicine, but here the glycerine irritated the eye.

Mr. Brady alluded to a preparation of tar that had been used in France, and
which might be considered as a glycerole of tar, though its mode of preparation was
unknown. He had made a somewhat similar and very satisfactory compound by the
use of starch and glycerine.*

Mr. Walker had employed an essential oil for dissolving tar, with satisfactory
results.

Mr. D. II anbury had the authority of ophthalmic surgeons for saying that glyce¬
rine produces smarting when applied to the eye. In order to dissolve the extract of
Calabar Bean the glycerine must be strong, and it was then an efficient solvent of
nearly the whole. The addition of water precipitated this solution.

Mr. Ekin, on the authority of Mr. Benger, stated that some foreign glycerine,
when diluted, became acid very soon, which was not the case with Price’s.

Mr. Reynolds had found some of the better foreign glycerine to have a faintly
alkaline reaction when received, and it gave off a volatile principle when warmed,
leaving idtimately an ash of '3 per cent., which contained chlorine, lime, alumina, etc.

* Pharm. Journ., 2nd ser. vol. iv. p. 127.

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BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

“ ON THE APPLICATION OF DIALY'SIS IN DETERMINING THE NATURE OF THE
CRYSTALLINE CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS. BY J. ATTFIELD, PH.D., F.C.S.,
DIRECTOR OF THE LABORATORIES OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY OF

GREAT BRITAIN.

\_Abstract. ]

“ Tlie author had dialysed a few plant-juices, the first that came to hand, and from
each had obtained some of the crystalline constituents. The tops of the common
potato yielded a crop of nitrate of potash, some cubes of chloride of potassium, hexa¬
gonal crystal not analysed, sugar, and an ammonia salt. The deadly nightshade gave
nitrate of potash, an unknown magnesia salt in square prisms, sugar, etc. Pea-pods
yielded only sugar. The common garden lettuce contained nitrate of potash, tetra-
hedra of undetermined composition, sugar and ammonia. Cucumbers furnished
sugar, ammonia, and sulphate of lime. The cabbage also furnished sulphate of lime
and ammonia. Stramonium contained so much nitrate of potash, that dried portions
quite deflagrated on being ignited.

“ From these experiments the author thought the proposed application of dialysis
promised to be of great service, directly and indirectly, in investigating vegetable
physiology.”

In reply to Mr. Groves, who inquired if any of the alkaloids had been detected, the
author said that traces of crystalline principles which were not referred to any par¬
ticular substance were seen, and these possibly were natural salts of the alkaloids.
Much larger quantities of material would be needed for their discrimination, and even
then the relatively large amount of the colloid as compared with the alkaloid would
make the complete isolation of the latter a doubtful problem.

Dr. Edwards was disappointed in the results of the application of dialysis to toxi¬
cology, from which much had been expected. If the process was continued for a
length of time, portions of the colloid were transmitted through the membrane, and
vitiated the result.

Mr. Brough observed that such a condition was inevitable, since there was no
absolute line of demarcation in the transfusion of colloids and crystalloids.

“ ON THE PURITY OF FOREIGN IODIDE OF POTASSIUM. BY F. C. CLAYTON.

\_Abstract.~\

“ The high price and large consumption of this article has made it one which the ma¬
nufacturer has special temptations to adulterate. Of late years very large quantities
of foreign make have found their way into our markets, giving rise to keen competition,
which, in the case of drugs, is often far from improving their quality. From these
considerations we might still expect to find much that is impure, but the results de¬
tailed below lead us to a different conclusion. The impurities of iodide of potassium
are bromide and chloride of potassium, and sulphate, iodate, and carbonate of potash.
Moisture in excess is also to be considered an impurity, for, besides giving the sample
a greater liability to deliquesce, it shows an article of imperfect manufacture. The
first-mentioned adulterant, though it has at times been frequently used, lias in none
of the 15 samples experimented upon been found, and the second only in quantities
from 3‘7 per cent, down to minute traces. Sulphate was never found in ponderable
quantities, and iodate in only 3, all of which, however, were of foreign manufacture.
(Several English samples were analysed for the sake of comparison.) In these three
cases it never amounted to 1 per cent. Carbonate, though more generally present,
never amounted to 1 per cent., generally much under this. From these results, it will
be seen that the iodide of potassium now in the market is practically pure, the per¬
centage in all the samples being over 95.”

Mr. D. Hanbury remarked that sulphate of iron was a much more delicate test for
the presence of carbonate of potash than was lime-water. If so examined, he thought
that few samples w’ould be found free from carbonate. Iodide of potassium had
sometimes been prescribed in combination with several saline sulphates at once, as
soda, magnesia, etc. In such cases, no trace of carbonate was admissible, or a precipi¬
tate is formed.

In reply to a remark that syrup of iodide of iron would also be decomposed by

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

153

traces of carbonate present in iodide of potassium, Mr. II. said that the influence of
the sugar would prevent such a reaction ; in fact, Liquor Potass® would not decompose
the diluted syrup.

Medical authority had stated iodate to be a serious contamination, very small doses
of it producing inconvenient symptoms. The author of the paper had sought for the
presence of bromide ; it was quite as desirable to look for iodide in commercial bro¬
mide of potassium, and this was easily done by the starch and chlorine test.

“ ON A TEST FOE METHYLIC ALCOHOL IN PRESENCE OF ETHYLIC ALCOHOL,
WITH REMARKS ON METHYLATED SPIRIT. BY MR. JOHN TUCK.

[Abstract.]

“ After referring to the value of methylated spirit and the composition of wood
naphtha, the author stated it to be his opinion, that wood naphtha, once mixed with
spirit of wine, could not again be separated ; and that, though the characteristic odour
of methylated spirit could be removed, yet the process required such cumbersome
apparatus, that its use would certainly be followed by official detection. Seeing, how¬
ever that the illegal process might possibly be employed, and the revenue be thus de¬
frauded, and the inodorous methylated spirit be used in pharmacy and in concocting
liqueurs, he had searched for a test, whereby even the deodorized naphtha could be
detected, when mixed with spirit of wine. Such a test he had found in an alkaline
solution of the double iodide of potassium and mercury. On boiling a few drops of
this with pure spirit of wine, a yellowish-white precipitate was formed ; but when
methylic alcohol was present no such precipitate occurred. Details of the application
of the test were then given. In testing flavoured spirits, tinctures, etc., it would pro¬
bably be desirable to distil the suspected liquid, and apply the test to the distillate.
The author added that, since completing the paper, he had found that acetone was
the principle which prevented the formation of a precipitate by methylated spirit.”

Mr. T. B. Groves wished to inquire if volatile oils would produce the same effect
as acetone.

Mr. Tuck had not tried the experiment, but would do so in the meeting. It
was found that oil of cloves had the same influence.

Mr. Reynolds thought that the mercurial test now suggested gave the same reac¬
tion as that which Mr. Emerson Reynolds proposed last year, but which it had been
shown was entirely unreliable in the presence of such derivatives of alcohol as are
found in sweet spirit of nitre, or equally of volatile oils. Looking at the practical re¬
lations of methylated spirit to pharmacy, he maintained that it led to gross abuses,
and no greater service could be rendered to our body than by supplying a good test
for detecting it. He regretted that this practical end could not yet be considered as
accomplished.

Dr. Parkinson said there was no doubt of the annoyance caused by the introduc¬
tion of this spirit, but he thought that the public were not now so easily misled by it
as was the case at first.

Dr. Attfield, Mr. Pooley, and Mr. Brady expressed their sense of obligation for
the author’s labours in so important a field, and hoped he would continue his experi¬
ments.

“ REPORT ON THE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES USED IN PHARMACY.

BY MR. BARNARD S. PROCTOR.

[Abstract.^

“ The author first made a comparison of the apothecaries’ weights of our own coun¬
try with those of other civilized nations. Though there are forty different European
pounds and as many ounces in general use, there were only two or three systems of
pharmaceutical weights, and these not widely differing from each other. The English
system, though good in the abstract, had no simple relation to the systems of other
countries, nor to the other weights and measures of this country. Some of its own
members were in an anomalous position. What was a fluid pound of apothecaries’
weight ? Was it 12 avoirdupois ounces, 12 troy ounces, or 16 avoirdupois ounces.?

A critical examination was then made of several suggested alterations in the weights
and measures of pharmacy, those of Mr. J acob Bell, Mr. Griffin, Dr. C. Wilson, and

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BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

Mr. Warington, being especially noticed. The advantages and disadvantages of the
weights and measures authorized by the Medical Council in the new Pharmacopoeia
were next reviewed, and a suggestion made that the ounce of that system should be
divided into drachms and scruples. To get rid of the fractions of a grain, which
would otherwise be appended to these drachms and scruples, the author proposed that
the value of the grain should be slightly increased ; so {hat, instead of 18-229 grains
being contained in one scruple, there should be only 18 ; instead of 54-687 in the
drachm, there should be but 54 ; and 432 in the ounce, instead of, as now, 437'5.
This was as near an approach to an amalgamation of the troy and apothecaries’ system
as he could devise. The elaborate and ambitious system proposed by the American
Pharmaceutical Association was next noticed, and then the French metrical system,
the merits and demerits of all under various circumstances being carefully weighed.
For ultimate general adoption the author thought the American octonary system to
be superior to the metric decimal system; that, in short, doubling and halving a
number was better than multiplying or dividing by ten. He concluded by proposing
the use of the American system, modified to meet the requirements and customs of
the English.”

A general discussion followed the reading of this able and elaborate Report.

(End of First Fay s Meeting .)

•

SECOND SITTING.

Thursday , Sept. 15 th, 9.30 a.m.

After the transaction of some general business, the following Papers were read : —

“ ON THE' APPLICATION OF MICROSCOPIC ANALYSIS TO PHARMACY.

BY HENRY DEANE, F.L.S., AND H. B. BRADY’, F.L.S.

[Abstract.]

“ After a general resume of the various uses to which the microscope had been ap¬
plied in connection with the various branches of science connected with medicine and
pharmacy, the authors proceeded to detail certain processes employed by them, which
they considered belonged rather to the domain of pharmacy than to that either of
chemistry or materia medica. The investigations which they comprised under this
head, were especially those which had reference to the condition in which the active
matter of a drug exists in its preparations. The present paper, which it would be im¬
possible to give a fair idea of without some, at least, of the large number of drawings
that were used as illustrations, was especially devoted to the details of a series of in¬
vestigations connected with the various preparations of opium. The authors did not
wish the papers to be considered in any other light than as a preliminary investiga¬
tion, and they propose to continue the subject for a future meeting of the conference.”

Mr. Stoddart commended to increased attention micro-chemical research. For
five years he had constantly used the microscopic goniometer, which he then exhibited,
in preference to employing chemical means for examining the alkaloids. He thought
that the presence of gum in the solutions of opium would interfere more with the
formation of crystals than would the resin.

Mr. Deane said that opium must form an exception to Mr. Stoddart’s statement,
since he and Mr. Brady found that when the gum was removed, no crystals formed.
He called attention especially to the much larger amount of codeia yielded by Patna
than by Turkey opium, and thought that the possible therapeutic advantages of its
substitution should be tested.

Dr. Attfield thought the extension of this important inquiry might probably in¬
form us in what condition the alkaloids exist in the opium.

Also, if the results from the same sample were found to be constant, a more ready
means of valuation than any yet known would be gained.

Mr. Schacht urged the latter point also.

In reply, the authors emphatically repeated that they had made a large number of
trials with each specimen, and had found constant results.

Battley’s preparation seemed to give the most absolutely uniform product.

Mr. T. B. Groves suggested that the reason of Patna opium having an excess of

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

155

codeia might be due to its containing more of the poppy capsule, since this yielded
much codeia.

In reply to Mr. Reynolds, who inquired if crystals of sulphate of lime had been de¬
tected, the authors said that they had not, but as only half an ounce of solution was
used, it did not seem probable that much would be present. Distilled water ought
alone to be used if the condition of the alkaloids was to be kept unchanged.

“on the purity of sulphate of quinine of commerce.

BY MR. W. WALTER STODDART.

[. Abstract^

“ The author’s experiments showed that quinidiue, and not cinchonine, must be
generally sought for as the chief impurity in commercial sulphate of quinine. After
pointing out the objections to the tests of Bouchardat and Pasteur, Stokes, Herapath,
Brande and Pelletier, Mr. Stoddart proposed a modification of Liebig’s, and gave the
details of its application. A second trustworthy and ready test, for all possessing
microscopes, was snlphocyanide of potassium. If a drop of a solution of the latter
salt were added to a drop of saturated and neutral solution of the suspected quinine,
and the mixture observed by the microscope crystals of sulphocyanide of quinidine
and sulphocyanide of cinchonine, both of highly characteristic form and wholly dis¬
tinct from the sulphocyanide of quinine formed at the same time, would be observed
if either quinidine or cinchonine were present. For quantitative determination, the
Reporter employed De Try’s iodide of potassium reaction, and detailed the results of
his analyses of samples of sulphate of quinine from Messrs. Howards and Sons, De
Lisle and Co. (Pelletiers), Mr. J. Hulle, Messrs. Herring and Co., and a German spe¬
cimen. It was, he said, gratifying to be able to affirm that sulphate of quinine, if
purchased in bottles or sealed packets, as sent out by the makers or obtained through
well-known wholesale houses, is commercially pure and quite fit for medicinal use.
It was the chemist’s own fault if he were not supplied with an article of sufficient
purity.”

The President and Mr. Brady claimed an excellent illustration of the good fruits
of the Conference from this paper. In continuing their investigations upon micro¬
scopic analysis, they would gladly avail themselves of the method of precipitation as
sulphocyanides which Mr. S. liacl brought forward, instead of confining themselves to
evaporation only.

Dr. Attfield said that the paper furnished had two important desirata, firstly, a qua¬
litative test for alkaloids that was not in practical use before, and secondly, an improved
method of employing a quantitative test.

Mr. D. Hanbury said that the Commissioners of the International Exhibition of
1862 analysed nearly every specimen of quinine exhibited, and found all to be practi¬
cally pure. But it was obvious that specially prepared samples like these were no
criterion of usual quality.

There was a practice amongst some foreign makers of sending for export to such
countries as South America, a much less pure salt than they dare introduce upon the
European market. An excess of moisture was the only impurity he had found in
foreign quinine sold in England.

“ON COMMERCIAL PODOPHYLLIN. BY MR. JAMES SPEARING.

[. Abstract .]

“ After giving a short history of this drug, the author described the three processes
usually followed in its preparation, and gave the results of an analytical examination
of the product of each process. The method of the British Pharmacopoeia was found
to be the most economical and satisfactory of the three. He had examined twelve
commercial specimens, and from the presence of alumina in five, inferred that they
were prepared by the inefficient method of shaking the tincture with solution ol alum ;
two contained iron, and one copper.”

The President added that the author had sent him some podophyllin containing
the mycelium of a peculiar fungus of a silvery-white colour. It was of large size,
and readily seen amongst the dark-coloured powder. He was disposed to think
that it was similar to the mould which attacked powdered coriander and chamomile.

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BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

If so, a similar destruction of the active principle must be feared when it attacked
podophyllin.

Mr. T. B. Groves thought that instead of a process like that of the British Phar¬
macopoeia, which gave a mixture of a salt of beberia and resin, it would have been
preferable to have separated these principles.

“A CHEMIST’S HOLIDAY — JOTTINGS IN FRANCE. BY D. HANBURY, F-L.S.

[Abstract. ]

“ This was a short paper, written in a familiar style, entitled 1 A Chemist’s Holiday,’
which consisted of memoranda on pharmaceutical subjects made during a visit to the
Alp3 of Dauphiny. The author having visited the monastery of the Grande Char¬
treuse, took occasion to call attention to the important service which pharmaceutic
art had rendered to the institution, the large revenues which, amounting to nearly
£20,000 per annum, are at present chiefly derived from the sale of the elixir and cor¬
dials prepared by the monks. This was followed by some remarks upon the firs and
pines of Dauphiny, and the various species of turpentine derivable from them ; an
observation on the frequency of mistletoe on the Scotch fir ; and an enumeration of
the more interesting medicinal plants noticed in this part of France. The author then
reminded his hearers of a curious kind of sugar, called Manna of Brianqon, which old
authors have asserted is found upon the larches growing near that town, but which,
from its rarity, lias long fallen into oblivion. He remarked that the substance was
nevertheless interesting, from the recent discovery of Berthelot that it contains a
peculiar kind of sugar. The author stated that he had examined the larches about
Briangon in the year 1857, but without finding a trace of saccharine exudation. On
the present occasion, however, he was more fortunate, for he succeeded, by the help of
some peasants, in obtaining a good specimen of the larch manna. The specimen which
was exhibited consisted of a dry white substance, in small grains and tears, the largest
of which scarcely exceeded in length one-third of an inch. The paper concluded
with a few notes on the mineral productions of the country, and especially on the
medicinal springs of Uriage.”

The President remarked upon the paper as showing how much a knowledge of
botany would adcl to the interest and pleasure of a journey.

“ ON THE RANCIDITY OF FATS. BY T. B. GROYES, F.R.C.S.

[Abstract.*]

Cl The author states the occasion of his paper to have been the observation of the
preservative effect of aromatic oils on oxide of mercury ointment, which induced him
to compare the relative efficacy of the various essential oils of commerce, both as re¬
gards mixed ointments and the pure fats.

“ After general remarks on the process of rancidification, and the theories that have
been imagined to account for it, he proceeded to consider the possibility of applying
remedial measures of a radical character, which he decided in the negative. The ex¬
periments on variously-prepared specimens of lard, aromatized and non-aromatized,
were then detailed, and the conclusion arrived at that creasote, oil of pimento, oil of cloves,
and balsam of Peru, were capable of greatly retarding, if not of altogether preventing
oxidation. A comparison of the effect of these aromata in preserving these aqueous
solutions of albumen, gave countenance to the theory of the cause of rancidity of fats be¬
ing the disturbance effected by a ferment of the albuminous order. He concluded, by
strongly urging the necessity of using for the preparation of ointments, especially those
containing metallic oxides, materials retaining unaltered the odorous principles with
which nature has endowed them, and suggested the advisability of adding to lard, and
other inodorous fats, small proportions of oil of pimento, to render them more perma¬
nent ; to effect which, two drops to the ounce had been found sufficient.”

The President expressed the opinion that in order to make lard keep well, the
leaf or flare, from which it was rendered, should previously be thoroughly washed. It
should be cut up and placed upon a sieve, which could be freely agitated in a vessel of
water. The food of the animal would affect the quality of the fat, and good lard could
not be expected from animals that were ill-fed.

Dr. Parkinson was reminded by the author’s statement of the preservative power

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE. 157

of balsam of Peru, that he (Dr. P.) had used the oil of benzoin for the same purpose
with the greatest success.

Mr. Balkwiil inquired the best way of keeping cod-liver oil from becoming
rancid.

Mr. Bobbins volunteered a reply to this question, detailing the results of some ex¬
periments which he made. Portions of cod-liver oil being exposed to the air, and
closely sealed up respectively, the former became rapidly rancid, but the latter was as
sweet after ten years as when first put up. That this change of rancidity was accom¬
panied by absorption of oxygen, had been proved by Dr. AttfiekU*

“ ON THE PROCESSES FOR PREPARING SOME OF THE TINCTURES OF THE
PHARMACOPCEI A.S. BY MR. W. D. SAVAGE.

[Abstract.^

u The author had experimented upon twelve different tinctures, making four speci¬
mens of each, by four different processes. In all cases the four specimens were made
from the same parcel of raw material, at the same temperature and with the same spirit.
The first process was maceration for 21 days ; the second, maceration for 7 days ; the
third, maceration for 48 hours, with subsequent percolation ; the fourth, 21 clays’ ma¬
ceration, with the addition then of percolation. The relative value of these processes
was ascertained by evaporating a similar portion of each tincture over a sand-bath and
weighing the residue. The whole of the results were given in a tabular form. The
author considered that maceration with subsequent percolation yielded the best re¬
sults, and that the period of maceration should, as a rule, be not less than 14 days.”

Dr. Attfield said that if it were in our power to determine the quantity of active-
principle in a tincture, this would be the line of search which we should follow.
Under the inability to do this, the next best thing was to find wrlien the solvent
ceased any longer to extract the drug. Following this plan, the late Dr. Burton took
the specific gravities of tinctures after macerations for different periods of time, and thus
fixed how long a contact was needful in each case. The author of this paper had
adopted evaporation, drying and weighing, to attain the same result. The use of a
sand-bath wras open to objection as not being an equable source of heat, even in several
experiments that might be conducted simultaneously ; an oil-batli should be used,
and the extractive should, of course, be dried until it loses nothing upon repeated
weighing. Similar experiments upon other tinctures were much needed.

Mr. Schacht objected to the assumption that extractive was any guide to the quality
of a tincture. Could any one suppose that tincture of orange-peel was better because
containing much extractive ? ITe would instance an infusion of tea, the best being
made by the free use of the leaf and very short digestion, and not by continuing it
until much extractive was taken up.

Mr. Bobbins would like to know more as to the frequency with which the author
had agitated the tinctures during maceration. Mr. Hills had shown that so short a
period as forty-eight hours would suffice, provided that agitation were correspondingly
frequent.

Dr. Edwards explained the highly ingenious process for combining maceration.-
with both percolation and expression, which was lately introduced by Dr. Bedwood.

Mr. Balkwill thought that the moral to be drawn from this paper was, that we-
should adopt a uniform practice in the maceration of tinctures, or great variation in
the product would result.

“ ON THE CULTIVATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS AT MITCHAM.

BY MR. J. T. P. B. WARREN.

[Abstract^]

“ The author gave a list of the plants cultivated and the acreage they occupied. The
yield of oil per acre varied with season and soil ; lavender yielded 10 to 20 lb. per
acre, the second year’s growth giving more than the first or third ; peppermint, 8 to
12 lb., though much influenced by soil ; 4 cwt. of chamomiles were obtained from an
acre, and gave 8 lb. of oil ; and pennyroyal afforded about 12 lb. of oil per acre.
Mitcham produces annually 30,000 to 40,000 bushels of roses and about 11 tons of

* Pliarm. Journ., 2nd ser. vol. ii. p. 116.

VOL. VI. N

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BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

chamomile flowers. The details of extraction of essential oils were then given and
some remarks made on the rotation of medico-agricultural crops.”

Mr. D. Hanbury said it was well known that the volatile oil of chamomile flowers
had a sky-blue colour when freshly drawn, gradually acquiring a sherry colour in a few
months. Some oil, said to he freshly made, had been shown him which had a sherry
colour already. Did not this suggest that the growers distilled the whole plant in
some cases ? He knew that the plant was rooted up and sent to market for making
extract instead of the flowers.

“ON THE PREPARATION OF SMALL QUANTITIES OF CONCENTRATED
INFUSIONS. BY MR. T. GRUNDY.

[. Abstract .]

“The finely comminuted materials are infused in the requisite quantity of boiling
water, and the mixture then percolated in a little jacketed tin percolator, kept hot by
a current of steam from a small tin boiler. The first portion of the product is set
aside, and the second and third reduced in bulk by evaporation. The three are then
mixed, and spirit added, in the proportion of three to seventeen. Two or three of
the infusions require special preparation ; linseed cannot be so treated, and infusions
requiring temperatures between those of cold and boiling water require the aid of a
thermometer.”

The President took the opportunity of offering a word of advice to those dispensers
of medicine who had not a frequent demand for infusions. Let them not be tempted
to make the substitution by the convenience of the concentrated preparations, for the
patient could nearly always distinguish the difference, and there was no cause which
so frequently led to comparisons, to the disadvantage of the person using these prepa¬
rations for dispensing.

“ON FOTENTILLA TORMENTILLA. BY MR. JOHN ADAMS, LOUGHBOROUGH.

[. Abstract .]

“ The author gave a short history of the plant, and drew attention to its peculiar
value as a no ^-stimulating astringent and febrifuge. In the event of its being again
introduced into the Pharmacopoeia, he proposed formulae for a tincture and infusion,
and exhibited a specimen of the former to the meeting.”

Dr. Parkinson remarked that the roots were in favour as an astringent remedy for
cattle in the north of England.

(End of Second Day's Meeting.)

THIRD SITTING-.

Friday, September 1C th, 9.30, a.m.

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE APPOINTED BY THE CONFERENCE TO CONSIDER
THE SUBJECT OF THE PREVENTION OF ACCIDENTAL POISONING.

The prevention of accidental poisoning, or of accident in any shape, connected with
the very responsible duties of a chemist, cannot fail of itself to be a matter of the
deepest interest, and we do not wonder that the subject should have engaged the
thoughtful attention of so many of our brethren throughout the kingdom.

Hitherto, no satisfactory conclusions appear to have been arrived at, but the inves¬
tigations of your Committee show that the subject is worthy the consideration of every
one who values human life, and would desire to put an end to the recurrence of those
sad domestic tragedies from “accidental poisoning.”

On the present interesting occasion, when so many of our brethren are assembled to
meet and welcome to our city the noble and scientific institution, the British Asso¬
ciation, we think there cannot be a more befitting moment to discuss the grave and
all-important matter which is this morning to engage our attention.

Erom the wide range of subjects that come within our notice, and the mental and
moral diversities of character with which we have to deal, we cannot expect uniformity
of action, yet we would fain hope that from the long and continuous attention we have

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

159

devoted to this matter, that some plans and suggestions made through your Com¬
mittee may be found available to prevent the catastrophes of which we so often
hear.

Your Committee have thought it well that their deductions and remarks should be
based upon facts ; they have therefore, as briefly as possible, drawn out the leading
circumstances of all the cases of accidental poisoning recorded in the c Pharmaceutical
Journal’ for the last two years, viz. from July, 1862, to June, 1864, inclusive. They
are twenty- five in number, and occur in the following order : —

No. 1. — A tradesman being ill sent for his medical adviser, and received from him
two bottles, one containing embrocation for external application, the other a draught
to be taken internally. On the following morning the embrocation was given, under
the erroneous impression that it was the draught.

On examination, the housekeeper said no label was on the embrocation, neither did
any one apprise her it was poison. The medical man acknowledged that the bottle
was not labelled “poison,” but submitted that it bore a label intimating that it wras
for external use only.

No. 2. Accidental Poisoning by Arsenic. — In this case it is recorded that Mrs. C - ,

after assisting her son in the preparation of a slieep-dipping composition of arsenic
and soap, made a pudding for the dinner of her family and servants, and that by some
means not ascertained, some of the arsenic became mixed with the pudding. One man
died ; the rest of those who partook of the pudding recovered.

No. 3. Accidental Poisoning by Sulphate of Zinc. — A man, aged 52, took by mis¬
take a wineglassful of a concentrated solution of sulphate of zinc, recommended to
him by a veterinary surgeon for a lotion for a horse. Result fatal.

No. 4. Accidental Poisoning by Oxalic Acid. — A man, aged 58, died from the
effects of oxalic acid taken in mistake for Epsom salts. The wife of the deceased went
to a chemist’s shop for some salts and senna. On opening the packets she found
both to be apparently the same ; she took them back, but found the shop closed. On
her return she dissolved the smaller packet of crystals in water, and handed the solu¬
tion to her husband, who drank it, and died in consequence.

The packet was boldly labelled “ Oxalic Acid, Poison,” but it appeared the woman
could not read.

No. 5. In this case, a solution of strychnia appears to have been dispensed by a
surgeon or his assistant, in mistake for solution of emetic tartar. The bottles contain¬
ing the two solutions were standing at no great distance from each other, but were
unlike hi almost every respect, except that they were both labelled “ Poison,” and
both contained colourless fluids. All the ordinary precautions to prevent accident
had been taken.

No. 6. Accidental Poisoning by Extract of Aconite. — This was a clear case of error
in dispensing by a chemist’s assistant ; extract of aconite was put into pills in mistake
for extract of wormwood, with a fatal result.

No. 7. In this instance, a druggist sold croton oil for syrup of squills, with a fatal
result. No particulars given.

No. 8. A father gave to his child, two years of age, a teaspoonful of camphorated
oil, in mistake for a mixture, “without looking at the label.” The child died.

No. 9. In this instance a wife administered to her husband oxalic acid in mistake
for Epsom salts. Result fatal.

No. 10. This is an instance of tartar emetic being sold for cream of tartar, by a
wholesale house. Several persons were made ill by it, but no fatal case occurred.

No. 11. A boy, nine years of age, obtained access to a bottle of almond flavour, sold
by a druggist to his mother for confectionery ; the boy took, as he said, “ just a taste,”
and died the following morning. The bottle wras not labelled “Poison,” nor was the
woman even told it was poison.

No. 12. In this case cream of tartar mixed with arsenic was sold to several persons
by a druggist, but no fatal case occurred.

No. 13. This is a sad case of laudanum being sold by a druggist in mistake for
black draught. The victim was a lady twenty-eight years of age, a healthy woman.
Her maid procured for her from a druggist a pill and draught. It appeared that the
druggist’s shop was being papered and painted, and was in a confused state ; through

N 2

t

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this circumstance the draught phial was filled with laudanum in mistake, by the
druggist himself.

No. 14. This was an instance of Burnett’s fluid, administered by mistake for fluid
magnesia, with a fatal result.

No 15. A second fatal case from the same cause.

No. 16. A solution of morphia was sent to a lady, for her own use, with directions
now to take it, but it was not labelled “ Poison.” The nurse carelessly administered a
portion to the infant, in mistake for dill water, with a fatal result.

No. 17 is a case of accidental poisoning by chloroformic anodyne. The record
simply states that the patient had given to her by mistake six drachms of the anodyne.
The result was fatal.

No. 18 is a case of laudanum being sold by a druggist himself in mistake for tincture
of rhubarb, with a fatal result.

No. 19 is a second case of the same, also with a fatal result. No attempt to ac¬
count for, or excuse the carelessness.

No. 20. This is an instance of a man being poisoned fatally by taking saltpetre
instead of Epsom salts, sold to him by a druggist in mistake.

No. 21. This is the third recorded case in two years, in which laudanum has been
sold by a druggist in mistake for tincture of rhubarb, with a fatal result.

No. 22. In this case two lads, aged fourteen and sixteen, were fatally poisoned by
sheep-dipping powder containing arsenic. It was folded in brown paper, not labelled,
and was mistaken for sulphur.

No. 23. This case demonstrates the necessity of a legal restriction to prevent un¬
qualified persons from dealing in poisons. A grocer’s wife, in the absence of her
husband, supplied an applicant with five grains of strychnia, in mistake for calomel.
The poor victim, a young woman twenty-seven years of age, expired in great agony in
less than fifteen minutes after taking it.

No. 24. In the same month we have recorded a second case of poisoning by
strychnia, and as if to teach us humility, in this instance the mistake was made by a
well-educated and experienced chemist’s assistant in an old and well-regulated esta¬
blishment. One witness said, he considered the arrangements of the establishment to
be exceedingly good, and he knew that elaborate pains were taken to have the pre¬
scriptions checked ; but it was proved that the strychnia had been kept in a state of
powder for the convenience of dispensing, and not in its crystalline form ; and that
the bottle containing the powdered strychnia was kept on the same shelf as the James’s
Powder, for which it had been mistaken, and was separated from it by only one bottle.
The strychnia bottle was labelled “Poison.” The jury have since pronounced the
assistant “not guilty,” when tried for manslaughter.

No. 25. In our last case, a surgeon’s assistant was making solution of morphia ; he
turned it into a measure, from which he began to filter it into a bottle ; he retired from
the surgery for a few minutes, during which time the surgeon came in, made up a
mixture, and thinking it water in the measure, used it as such, with a fatal result.

Such are the simple facts of the twenty-five cases before us, and it would not be
difficult to engage your attention for some time, in commenting upon them ; but we
doubt not you have felt as we have upon each case as it was brought before you, and
are disposed rather to gather from them the lessons of wisdom and charity they arc
designed to teach, than to indulge in harsh criticism upon those who have already
suffered so severely from the consequences of their error.

Your Committee, however, think it will only be doing our brethren justice to show
that less than half of these cases can be laid at the doors of a legitimate chemist and
druggist, by classifying them as follows : —

There are 10 cases in which the mistake was committed by the administrator ;

2 cases by a surgeon ;

1 by a wholesale house ;

1 bv a grocer’s wife ;

11 by retail chemists or their assistants.

Your Committee have had correspondence with various chemists of standing in
several parts of the kingdom, and it is now their pleasing duty to mention the various
suggestions that have been brought under their notice. They are classed under the
three heads of Shop Arrangements. Dispensing, Sale of Poisons.

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

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SHOP ARRANGEMENTS.

It lias been suggested by one friend that all poisons should be kept in a separate
room.

By several others, that they should be kept in a poison-cupboard, having a lock and
key.

By another, that poisonous liquids in the shop and dispensing department should
be kept in opaque white glass bottles, as a contrast to the dark-coloured tinctui’es on
our shelves.

By another, that all poisons, liquids or solids, should be kept in bottles registered
by our fellow-citizen Mr. Merrikin, and called “ Merrikin’s caution bottle.” They
are covered with pointed excrescences (except where labelled), reminding by the sense
of touch that poison is being dealt with.

Again, it has been suggested that on every bottle containing poison in our shops or
dispensing departments, the maximum dose of the contents should be distinctly marked
on the bottle.

Another, that shop bottles containing poison should be labelled in Old English, in
contrast to the Roman character in common use.

Another, that the labels on bottles containing poison in our shops or dispensing de¬
partments should be so placed or shaped that the whole of the label can be seen at a
glance, instead of curling round the bottle in the usual way.

One more suggestion has been made under this head, as an amendment to the last,
viz. that all shop or store bottles should be labelled in the way last described, but
having the name of the base of the preparation at the top, and in larger type than the
portion describing the nature of the preparation, which should be placed under it, as
in the specimen on the table.

We have next to give you the various suggestions that have been made, coming
under the head of —

DISPENSING.

In this department your Committee feel there i^cause for the most anxious delibera¬
tion. They gladly acknowledge the great care and attention bestowed by their bi’ethren
generally upon the arrangements of the dispensing department, and feel that they have
little of a novel character to bring before them ; but it is their duty to present the
following suggestions, — premising first, that in all instances a distinct department should
be set aside for dispensing, and as far as practicable it should be such as will exclude
senseless gossips or others who may cause to the dispenser abstraction of mind.

Under the head of “ Dispensing ” we have the following suggestions. The principles
of some of them are, no doubt, generally adopted.

It has been suggested that wdierever practicable it should be an invariable rule, that
every prescription be checked by a second person before it is sent out, and that the
weighing or measuring dangerous poisons be witnessed by him.

Also that liniments, lotions, and poisonous preparations of all kinds, should inva¬
riably be dispensed in bottles of a peculiar shape or construction. The following have
been mentioned as suitable.

Bottles similar in shape to soda-water bottles, that will not stand.

That mixtures be dispensed in ovals, and poisonous liquids in perfect squares.

That all medicines for external application be dispensed in blue bottles with yellow
labels for directions and red printed “ Poison ” labels.

That labels on bottles of medicine to be taken internally be printed in black, but for
external use in red ink.

That all poisonous liquids be dispensed in Savory’s well-known poison bottles with
narrow necks, so that only drops or a very small stream will issue at a time, intending
to remind the dispenser or administrator that he is dealing with something strong.

Then wre have the York Glass Company’s ingenious modification of Savory’s bottle,
and Gilbertson’s wedge-shaped poison bottle, that will not stand on end.

Also Bird’s poison corks, attached to a star-shaped wooden head or cap, the sense of
touch being thus appealed to.

Then we have Thonger’s rough labels, with the same intent, and Thompson’s capped
bottles with a lock and key.

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BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

One eminent firm has adopted the plan of keeping all dangerous things, as Tinct.
Opii, Liquor Morpliise, Morphine, Strychnine, etc., in tin cases, without covers, as
tall as the tops of the stoppers, and so large that the bottles must be taken out to be
used.

There is also on the table a specimen of a metal band for poison bottles, invented by
Mr. Batchelor, of Fareliam.

Lastly, Merrikin’s caution bottle, for dispensing, similar in its principle to his cau¬
tion bottle for the shop, but differing in form, the principle of both being that of ap¬
pealing to the sense of touch, and being permanent, effective, and unmistakable, which
cannot be said of others.

Our third division of suggestions comes under the head of — •

SALE OF POISONS.

It has been suggested on this subject that certain peculiarly dangerous poisons, such
as Strychnia, Morphia, Prussic Acid, etc., should not be sold in an unmixed state
without a medical order, under any circumstances whatever.

That poisons such as Laudanum, Oxalic Acid, and others in common use, should
as far as practicable be sold only to persons of mature age, and personally known to
the vender.

That no poison be sold in dangerous quantity by any assistant or apprentice without
the express sanction of the principal.

That dry poisons, such as Oxalic Acid, Sugar of Lead, Bed and White Precipitates,
etc. etc., be invariably folded in black paper, having the usual label with the name of
the article, and in addition a label with the word “ Poison ” in bold white letters on a
black ground carefully attached.

This concludes the suggestions which have been made to your Committee. Many
of them meet with their most cordial approval, and will be recommended by them as
worthy of universal adoption.

Your Committee have now to lay before you the practical deductions which they
have drawn from the consideration* of the facts and suggestions brought under their
notice.

The first is, that there are seventeen of the twenty-five cases of accidental poisoning,
in which there is every reason to believe that a thoroughly effective poison-bottle
would have prevented the accident.

Next, that there are at least three cases in which, had the poison sold been wrapped
in paper of distinctive character, and labelled as suggested, there is reason to believe
that the accident would not have occurred.

Thus wre have the encouraging assurance that at least 80 per cent, of the usual
cases of accidental poisoning may hereafter be prevented, by the use of such meaus.

Your Committee therefore beg to express their obligation to those brethren who
have assisted them by their counsel and suggestions, which if not very numerous have
been very practical, and have enabled your Committee to hope that tlieir labours will
not have been in vain. They trust that the following recommendations will meet with
the approval of all who are in earnest in seeking to avoid the terrible consequences of
error in their most responsible duties.

Your Committee are happy to be able to observe, that only one of the twenty-five
cases of accidental poisoning occurred apparently through ignorance , and that in a
case calling loudly for legislative interference to restrict the sale of poisons to educated
persons ; but although this case was not that of a chemist or his assistant, we dare not
assume that only grocers' tvives need to be more highly educated than they are. Your
Committee therefore beg respectfully to commend to every one engaged in the practice
of pharmacy, the present facilities for acquiring a good theoretical as well as practical
knowledge of their business, feeling assured that such knowledge is the best founda¬
tion for future safety and usefulness in their calling.

They next remind their brethren that they consider it indispensable to safety, that
a separate and suitable part of their shop or premises should be set apart for dispens¬
ing prescriptions, wherever this has not already been done.

Also, that in the dispensing department or other suitable place, there be a reperto -
rium toxicorvm , or poison cupboard , under lock and key, in which should be kept all

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

163

the concentrated and virulent poisons, or a small bottle of each sufficient for present
use, the bottles being tilled from store bottles in another and larger store cupboard or
room, as required.

They also recommend, that the labels upon all shop and store bottles be in future
so placed or shaped that the whole of the label can be seen at a glance, instead of
curling round the bottles in the usual way ; and

That the new series of Latin labels introduced by Messrs. Ford and Shapland be
taken as examples of the plan of labelling shop bottles recommended by your Com¬
mittee.

Your Committee approve the suggestion that, wherever practicable, every prescrip¬
tion be checked by a second person before it is sent out.

They also strongly recommend that liniments, lotions, and poisonous preparations
of all kinds, be invariably dispensed in the caution bottles before adverted to, and with
labels printed in red ink.

In the retailing of poisons, your Committee recommend very cordially the sugges¬
tion that the more concentrated and potent poisons, such as strychnia, morphia,
prussic acid, etc., should not be sold in an unmixed state, without a medical order,
under any circumstances whatever.

Also, that no poison be sold in a dangerous quantity by any assistant or apprentice,
without the express sanction of the principal.

Again, that every specially dangerous substance, in addition to its name, be dis¬
tinctly labelled “ Poison,” in white letters on a black ground, before it is sent out,
excepting medicines dispensed from a prescription where the dose or use of it may be
considered sufficient.

Lastly, your Committee strongly recommend that dry poisons, such as oxalic acid,
sugar of lead, red and white precipitate, etc., be invariably folded in paper of a dis¬
tinctive character ; and, in addition to the name of the article, that a label with the word
“ Poison,” in bold white letters on a black ground, be carefully attached to each packet.

Your Committee, however, cannot conclude their report without expressing their
firm conviction, that no amount of ingenious contrivance, or of education, will avail to
prevent repetitions of the sad occurrences that have been brought before us, without the
cultivation of a steady, thoughtful, anxious yet composed mind, bent on business when
in business, and alive to the clangers and responsibilities incident to the retailing and dis¬
pensing of medicines.

Your Committee have devoted much and earnest deliberation to the subject en¬
trusted to them ; they have endeavoured to trace the principal causes of accident, and
they are bound to confess that in many instances they can only ascribe them to gross
and culpable neglect.

They therefore beg to urge upon their brethren the necessity on their part of a care¬
ful surveillance by responsible parties ; a thorough revision of their mode of conduct¬
ing business, in all its details ; and the discouragement of long and late hours of
business, so detrimental to the energies of mind and body of their assistants and
apprentices ; for, however conscientious they may be in the discharge of duty, we
must remember that they lack the wholesome stimulus to continuous exertion which
we enjoy in a consciousness of proprietorship.

The successful management of a business so nearly allied to a profession must place
a man in a position higher than the mere retailer of goods, for it demands a higher
cultivation of the mind, and is therefore deserving of a higher rate of remuneration ;
and this will be gained in the respect and confidence of his customers, who are often
pleased to treat their chemist as a confidential friend.

Let it, then, be our ambition to aim at perfection in our legitimate business ; there is
in it abundant scope for the exercise of all our powers, and without this we shall never
rightly fulfil our duties, or meet the requirements of an exacting and discerning public.

Your Committee have yet to perform a simple act of justice, by tendering their
acknowledgments to our esteemed secretary, Mr. Pooley, for his assistance and en¬
couragement in completing a report, which they trust will not be without some prac¬
tical results. ^ (Signed) J. Raymond King.

J. IP. Marsh.

F. W. Kent.

John 13. Merrikin.

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BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

The President read extracts bearing upon this question from the Sixth Report of
the Medical Officer of the Privy Council just published, including the Report by Dr.
Alfred S. Taylor, F.R.S., “ On Dangers arising to the Public Health in the conditions
under which Drugs and Poisons are retailed.” In giving the conclusions which
Dr. Taylor records, the President took the opportunity of assuring the Conference
that the Council of the Pharmaceutical Society would not support or approve of
exclusive privileges being conferred upon Pharmaceutical Chemists to the exclusion of
other competent dealers in drug3.

It was clear that poisonous medicines must be sold in villages where no person
devoting his whole time to pharmacy could make a livelihood, but a case had been
made out for enforcing some restrictions.

It had occurred to him that the village huckster might be allowed to sell some of
the potent remedies if they were put up in packets or bottles by recognized wholesale
houses, whose names they should bear. The question as to what drugs should be
considered poisons had often been canvassed, and though well aware of its difficulties,
he must say that it was quite feasible to form a schedule of those which had most
frequently led to accident.

He approved of the proposed system of inspection of medicines by a second person,
also of the separation of the more poisonous drugs, and of the dispensing department
being distinct from the retail. At the same time, it was clear that these arrangements
must be subject to circumstances.

He thought highly of the plan of tying over the stoppers of powerful drugs, and had
adopted it for years.

Mr. Merrikin’s rough shop bottles appeared to him to be admirable, as were also
the poison labels with white letters on a black ground.

He was aware that it was sometimes the practice to dilute such remedies as syrup
of poppies for retail sale, in order to diminish the risk of accident. This was, on the
other hand, a dangerous proceeding, as likely to cause accident when the proper article
was supplied. In conclusion, the President deprecated late hours of business, and
expressed a warm sympathy in the interest of assistants and apprentices.

Mr. Pooley remarked, that the recommendations of the Committee were not intended
to apply inflexibly to all cases, since their adoption must be modified by varying con¬
ditions.

Mr. Tylee expressed approval of the plan of having peculiar- shaped bottles for
potent remedies upon the shelves, and considered that the public liked it as evidencing
special care.

Mr. Abraham begged to take that opportunity of conveying his gratitude to his
professional brethren for the many expressions of sympathy which he and his partner
had received since a late painful occurrence. He would further take the opportunity
of explaining some points which had been misunderstood, because the course of the legal
proceedings had not afforded this, and the line of defence adopted by Mr. Poole’s counsel
(though not by his wish) was to exaggerate the blame attaching to his principals.

The facts were that fourteen dark-blue bottles were kept together in the dispensing
department, strychnia being the one most frequently used, the others having P. Digi¬
talis, P. Conii, P. Salinse, Hydr. Iodid., etc. Upon the strychnia was a very conspi¬
cuous label, “Poison.”

The practice of the establishment had been to keep this drug in crystals, but an
order for an ounce of the powder had induced an assistant to pulverize it, but he (Mr.
A.) knew nothing of this until after the accident. When the trial approached, his firm
were prepared with a large amount of evidence as to the precautions adopted by va¬
rious leading houses, which however varied widely. They were advised by counsel
that, even if proving their arrangements to have been the best that could be devised,
that would be uo defence, and the amount of the damages would be the only question.
Under those circumstances, his firm felt that an arrangement was desirable, being
anxious to make what reparation they could for their part in such a melancholy oc¬
currence.

Mr. Abraham would conclude these personal allusions by referring to a subscription
towards reimbursing the firm, which had been suggested, and even commenced. On
behalf of Mr. Clay and himself, he must respectfully decline receiving this.

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

165

With regard to the suggestions of the Committee, he was a strong advocate for re¬
moving the dispensing department to a part of the shop where customers could not
distract the attention of the dispenser bj conversation. The plan of checking all com¬
pounded medicines by a senior assistant was very important, and their method was
for this person to receive the prescription from the customer, see to its being copied,
place it and the necessary written label or labels in an envelope, and hand over to the
dispenser. This plan answered well, and in his large experience he had never known
a wrong label affixed, as it was ready written before the bottle, etc., was filled. The
bottle was corked, but not tied over, and returned to the senior assistant to examine
and wrap up.

As a substitute for a “ poison cupboard ” under some circumstances, he had put a
bar across a shelf of perhaps twenty bottles, and secured it by a lock.

For liniments, he used the green “ actinic ” round phials made by the York Glass
Company, with a distinct rough label bearing the word “ Poison."

He (Mr. A.) trusted that the Conference would state clearly what precautions should
be adopted, so that, in the event of any accident, those chemists who had employed
them might be exonerated from the charge of carelessness.

Mr. Balkwill considered that the carelessness of chemists had been grossly exag¬
gerated, and that the proportion of accidents occurring from poisons was small as
compared with other causes of violent death. All knew how frequently medical men
made serious blunders in writing prescriptions, the consequences of which were averted
by the vigilance of the dispensing chemist. When, however, unqualified dispensers,
as errand boys, etc., were employed by general practitioners, we could not doubt that
the same errors in prescribing occurred, but that they were not rendered harmless as
in our own case. He approved of most of the suggestions of the Committee.

Mr. Schacht commended the system of checking, and had long adopted it. It was
not only to prevent serious accident that it was important, but as an efficient remedy
against those vexatious but trifling errors which altered the sensible quality of a me¬
dicine and destroyed the confidence of the patient. He could not avoid expressing
his regret that Messrs. Clay and Abraham should have compromised the late action
against them, instead of defending it, and at the same time the rights of the trade,
before a jury.

The suggestions of the Committee were then considered seriatim. In a discussion
upon a separate dispensing department, —

Mr. T. B. Groves objected that, being out of sight, it would be allowed to be un¬
tidy, and Mr. Leay feared that it would often be dark, if far from the window.

Mr. Pooley denied that there were any sufficient reasons why such a place should
be untidy.

Mr. Daniel Bell Hanbury said that some establishments were so situated that
the addition of a dispensing department was not practicable, which was the case in
that with which he was connected.

The President related the experience of another leading house in London, where
the experiment of putting up a screen was tried more than thirty year3 since, but the
old plan of using the counter indiscriminately for dispensing and retail had been re¬
turned to.

Other members quoted the practice of Apothecaries’ Hall and leading dispensing
houses in favour of the separate system.

Mr. D. IIanbury spoke in favour of a “poison cupboard,” which was an arrange¬
ment existing at Plough Court, with the additional precaution that some of the more
potent drugs were not allowed to be taken out without a witness.

Mr. Merrikin called especial attention to the suggestion for the whole of the label
being visible upon the front of the shop bottle. The Committee had been influenced
by the knowledge of a case where Liq. Ammoniae was dispensed instead of Liq. Am¬
mon. Acet., and death resulted.

Mr. Wade suggested that a useful precaution consisted in placing the ordinary¬
shaped label in a perpendicular position ; thus, Yin. Colchici might be so labelled
when standing, as it too frequently did, between Yin. Antimonialis and Yin. Ipeca-
Ciianhaj.

Mr. Pooley expressed approval of a label introduced by Messrs. Ford and Shap-

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BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

land, in which the name of the drug, as “ RHEUM,” was given in large letters, and
the preparation, as “ Tinct.” or “ Syrup,” was placed beneath it. Abbreviations were
a fertile source of error, and they were avoided very much by this plan.

Mr. T. B. Groves suggested that the label might be repeated, so that the essential
name would be seen from either side ; thus — Tr. Opii ;

Opii Tr.

Some members said that this appeared likely to create error.

Mr. Merrikin queried whether the shop bottles used in compounding a prescrip¬
tion might not be left upon the counter until it was finished, and then be reviewed by
the dispenser.

The general expression was, however, opposed to this plan.

The President called attention to the importance that the contents of shop bottles
should be checked before they were used. In his establishment, a junior assistant
filled the bottles that required it each morning, entered them in a book, and this entry
was signed by a senior assistant after having examined the correctness of the filling.

Mr. D. B. II anbury and Mr. Abraham spoke to using a somewhat similar system.

In the discussion upon bottles and labels, Mr. Matthews urged that any special
bottle would be liable to be put to other purposes, especially amongst the poor, and
hence the value of the precaution would be lost.

Mr. T. B. Groves would go still further in his objections, and say, that some of
these precautions were mischievous, especially those which appealed to the sense of
touch, instead of requiring that a patient should use more caution in other respects.

In reply to this, it was shown that nearly every establishment adopted some pre¬
caution or other in dispensing medicines for external use, but what was wanted was
some uniformity of practice in this respect.

Mr. Schacht was anxious to avoid any method which would compel a duplicate set
of bottles being kept for liniments, etc. He had been in the habit of covering an or¬
dinary bottle with blue paper when dispensing preparations for external use.

Mr. Reynolds thought that a slight modification of Mr. Schacht’s plan would meet
most of the difficulties of the case ; thus, a ribbon of rough and coloured paper placed
spirally round a bottle of any shape would answer the same purpose, and, he thought,
present many advantages. It would permit the appearance and quantity of the con¬
tents to be seen, would catch the eye in any position, and appeal to the sense of touch
equally, whilst it could be applied to any bottle, and be removed easily if required. It
might be applied in a moment.

The President, Mr. Abraham, Mr. Merrikin, Mr. Wade, and others, approved
of paper round the bottle as a safeguard.

Mr. Robbins thought that a label printed in red ink upon the York Glass Com¬
pany’s special bottle, was a good protection against mistake.

The President recommended the meeting to bear in mind the reason given by the
late Jacob Bell to Lord Wensley dale for objecting to some of the Poison Bills that had
been introduced, viz. that “ we did not wish to have a weak fence round a pond that
was dangerous.”

The result of the discussion of the Report was, that the meeting agreed to a series
of suggestions which were ordered to be printed, and a copy placed in the hands of
every member before the next sitting.

A communication was read from Mr. W. J. Halliday, of Manchester, in relation to
prosecutions directed against chemists for the consequences of errors made by them
or their assistants, and suggesting that a fund should be established, under suitable
management, to defray the expenses of such legal actions.

The whole of the opinions expressed in the meeting were to the effect that the ob¬
jections to taking such a course were an insuperable obstacle, and that it could not be
adopted.

(End of Third JDafs Meeting.)

EOURTH SITTING.

Mondag, September 19 th, 9’30 a.m.

The following suggestions, arising out of the discussion on the Accidental Poison¬
ing Report, were submitted to and accepted by the meeting : —

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

167

“ SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING ACCIDENTAL POISONING.

“ The Members of the British Pharmaceutical Conference have liacl under delibera¬
tion the subject of the prevention of accidental poisoning. The result has been to con¬
vince them that most qualified dispensers of medicine already adopt precautions to
this end, and they consider that the comparative rareness of mistakes shows that such
safeguards arc generally attended with success. It being desirable however that
some approach to uniformity of practice should exist, the following suggestions are
offered : —

“ 1. It is recommended that all who are, or expect to be, engaged in the practice of
pharmacy, should take advantage of existing facilities for acquiring a good theoretical
as well as practical knowledge of their business, as being the best foundation that can
be laid for future safety, as well as usefulness, in their calling.

“ 2. It is desirable that, where practicable, a separate and suitable part of the shop
of a chemist and druggist should be set apart for the dispensing of prescriptions.

“ 3. In the dispensing department, or other suitable place, there should be a reper-
torium toxiporum , or ‘ poison cupboard,’ under lock and key, in which should be
kept all the concentrated and virulent poisons. An additional protection of similar
character consists in securing the stopper of a bottle by tying over or other means.

“ 4. It is advantageous that labels on shop bottles should be visible at a glance ; the
words being, for instance, in two short lines, on a square label, rather than in one line
on a long curved label.

“5. 'Where practicable, every prescription should be checked by a second person
before it leaves the shop.

“ 6. It is expedient that liniments, lotions, and poisonous preparations for external
use, should be sent out in such a form as to be easily distinguished, by touch as well
as sight, from medicines intended for internal administration.

“ 7. Every specially dangerous substance sold by the chemist and druggist, should,
in addition to its name, be distinctly labelled ‘ Poison ;’ except in the case of medicines
dispensed from a prescription, where the statement of the use or dose may be con¬
sidered to be sufficient precaution. A label having the word ‘ Poison ’ in white let¬
ters on a black ground is well adapted for the above purpose.”

Dr. Attfield, in rising to move the reception of the Report, alluded to the care
with which facts had been collated, the practical value of the conclusions, the explicit
manner in which it had been drawn up, and the important series of suggestions it had
elicited. He proposed “ That the Report of the Committee appointed by the Con¬
ference to consider the means best calculated to prevent the recurrence of accidental
poisoning be received, and that the best thanks of the meeting be accorded to the re¬
porters, Messrs. King, Marsh, Kent, and Merrikin.”

Mr. Matthews seconded the resolution. It was carried unanimously.

“ON THE CALABAR BEAN. BY J. EDWARDS, PH.D., F.C.S.

[Abstract.]

“ The author illustrated the chemical reactions of this poisonous substance, and
showed an alcoholic extract which, he said, contained two distinct active principles,
both soluble in ether, and both miscible with, but not clearly dissolved by chloroform.
He also exhibited Dr. Frazer’s tincture of Calabar Bean, made by percolation of two
ounces of the white kernel with two fluid ounces of rectified spirit. The dose of this
tincture is five minims, equal to three grains of the bean, and may be increased to
fifteen minims. Dr. Edwards then showed a watery enndsion of the extract, and per¬
formed reactions with reagents similar to those used in testing for strychnia. The
general facts relating to the bean had been already published in a paper and report
contained in the ‘Pharmaceutical Journal’ for September.”

“ THE MORPHIA SALTS OF COMMERCE. BY MR. W. E. HEATHFIELD.

[Abstract.~]

“The inquiries of the author had been directed to the amount of moisture existing
in these salts, and also to the question as to whether codeia was present in them.

“ Three samples of liydroclilorate from different manufacturers had been examined,
and found to contain respectively 5-8 and 9’8 per cent, of water, estimated by drying

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BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

at 212°. The amount of alkaloid obtained from each of the above (dried at 212°) was
79,7, 76‘7, and 7T3, — the quantities thus varying inversely as the amount of water.

“ It was noticed that the samples containing the most moisture dissolved more readily
in water, and their solution was less coloured than those which were originally drier.

“Three samples of acetate wTere then examined in a similar way, and found to contain
respectively 5, 10, and 126 per cent, of moisture. It was found that the sample con¬
taining least water fused, and became dark-coloured, with loss of structure on applica¬
tion of a water-bath heat ; while that containing the most water retained its pulveru¬
lent form unaltered at that temperature.

“ The morphia precipitated from these samples was found to be remarkably pure,
being perfectly soluble in caustic potash ; scarcely acted on by ether, and almost
entirely free from codeia, as were also the mother-liquors from which they were sepa¬
rated.

“ The author also quoted experiments by Mr. IIow to show that, however feasible
the conversion of morphia into codeia might appear on a comparison of their formula?,
it could not be carried out ; a substance isomeric with codeia had been obtained, but
it was by no means identical.”

Mr. T. B. Groves alluded to the instance of patients in whom codeia produced in¬
tolerable irritation and itching, even when the amount wras only small and existed as a
contamination of a morphia salt. The demand for codeia now and its high price in¬
duced the maker to separate it, and there was now none present in morphia salts as
used to be the case.

Mr. Heathfield said that one manufacturer who had saved his morphia, residues
for the past fifteen years, had now extracted some hundreds of ounces of codeia from
them.

“ON COMMERCIAL PHOSPHORIC ACID. BY R. PARKINSON, PH.D.

\_A bstract . J

“ Twenty-eight samples had been examined with reference to their strength and free¬
dom from impurity, the result as to strength being that three samples came up to the
British Pharmacopoeia strength ; five more were about the London Pharmacopoeia
strength ; while the remainder were of various shades of declension. Phosphate
of ammonia was present in six samples, sulphuric acid in one, nitric acid only
traces in any. 'Jhe presence of ammonia was considered evidence that the samples
containing it had been made from the glacial acid, which commercially is made
by heating the phosphate of ammonia, the whole of the ammonia never being
practically got rid of. One sample of German glacial contained 5 per cent, of am¬
monia, which is equal to l7i per cent, of tribasic phosphate of ammonia. If a pure
glacial acid could be readily obtained commercially, that was suggested as the best
and safest means of obtaining the dilute acid ; and the combustion of phosphorus, with
arrangements for the supply of air and collection of acid, was suggested as the best
mode of obtaining such a pure glacial acid. Other plans for its preparation, which
were detailed, had been tried, and found unsatisfactory.”

Mr. T. B. Groves alluded to a suggestion which he had made some years since for
the use of amorphous phosphorus instead of the ordinary variety. He had continued
the practice with much satisfaction, the ordinary danger being entirely avoided. A
little strong nitric acid should be used towards the end of the process.

Mr. Heathfield said that glacial phosphoric acid might have either of two sources :
— 1st. The heating of phosphate of ammonia strongly. The product of this process
was always contaminated by ammonia. 2nd, The combustion of phosphorus in air or
oxygen, and the concentration of the resulting acid liquor till it reaches a syrupy con¬
sistence, and will gradually deposit crystals. This product was very pure, and adapted
for making syrups of the phosphates of iron, which was not the case with the im¬
ported acid made by the first method.

Dr. Attfield said that the deoxidation of nitric acid wras a source of the produc¬
tion of ammonia in making phosphoric acid by acting upon phosphorus with nitric acid,
the hydrogen being supplied by the decomposition of water. This had been repeatedly
found, though the quantity of the ammonia was very trifling.

Dr. Parkinson was quite aware of this fact, but had purposely omitted to introduce

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

169

it, because the quantity of ammonia found in his experiments was far too large to have
such a source.

Mr. D. IIanbury had prepared the acid by each process, and subsequently tested
it by boiling with caustic potash, when abundance of ammonia evolved from that made
by heating the phosphate of ammonia, but no trace was present in the Pliarmacopoeial
specimen.

Mr. IIeathfield said that any traces of ammonia formed in the second process
which he had named might be got rid of by heating nearly to redness in platinum,
but this method was not applicable to the acid made from phosphate of ammonia.

“ ON THE ASSAY OF THE ALKALOIDS IN MEDICINAL EXTRACTS.

BY T. B. GROVES, F.C.S.

[. Abstract .]

“ The object of the author was to devise a process for estimating the strength of the
vegetable extracts used in medicine. The method he employed was a volumetric one.
Mayer, of New York, and Valser, of Paris, had worked upon the same subject, and all
three had fixed upon the same liquid for precipitating the alkaloid, namely, the iodo-
hydrargyrate of potassium. All three also had suggested formulae for the precipitate.
Valser’s experiments corroborated those of the author, while Mayer’s pointed to a dif¬
ferent conclusion. Mayer’s experiments were then reviewed, and the details of some
reactions given from which it seemed that, on adding the iodo-hydrargyrate to the solu¬
tion of the alkaloid, a point w'as arrived at when the addition of either liquid caused
a precipitate. In this way some of the apparent anomalies might be explained. If,
however, time were allowed for the completion of the reaction, more definite results
might be obtained. lie described the reactions with strychnia, quinine, cinchonine,
morphia, nicotina, and codeia, and reviewed Mayer’s results, which were quite, he
said, anomalous. In estimating the amount of alkaloid in an extract, the alkaloid
must first be isolated as far as possible by Stas’s well-known method. In estimating
the medicinal value of an extract, more exact methods than those now known must
be discovered before accuracy can be attained.”

Mr. Schacht and other members spoke with warm approval of the laborious and
able researches of the author, which had accomplished an end not less important than
original discovery, viz. the pointing out of processes which, though highly praised by
their authoi’S, could not be relied upon.

“ A REPORT AS TO THE PURITY OF COMMERCIAL POWDERS OF IPECACUANHA,
JALAP, AND OPIUM. BY F. M. RIMMINGTON.

[Abstract.]

“The indications relied on were principally microscopic, to which was added esti¬
mation of amount of ash, not assuming that variation in the latter particular would
be proof of adulteration, but considering that such a series of estimations would be
collaterally interesting. Eleven samples of ipecacuanha from different localities were
examined ; all appeared to be genuine, and the amount of ash was tolerably constant,
ranging from 2‘5 to 3'7 per cent., except in one case, where 7 per cent, was found.
Nine samples of jalap had also been examined; seven of them appeared genuine, the
amount of ash ranging from 5‘5 to 6 per cent., while two contained an abnormal
amount of woody fibre, and in these the ash was reduced to 3‘5 and 4 per cent, re¬
spectively. Of eight samples of powdered opium, six were found to contain varying
quantities of starch ; the percentage of ash was pretty constant, from 5’ to G'5, the
variations being independent of the presence of the starch. The author regards the
starch as an impurity in the opiums imported, having met with it in this form.”

“ON THE PREPARATION OF AN IMPROVED WINE OF IRON.

BY H. N. DRAPER, F.C.S., AND MR. J. WHITLA.

[Abstract.]

“ The authors first described their observations of the action of light in promoting
decomposition of the officinal wine of iron. To prevent this decomposition, which
occurs even in the dark, they suggested that ammonio-citrate of iron should replace
potassio-tartrate, and that citrate of ammonia should also be added, to prevent any

170

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

slight precipitation that might otherwise occur when the wine was exposed to strong
sunlight. The formula proposed was as follows : —

Ammonio-citrate of Iron . 160 grains.

Crystalline Citrate of Ammonia .... 60 ,,

Sherry . 1 pint.

The wine thus prepared was perfectly transparent, and had no disagreeable taste.”

“ ON COMMERCIAL WINE OF IRON, WITH SUGGESTIONS. BY F. SUTTON, F.C.S.

[Abstract. ]

“ Steel wine is well known to vary much in strength. The author obtained seven
samples from the leading Pharmaceutical Chemists in London, and estimated the per¬
centage quantity of iron in them, and also the amount of saccharine residue they
yielded on evaporation to dryness. The following table exhibits the results of the
experiment : —

Saccharine Metallic

residue

per oz.

iron per oz.

1. .

. . . 23f grains . .

. 0‘31 grains.

2. .

. . . 241

35 • *

. 0'35 „

3. .

. . . 14i

» •

. 0 70 „

4. .

... 21

33 • *

. 0-51 „

5. .

... 51*

55 * *

. 1*76 „

6. .

... 17

53 *

. 1-08 „

7. .

... 281

) 5

. 0.43 „

“No. 5 was made with tartarated iron. The composition of the rest shows that the
less saccharine residue, a specimen of sherry, yields on being evaporated to dryness,
the more iron it is capable of dissolving. The metal should be digested in light
sound sherry for four months, to obtain the best preparation.

“ The examination of a number of samples made with tartarated iron, showed that
they contained about one, instead of one and three-quarter grains of iron, the rest
having precipitated. The author thought that if a strong, sound sherry were used,
and the ingredients allowed to remain in contact for one month, access of ah’ to the
vessel being occasionally allowed, a satisfactory preparation could be made by the
process.”

Mr. Merrikin and Mr. Robbins spoke of the advantage of adding tartaric acid
or bitartrate of potash to the wine when making it by the old plan from iron wire.
The first-named speaker had found the preparation of the B. P. very unsatisfactory,
being returned by customers with complaints that it became muddy.

The President and Mr. D. Hanbury also condemned the new formula, and ex¬
pressed the opinion that the old preparation must still be kept in hand.

Mr. Abraham differed from these opinions, and thought that the new preparation
kept well, whilst he objected to the old one that it retained the flavour of the hydro¬
gen-oil, and often lost its colour so much that caramel had been used to replace it.

Mr. T. B. Groves thought that hydrated oxide of iron and citric acid might be
used.

Mr. Reynolds queried if Ferrum Redactum would not be a convenient form of in¬
troducing a uniform amount of iron.

“ ON THE AMOUNT OF ALKALOID IN COMMERCIAL CITRATE OF IRON AND

QUININE. BY MR. J. C. BRAITH WAITE.

[. Abstract .]

tc The author had examined fifteen samples of this medicine, which should contain
sixteen per cent, of quinine, or about twenty-five per cent, of citrate of quinine. The
following is a tabular form of his results : —

In 100 parts.

Quinine. Citrate of Quinine.

1 . 15 .... 2*3

2 . 1*5 .... 2'3

3 . 3'7 .... 5'8

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

171

v

In 100 parts.

Quinine. Citrate of Quinine.

4. . .

. . 4T .

. 6-4

5. . .

. . 4-7 .

. 7-4

6. . .

. . 60 .

. 9-3

7. . .

. . 73 .

. 11-5

8. . .

. . 93 .

. 14-5

9. . .

. . 11-2 .

. 175

10. . .

. . 12-2 ,

. 19-1

11. . .

. . 13-0 .

. 20-2

12. . .

. . 14-7 .

. 23-0

13. . .

. . 14-8 .

. 23T

14. . .

. . 14-9 .

. 23.2

15. . .

. . 15*8 .

. 24-7”

Mr. D. Ha a bury called attention to the test ordered in the British Pharmacopoeia,
■which states that ammonia throws down a white precipitate, soluble in ether. Now
the fact was, that traces of oxide of iron fell with the quinia, and remained behind
after the action of ether. The quantity was too trifling to invalidate the results given
by the process.

Mr. Heathfield said that if the solution of citrate of iron had been concentrated
by boiling down before scaling, the traces of iron named by Mr. Hanbury would ap¬
pear, but they would not from a citrate made without heat.

At an afternoon sitting of the Conference, a resolution was proposed by Dr. Edwards,
seconded by Mr. Jameson, and carried, “ That the next annual meeting of the Con¬
ference be held at Birmingham.”

On the motion of Mr. Abraham, seconded by Mr. Commans, power was given to the
Executive Committee to elect a Local Secretary and other officers resident in Bir¬
mingham.

The following gentlemen were balloted for and duly elected as officers for the ensu¬
ing year : —

Officers for 1S64-5.

j President. — H. Deane, E.L.S.

Vice-Presidents. — Prof. Bentley, E.L.S., M.R.C.S. ; J. B. Edwards, Pli.D., E.C.S. ;
J. P. Tylee.

Treasurer. — IT. B. Brady, E.L.S. , etc., Moseley Street, Newcastle-011 -Tyne.

General Secretaries. — J. Attfield, Ph.D., E.C.S., 17, Bloomsbury Square, London,
W.C. ; R. Reynolds, F.C.S., 13, Briggate, Leeds.

Committee. — J. C. Brough ; S. dale, F.C.S. ; T. B. droves, E.C.S. ; D. Hanbury,
F.L.S. ; A. E. Haselden ; J. C. Pooley ; B. S. Proctor ; E. Sutton, E.C.S.

At half-past five o’clock, a large number of the members dined together at their
Rooms in deorge Street.

After the removal of the cloth, the usual loyal toasts were proposed by the Chair¬
man, Henry Deane, E.L.S. “ Success to the British Pharmaceutical Conference” was
then given by Mr. J. R. King, in a feeling and telling speech, and acknowledged by
the Chairman. “The Health of the Bath Members” was received with great applause
by the visitors, showing that the efforts which had been made for the comfort and
convenience of all connected with the Conference were thoroughly appreciated. “ The
Pharmaceutical Society” was next offered as a toast by Mr. Matthews, and responded
to by Dr. Attfield, who traced the existence of the Conference to the zeal of the former
educational officers of the Society, in annually sending from their school gentlemen
able and willing to aid in the advancement of pharmacy. “ Success to other Educa¬
tional Societies” was proposed by Dr. Edwards. “ The Pharmaceutica. Press ” wras
acknowledged by Mr. Brough. Other toasts and speeches were given by Messrs. Com¬
mans, Jameson, Griles, Mercer, Brady, and Reynolds.

PROFESSOR ALFRED S. TAYLOR’S REPORT ON POISONING, AND THE
DISPENSING, VENDING, AND KEEPING OF POISONS.

H. — TO WHAT EXTENT IS INJURY OCCASIONED BY THE CARELESSNESS AND
INCOMPETENCE OF PERSONS EMPLOYED IN RETAILING DRUGS?

In reference to this question, I understand that the answer should apply to injury
affecting health and life, and that the retailing of drugs refers particularly to the dispens¬
ing and vending of drugs and medicine.

Considering this question in its broadest aspect, the first point to which I would refer
is, that a large number of persons wholly unacquainted with the properties of powerful
drugs and medicines, are allowed to retail them to the public, on demand, without any
check or control. Persons who have had no professional education as druggists, and
acting as oilmen, grocers, or village shopkeepers, keep for sale laudanum, tincture of
rhubarb, senna, black draughts, etc., and either from carelessness in placing the bottles
containing these medicines near to each other, or from ignorance, supply laudanum for the
tinctures above mentioned, and thus either injure health or destroy life. A friend of
mine having sent to a village shop where drugs were sold, for an ounce of tincture of
rhubarb, was supplied with laudanum in place of it, and having swallowed it, narrowly
escaped with his life. The medicinal tinctures above mentioned are similar in colour to
laudanum, and are therefore liable to be mistaken for it ; the odour is, however, very
different. When it is considered that the bottles are for convenience of retail sale kept
near to each other, and generally on the same shelf, and further that the proprietors of
the shop frequently entrust the sale of them to boys and girls, some of whom cannot
read, it is not surprising that fatal mistakes should be frequently made. The case which
I have related above is the type of many which occur annually, but of which the public
hear but little, because, as recoveries are numerous, no inquiries are instituted. Even
when death takes place there is a general disposition to exonerate the chemist from blame,
as will be perceived by two of the following cases.

The first occurred recently. An infant died from the effects of a dose of laudanum
administered by its mother in mistake for tincture of rhubarb. A servant lad was sent
with a written message for threepennyworth of tincture of rhubarb to the shop of a
druggist in a country town. The proprietor himself measured out the liquid, and gave
it to the lad. Half a teaspoonful administered by the mother killed the child in a few
hours, with the usual symptoms of poisoning by opium. On examining the liquid
remaining in the bottle it was found to consist of pure laudanum. The verdict was to
the effect that death had resulted from a dose of laudanum given by mistake.

This case occurred at Wigan in January of the current year, and I am indebted to
Mr. Grimshawe, the coroner, for a full account of the particulars.* The mistake appeared
to have arisen from carelessness on the part of the druggist, and not from ignorance, and
it presents a characteristic feature of all such fatal errors in dispensing or vending medi¬
cines, namely, the positive denial, as a rule, that any mistake has been made. The
druggist made the following statement at the inquest: “The boy came to the shop, and
asked for threepennyworth of tincture of rhubarb, and 1 gave him what I thought was
the tincture of rhubarb, and I think so still, for I do not believe I gave him laudanum
at all. I have no reason to think I gave laudanum, and nothing has occurred to my
mind to lead me to think so.” A juror asked, “ Is the tincture of rhubarb bottle kept
near that containing laudanum ? ” Druggist. “ They are near together ; one or two off
each other. One bottle is a little larger than the other.” The bottle and its contents
were clearly traced to the druggist’s shop. A medical man called in to see the child,
found it dying under the symptoms usually caused by laudanum, and on asking to see
the bottle from which the dose of medicine had been given, he found in it nothing but
laudanum. This strong denial of a mistake from inattention or carelessness, in face of
facts which prove that a mistake must have been made, has, in more than one instance,
led to unfounded charges of murder against innocent persons who have had the care of
children. The jury exonerated the druggist, attributing the result to accident, and not
to gross carelessness. They suggested, however, that bottles containing poisonous medi-

* See Report in £ Wigan Examiner/ Jan. 8, 18G4.

professor taylor’s report on poisoning. 173

cines or drugs should be distinctly labelled, and not kept on the same shelves close to
others which were not poisonous.

A servant was sent to a village shop for an ounce of powdered rhubarb. The person
to whom she applied is described as grocer, draper, and druggist to the village. The
grocer weighed from a small bottle half an ounce of a powder which he said was all that
he had of that kind. The girl remarked that the powder was very dark in colour, which the
grocer admitted, but made no further observation. A teaspoonful of this powder with
a few drops of laudanum was given to a young woman for whom the rhubarb had been
prescribed. In a short time she was seized with symptoms of poisoning by opium, and died
the same evening. The powder purchased as rhubarb was found to be powdered opium,
without any admixture, and eight or ten grains of opium in powder were found in the
stomach of deceased on a post-mortem examination of the body.

The statement made at the coroner’s inquest by the person -who was guilty of this
serious mistake shows the great danger to which the lives of the public are exposed by
allowing ignorant and incompetent persons to sell powerful medicines capable of acting
as poisons. This event occurred on the 29th April, and the draper-druggist, when called
before the coroner’s jury, stated “that he took his shop on the 9th of April, with the
stock of groceries, draperies, and drugs, including the powdered opium ; that he under¬
stood from the outgoing tenant that the powder was rhubarb, and he himself supposed
so from seeing the word ‘ Turc.’ on the label. He had not a thorough acquaintance with
drugs, and sold the powdered opium ignorantly.” The jury found that he had been
guilty of culpable negligence and ignorance, and returned a verdict of manslaughter
against him.*

This case furnishes an instance of the incompetence of village shopkeepers to deal in
poisons. The bottle which contained the powdered opium wras thus labelled, “Pulv.
Opii Turc. Opt.” Because rhubarb also comes from Turkey, and is sometimes labelled
“Pulv. Rhei Turc. Opt.,” the draper had fixed upon the word “ Turc.” as indicative of
rhubarb powrder only. If, as he stated at the inquest, his predecessor in the business
handed over to him the contents of this bottle as rhubarb, it is not improbable, as
rhubarb is a popular medicine for children, that some may have previously died from
this complete ignorance of the nature of drugs. The two powders may be easily dis¬
tinguished by smell and colour, by any one having the slightest acquaintance with
drugs.

Another case which occurred in the country furnishes an illustration of carelessness
in a druggist and incompetence in a shopkeeper. A mother wishing to give a dose of
tincture of rhubarb to her child applied for this medicine at a small village shop kept by
a woman who dealt in apples, sweetmeats, spirits of nitre, tincture of rhubarb, castor
oil, etc. It does not appear that laudanum was among the articles which she professed
to sell. After two doses of the medicine had been given to it, the child was seized with
the usual symptoms of poisoning by opium, and died in the course of a few hours. The
liquid sold at the village shop as tincture of rhubarb was found to be tincture of opium ;
and it then transpired that the shopkeeper had procured it of a regular druggist in a
neighbouring town. It had been sold by an apprentice to this druggist as tincture of
rhubarb. The coroner’s jury found that the deceased had been accidentally poisoned by
an overdose of laudanum; and the apprentice who had made the mistake was discharged
with a caution.f

It would be easy to accumulate instances of this kind, but those above mentioned may
suffice to show that by ignorant, incompetent, or careless persons, life is frequently
endangered by reason of opium in tincture or powder being mistaken for rhubarb.

Antimonial wine is occasionally employed by the poorer classes as a medicine for
children. In the following case, colchicum wine, a powerful poison, was supplied by
mistake for the medicine. A mother was advised to give to her child, suffering from
diarrhoea, a dose of antimonial wine. She applied for it at a regular druggist’s shop,
and she was served by a youth, 1G years of age, who was not acquainted with the nature
of drugs. Several doses of the wine were given to the child, which led to its death on

* See Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions, June, 1858, p. 627.
f See Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions, April, 1859, p. 528. Other cases, similar
in their details, are reported in the same journal for September, 1856, p. 195, and October,
1863, p. 186.

174

professor taylor’s report on poisoning.

the following day, and the liquid remaining in the bottle was found to he wine of colchi-
cum, which had been sold by mistake. The coroner’s jury dismissed the druggist with
a reprimand.^

The sale of oxalic acid, nitre, and other saline compounds of a noxious kind, for
Epsom salts, has been a frequent cause of death. The facts of the subjoined case, which
occurred in December, 1863, at Oswestry, were communicated to me by the medical
gentleman who was called to see the deceased : —

The deceased applied to a druggist for some Epsom salts. He was served with eight
packets. One of them, equivalent to an ounce in weight, he mixed in water, and swal¬
lowed about nine o’clock in the morning. He died under symptoms of irritant poison¬
ing in less than three hours. The packets were labelled “Purified Epsom Salts;” but
when examined they were found to contain nitrate of potash in powder. The nitre had
caused death, with the usual symptoms of irritant poisoning. It was admitted at the
inquest that the powdered nitre and Epsom salts were kept in drawers close to each
other, and thus the mistake had arisen. The boy who made the mistake was seventeen
years of age. The verdict was to the effect that the man had been poisoned by nitre ;
but the druggist, whose business was thus carelessly conducted, was exonerated from all
blame.

A man went into a druggist’s shop in London to purchase two ounces of Epsom salts.
Hearing they had a taste, he asked the apprentice who supplied him to exchange them
for tasteless salts (Eochelle salt). An exchange was made, and the man swallowed an
ounce of the substance which had been given to him. He was seized with symptoms of
irritant poisoning, and died after nine days, suffering in the meantime from inflamma¬
tion of the stomach and bowels. It was found that the apprentice had supplied him
with tartaric acid, in place of the tartrate of potash and soda. The druggist, who
admitted the mistake, was subsequently tried on a charge of manslaughter. It was con¬
tended in the defence, that the drug had been supplied in error and by mistake, and not
with that gross and culpable negligence which would constitute the crime of man¬
slaughter. The jury acquitted hinr.f

Several cases have come to my knowledge in which oxalic acid has been retailed in
place of Epsom salts. In one of them, which occurred in London some years since, a
man was sent to the shop of a respectable druggist for four ounce-packets of Epsom
salts. He was served with four packets, labelled as usual “ Purified Epsom Salts.” In
the evening, the gentleman who had sent for the salts took the contents of one of these
packets ; he was seized with the usual symptoms of poisoning by oxalic acid, and died
in a few hours. I examined the contents of the stomach, and found oxalic acid therein,
and I also found that the three unopened packets contained oxalic acid, labelled as above
described.

In another instance in which I was consulted, a gentleman on a visit to London
entered a shop of a respectable druggist, and asked for an ounce and a half of Dinne-
ford’s fluid magnesia. The druggist poured a liquid from a bottle into a glass, but when
the applicant took a portion of it into his mouth, he found that it was some caustic
burning fluid. On looking at the bottle, he saw that it was labelled “ Burnett’s Disin¬
fecting Fluid.” He subsequently suffered from severe pain and vomiting ; and medical
men who saw him stated that his symptoms were such as Burnett’s fluid (chloride of
zinc) would produce. He recovered after nine days, and brought an action against the
druggist, in consequence of his having negligently given him an irritant poison in place
of medicine. The defendant denied having given him Burnett’s fluid, which he did not
keep, although he kept chloride of zinc in his shop, and said that he had poured out a
solution of Epsom salts. This would not, however, have accounted for the symptoms
from which the plaintiff had suffered. A verdict, with £75 damages, was returned against
the druggist.^ Owing to similar mistakes, and chiefly owing to fluid magnesia and dis¬
infecting fluid being sold in similar bottles with somewhat similar labels, several lives
have been destroyed.

* Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions, February, 1859, p. 438.
t The case of the Queen against Watkins, Central Criminal Court, January, 1815. See
also Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions, February, 1845, p. 370,

I Richards v. Cocking, Guildhall, July, 1858. See Pharmaceutical Journal and Transac¬
tions, August, 1858, p. 139.

professor, taylor’s report on poisoning.

175

In a case in which I was consulted, and which led to a trial for murder at the Central
Criminal Court, it was proved that powdered white arsenic was kept on a shelf near to
bottles containing calomel and sugar, and other white powders resembling arsenic. A
dose of four grains of calomel was prescribed for an infant late at night. Arsenic was
supplied in place of calomel. The child died, and on examining the stomach, arsenic
in powder, in quantity nearly corresponding to the above dose, was found in that organ,
but no calomel. The child was dying from intussusception when the supposed calomel
was given ; but the discovery of arsenic in the stomach, led to a charge of murder
against the mother and grandmother who had had the care of the child, and had given
to it its food and medicine during its illness. On proof of the facts above mentioned,
i.e. that arsenic and calomel were kept on contiguous shelves in the same shop, and that
no calomel was found in the body, and no motive for poisoning could be suggested, the
learned judge stopped the case, and the jury acquitted the accused of the charge.*

The dispenser who compounded the medicines in this shop, strongly denied that any
mistake had been made. The following is an extract from his evidence : —

“ The powder was white. I know that white arsenic was kept in the shop, hut I did
not sell any arsenic that night. By the Court. — I should not know calomel from arsenic
by its appearance. I don’t know whether arsenic is rougher in appearance than calomel.
I never examined them together. I cannot say whether calomel being mixed with sugar
would give it still more the appearance of arsenic. Mr. Clarkson remarked that he
thought it was fortunate for the public that this gentleman (the witness) had not suc¬
ceeded to the retail drug business of his uncle.”

The late Dr. Snow communicated to me the following case : — The parents of a child
sent to the shop of a provincial druggist for a pennyworth of magnesia. It happened
that the druggist was not in the shop at the time, and his assistant, a youth, dispensed
arsenic by mistake for magnesia. The poison wras given to the child ; the usual symp¬
toms followed, and the child died.

A superintendent of police, in endeavouring to trace out the sale of poison in reference
to a case of alleged murder, informed me that on entering the shop of a provincial
druggist on a market day he saw on the counter a bottle of white arsenic in powder near
several other bottles containing white powders, which he was informed were of a medici¬
nal nature.

Most of the cases above mentioned may be traced partly to carelessness, and partly to
incompetence and gross ignorance, on the part of those who are allowed to retail drugs
to the public. The injurious effects of such incompetence and ignorance on the health
of the public, and the great danger to life, are increased a hundredfold by reason of the
carelessness displayed in keeping innocent medicines and poisonous compounds resem¬
bling each other on shelves or drawers in close proximity. The plea for this practice is
that laudanum is a drug as much or even more in request than tincture of rhubarb or
senna, and it requires to be as much within the reach of the vendor. The bottles are
commonly of the same size and shape, with similar labels; and the system of labelling
usually adopted, namely, the use of abbreviated Latin words, is no doubt a fertile source
of mistakes. Three bottles of similar shape may be thus labelled, — Tinct. Opii (Lauda¬
num), Tinct. Kiiei, Tinct. Senn^e. Each label, as I have had occasion to notice, com¬
mences with a similar abbreviation ; and a bottle containing laudanum (Tinct. Opii),
turned a little on one side, as the liquids have a similar colour, may easily be mistaken
for one of the other two. The bottles may sometimes be misplaced, and thus, without
looking at the label, but deceived by the position of the bottle, the poison may be dis¬
pensed for the medicine.

Among those ignorant persons who keep village general shops for draperies and
groceries, and who deal in certain drugs and poisons, the mistakes are not only more
frequent but more serious in their consequences to health and life. It would be difficult
to define to what extent the public health suffers in this respect ; for symptoms of
poisoning are so apt to be mistaken for bowel complaints, fits, or convulsions, especially
when death is not the immediate result, or a person has been for some time ill, that
such cases are generally set down to disease, and the deaths are registered accord¬
ingly. A closer scrutiny would probably show that poison carelessly sold, in a state of

* The Queen against Dore and Spry, Central Criminal Court, August, 1848. See also
‘ London Medical Gazette/ vol. xlii. 1848, p. 888.

o 2

176

PROFESSOR TAYLOR’S REPORT ON POISONING.

mixture with common articles of food, or a poison sold for medicine, may have been the
real cause. Even in the event of death taking place, as no suspicion exists among the
neighbours, and post-mortem examinations and analyses are not made, except when strong
suspicion has been excited by moral circumstances, such cases are necessarily overlooked.

Among various instances of the sale of poisoned food that have come before me
during the last thirty years, illustrative of the effects of carelessness and ignorance com¬
bined, are the following : —

A man died from the effects of some oatmeal purchased at a village general shop,
where drugs and poisons, including arsenic, were sold. The death of this man from
arsenic led to a suspicion that a murder had been perpetrated by some member of Ins
family. Some oatmeal procured at the same shop was found to contain arsenic in quan¬
tity sufficient to destroy life. The meal was kept in a large drawer, divided into a num¬
ber of parts by loosely fitting wooden partitions. In one of them white arsenic in
powder had been kept, and the poison had diffused itself through the contents of the
different divisions of the drawer, thus giving to all of them, more or less, poisonous pro¬
perties. Several articles of food in common demand were found to have been acciden¬
tally poisoned. How many persons had suffered in health from this carelessness in
keeping arsenic, before attention was drawn to the fact by the occurrence of a sudden
death from poison, it is now impossible to state.

Another instance occurred recently in one of the northern counties, which brought to
light two cases of death from the criminal administration of arsenic one and nearly two
years previously. A man in a respectable position of life as a small farmer kept a village
general shop, where rice, arrow-root, sago, and other articles of food were sold. He also
kept arsenic for sale. Some ground rice was purchased at this shop by a neighbour,
and seven or eight persons were made seriously ill and nearly killed, in consequence of
eating a pudding made with a portion of this rice. An action for damages was brought
in the county court against the shopkeeper, but this was decided in his favour, on the
ground that the arsenic might have got into the rice by accident. It transpired, however,
that other persons had suffered from symptoms of poisoning by reason of their partaking
of food from this shop, and it was then remembered that the wife of the shopkeeper had
died suddenly twenty-one months before, and his mother had also died a year before this
date. Their bodies were exhumed, and it was found that they had both died from the
effects of arsenic. This led to the trial of the shopkeeper and a woman whom he had
married after the death of his wife, for murder. It came out in evidence that arsenic
was so carelessly kept in the shop that it might have become mixed with various articles
of food (arrow-root) given to the wife and the mother during their illness, and thus have
accidentally caused the deaths of both. The jury returned a verdict of manslaughter,
and the prisoners were sentenced to penal servitude for life. But for the simultaneous
illness of so many members of a family who had partaken of food procured at this
village shop, their violent deaths by poison would probably have remained unknown to
this day.*

The superintendent of police, who gave evidence at the trial, made the following

'* The Queen against Garner and Wife, Lincoln Lent Assizes, 18G3. It is worthy of
remark, that an inquest was held on the body of the wife immediately after her death in
March, 1861, and the jury returned a verdict to the effect “ that deceased died suddenly from
natural causes by visitation of God, and not from any violent cause.” When the present
experienced coroner for Boston, Mr. Walter Clegg, heard of the sale of this poisoned rice,
etc., he, upon his own responsibility, ordered the exhumation of the bodies of the wife and
mother of the male prisoner. The result of the inquiry showed that he had taken a correct
view of the facts. The medical gentleman who attended the wife in her illness, candidly
admitted that at the time he had no suspicion that poison was the cause of the symptoms.

I am indebted to Mr. Justice Willes for a note on a similar case. A woman named Alice
Hewitt was tried before him at Chester Winter Assizes, December, 1863, and convicted of
poisoning her mother with arsenic in the month of March preceding. Although the symp¬
toms of irritant poisoning were very clearly marked, a medical man who attended her
certified the cause of death as gastro -enteritis. Eleven weeks after the burial of the de¬
ceased, the body was exhumed and examined, when as much as 154 grains of arsenic were
found in the stomach and contents. It was proved that shortly before her mother’s death,
the prisoner had purchased a quarter of a pound of arsenic for threepence, and had insured
her mother’s life in one of the local clubs, by causing a woman to personate her. This

177

professor taylor’s report on poisoning.

statement respecting the discovery of arsenic in the shop : — “ I went into the shop, and
saw Whittaker and Garner (the two prisoners), and the former pointed out the place
Avhere the arsenic was kept. It was placed upon a shelf under the counter. There
Avould be half a hundredweight at least, in pound and half-pound packages. I saw a
pound packet of white arsenic which had been broken into ; it was three and a half
ounces deficient. It had evidently been recently broken open, but neither Garner nor
Whittaker could account for it. Both asserted it had been recently opened. The string
was cut, and not to be found. They complained that the parcel had been opened by
some one who had no business to open it. There was another parcel, which had been
open some time, as it was very dirty, and both stated that this package only should
have been broken into. It contained white arsenic.”

In reference to this discovery of the mode in which arsenic in large quantities was
kept in a village shop, it may be stated that during the illness of the prisoner’s wife in
March, 1861, she was attended by a woman who gave her arrow-root and milk, the former
being procured from the shop. The woman used occasionally to taste the arrow-root,
and she suffered like the wife from sickness and purging. The wife died, as it was
afterwards proved, from the effects of arsenic ; and the nurse suffered from paralysis, as
a result of the action of arsenic, and Avas for a period of ten Aveeks an in-patient at an
hospital. Nearly two years after the death of the Avife and the illness of the nurse, the
police took from the prisoner’s shop a large drawer, labelled in ink- writing on paper,
“Arrow-root and Baking PoAvder. 2d. per oz., 2s. per lb.” This was submitted to me
for analysis. The draAver contained a pound and a quarter of starchy powder, having
the appearance of common arroAV-root. On analysis, it was found that this arrow-root Avas
mixed Avith about 140 grains of arsenic. All parts of it were more or less poisoned, and
a tablespoonful, Aveighing 550 grains, yielded nine grains of white arsenic. There Avas
no baking powder in the drawer. The draAver had no cover, and Avas one of many, open¬
ing as usual from the counter, Avithout anything to indicate the deadly nature of its
contents. Any person applying for arrow-root or baking powder might have been served
from this drawer. There Avas no evidence, how, Avhen, or by whom the poison was
mixed Avith the arrow-root.

The death of the Rev. Dr. Alexander, in April, 1857, shows that no class of society is
safe against mistakes of this nature. On the 16th March a servant was sent to the shop
of a grocer in Ferbane, for one pound of arrow-root. The shopman, not having so much
in the bottle Avhich he placed on the counter, took from a paper parcel a sufficient quantity
of a white powder to make up the proper Aveight. Arrow-root Avas prepared with it in the
usual way, and Dr. Alexander, his daughter, and two of his servants partook of it.
They all suffered from symptoms of poisoning by arsenic, and Dr. Alexander died from
the effects of the poison on the sixteenth day. The white powder Avhich the shopman
had employed to make up the deficient Aveight, Avas proved to be white arsenic.
Dr. Alexander’s steAvard, who Avent to the shop after the accident to make inquiries,
found rice, corrosive sublimate, jalap, and oxalic acid in different papers in the same
draAA'er, and all under the care of an ignorant boy.*

murder by arsenic, as well as the two mentioned in the text, are necessarily entered in the
returns of the Registrar General as deaths from natmal causes.

When causes of death are certified as cholera, choleraic, or bilious diarrhoea, gastro-ente-
ritis, convulsions, etc., without any inspection of the body, the fact that there may have
been really symptoms of poisoning is altogether overlooked. At the trial of Catherine
Wilson for murder at the Central Criminal Court in September, 1862, I declined to accept
a certified cause of death from disease, as a proof of the real cause, believing it, as it tvas
proved to be by the conviction and execution of the prisoner, a death from poison oArerlookecl
in its true features at the time of its occurrence. I then stated that on eight different occa¬
sions I had given evidence at inquests, or on trials for murder by poison, in Avhich death
had been certified from natural causes ; and on exhumation of the bodies, many months
afterwards, poison was found in them, and this had really been the cause of death. That
statement was at the time received Avith something like incredulity on the part of the
counsel for the prisoner. Since that trial I find, on reference to my notes, that I have
examined sixteen exhumed bodies where death had taken place from poison, and natural
causes had been certified. This number is exclusive of three exhumations of the victims of
Catherine Wilson. Here natural causes had been certified, although, as the learned judge,
Mr. Justice Byles, remarked, the deceased persons had been destroyed by poison.

* See ‘ Medical Times and Gazette,’ April 18, 1857, p. 38.

178

professor taylor’s report on poisoning.

In reference to the cases of illness and the number of deaths caused annually in this
country by carelessness in retailing drugs or poisons for medicines, it would not be pos¬
sible to give an opinion without a correct return of inquests held by coroners, and a
reference to the books of medical practitioners. The cases which are accidentally
brought to light, render it probable that many escape notice altogether. With regard
to the number of persons who are injured in health, but recover from the effects of
such carelessness, they can be known only to the medical men whose assistance may be
required. They seldom come before the public, but are occasionally reported in the
medical journals. The deaths of children from opiates are very numerous ; but here,
probably, the greater number are to be attributed as much to carelessness in those who
administer, as in those who retail the various opiate preparations commonly given to
children.

Cases have come to my knowledge in which strychnia has been dispensed by mistake
for salicine, morphia, and jalapine, and has caused death. This has arisen, not so much
from incompetence on the part of the dispenser, as from carelessness in keeping drugs of
a similar appearance (some highly poisonous and others not) contiguous to each other,
in similar bottles, indistinctly labelled. In such cases, death is likely to be assigned to
natural disease, the dispenser not being aware of his error, and no inquiry made ; and
the medical man probably finding a sufficient cause for the symptoms by reference to
exposure to cold or wet, or to the effects of disease.

The extent of injury to the public cannot, however, be measured by the number of
deaths, even if recognized and accurately recorded. In numerous cases the effect of
noxious drugs dispensed for medicines is to undermine health, and to cause injury which
may affect a person for life.

There is also another source of mischief which may arise from these mistakes. As a
dispenser, acting bond Jide, is never aware when a mistake has been made, and almost
always denies it in the strongest language, it follows that those who may have given
food and medicine to the deceased, and who have been in attendance upon him up to the
last hour, are exposed to a false accusation of administering poison. If poison is found
in the body or in the medicine, this is considered to be of itself a sufficient proof of the
charge, and even the absence of motive or moral circumstances will not always suffice to
show that the charge is groundless. The proof of the mistake, if denied, will in general
rest upon presumptions. A false charge of murder, arising out of careless dispensing,
is easy to be made, and hard to be disproved, as there can rarely be immediate access to
the bottles or drawers of a shop to establish the fact upon undeniable evidence. One
case has been referred to in this report (page 747) Avhich impressed the late Baron Platt,
who tried it, with the great uncertainty of evidence in such cases, up to the last hour of
his life. Many years after the trial, in discussing the case with me, he referred to the
details of evidence, as showing how such a mistake by a dispenser, with his absolute
denial of it on oath, might have led to the conviction and execution of two innocent
persons.

II - TO WHAT EXTENT ARE UNNECESSARY FACILITIES GIVEN FOR THE PUR¬

CHASE OF POISON FOR CRIMINAL PURPOSES?

There is no legal restriction on the sale of any poison excepting arsenic ; but the
statute for regulating the sale of this poison is a dead letter, so far as the public safety
is concerned. According to the provisions of the statute (14th Victoria, cap. 13, sect, 3),
no person is allowed to sell arsenic in smaller quantities than of ten pounds weight,
unless it is previously coloured with a certain proportion of soot or indigo ; but in several
cases of criminal poisoning (two occurring in 1863), which I have been required to investi¬
gate, involving charges of murder, uncoloured or white arsenic has been used as the
instrument of death. Its great cheapness (one penny to twopence an ounce), places it
within the reach of the poorest person. It is sold to any applicant on the most frivolous
pretences ; and even in the coloured state it affords but little protection, except when it
is mixed with liquids. The better class of druggists do not sell arsenic by retail ; the
grocer, chandler, oilman, and village shopkeeper, are the principal vendors of this poison ;
and it is clear, from the numerous deaths which take place from white arsenic, that they
set the law at defiance, and sell the poison in an uncoloured state, in which case it may
be readily administered in any article of food, without exciting suspicion.

Nux vomica in powder is also easily procurable, under the usual pretext, that it is

professor taylor’s report on poisoning.

179

intended for the destruction of vermin. In one instance of attempted murder which I
was required to investigate, a mere youth had been able to procure a quantity of this
poison, and had attempted to destroy the life of his mistress, by mixing it with milk pre¬
pared for her breakfast.

Strychnia, morphia, veratria, prussic acid, the oil of bitter almonds, and preparations
of colchicum, are not commonly found in the shops of the lower class of druggists or
village shopkeepers, and they are not retailed to strangers, without due inquiry, by the
respectable class of druggists who keep them ; but there is no impediment to their sale
except that which may arise from conscientious feelings on the part of the vendor, or
from his suspicions being aroused by the statements of the person who asks for such
potent drugs. If the applicant is prepared to pay for them, and to assign a plausible
reason for the purchase, he will find no great difficulty in procuring them. In one
instance, an ounce of wine of colchicum was supplied to a maid-servant by a druggist,
and it was employed for a criminal purpose. The servant had been directed to state
that the wine was required as drops for the treatment of rheumatic gout. It was used
as a poison, and destroyed life.

There are unnecessary facilities given for the purchase of a variety of noxious drugs,
such as oil of savin, cantharides, tincture of ergot of rye, and tincture of the percldoride
of iron, which are employed for the purposes of criminal abortion. Corrosive sublimate,
the sulphates of copper, iron, and zinc, and other mineral irritants, are easily procured
upon false pretences, and are then employed to procure abortion. These drugs, thus
used by ignorant persons, either lead to the destruction of life, or seriously injure health.
In one instance within my knowledge, arsenic was purchased and given as an abortive :
it destroyed the life of the woman, without causing abortion ; in another instance, which
was the subject of a recent trial, the health of the female was completely broken up by
the effects of large doses of tincture of perchloride of iron. The tincture had been pro¬
cured by a farm labourer, without any difficulty, at the shop of a man who had been
regarded as a respectable druggist. It wras clearly proved that he was cognizant of the
purpose for which this drug was required, and he was convicted.*

There are two poisons of a most potent kind which can be readily purchased even by
boys and girls, either at the village shop or at the druggist’s. These are strychnia , sold
under the name of Butler’s vermin killer or Battle’s vermin killer, and cyanide of po¬
tassium. The first is professedly sold for destroying vermin ; but it has been the means
of death in many cases of murder and suicide, some of which have come under my
notice. These two popular vermin-killers are mixtures of strychnia with flour or fari¬
naceous meal, coloured either with soot or Prussian blue. A threepenny packet contains,
according to my analysis, one grain of strychnia, and a sixpenny packet two grains. In
the threepenny packet there is sufficient poison to destroy the lives of two persons. The
following recent case, in which I was required to give evidence, may be taken as an il¬
lustration of the dangerous facilities which exist for the sale of this deadly poison. A
girl, aged only thirteen years, was tried for the murder of her master’s infant, whom she
had been employed to nurse. It seems that the child was restless, and gave the girl
some trouble. The girl went to a village grocer’s shop, and procured, without any
difficulty, a packet of Battle’s vermin killer. She took the opportunity of her mistress’s
absence from the room, to put a small portion of the powder into the infant’s mouth. It
died in a few hours with the usual symptoms of poisoning by strychnia. It turned out
upon inquiry that this child had acted as nurse to infants in other families ; and on two
' previous occasions, the infants entrusted to her care had also died suddenly in convulsions,
as it is believed from the administration of this deadly poison ! She was found guilty
of manslaughter, and sentenced to penal servitude.!

So long as such facilities are given for the purchase of strychnia at a cheap rate, in
village grocers’ shops, by mere children, so long will it be useless to place restrictions on
the sale of other and less potent drugs. Respectable druggists refuse to sell these
powders, or strychnia in any form, but the sale of them has become a profitable branch
of trade in the shops of oilmen, grocers, and others. As strychnia can be purchased for
less than a penny per grain, the profit on the sale of these dangerous powders cannot be
less than 200 per cent.

* Regina v. Rumble, Lincoln Lent Assizes, 1863.

t The Queen against Elizabeth VamplewT, Lincoln Summer Assizes, 1862.

180

PROFESSOR TAYLOR’S REPORT ON POISONING.

The cyanide of potassium is another deadly poison, which is fatal to life in small doses,
and from its great solubility in liquids it admits of being easily administered in a poi¬
sonous dose. It is largely used in photography, and under the pretence that it is required
for this purpose, it may be easily procured at a cheap rate in large quantities from dealers
in photographic chemicals, and from druggists generally. It is not irsed in medicine,
but is much employed in the arts, and has caused death in numerous instances.

The trade in poisons in this country, may be considered to be as open and free as it
possibly can be. I doubt whether by any Act of Parliament, greater facilities for the
purchase of poison for criminal purposes could be given. No one wishing to destroy
another by poison and having the knowledge to make a selection among drugs, can meet
with any difficulty in carrying out his design. If refused at one shop, he can procure
the poison at another. If refused by a druggist, he can procure it at a grocer’s. If
refused at a grocer’s, he can procure it at a village general shop, where poisons are retailed
by girls and boys, and no questions are asked. So long as a person of any age has the
command of threepence, he can procure for this sum a sufficient quantity of one of the
most deadly poisons to destroy the lives of two adults. There is. surely here great and
unnecessary facility given for destroying human life, under the pretence that the poison
is intended for the destruction of vermin.

In the course of more than thirty years’ experience in investigating charges of poison¬
ing, I have met with a large number of cases in which murder and suicide have been
perpetrated or attempted, as a result of the dangerous facilities which exist for the pur¬
chase of poisons.

I believe that respectable druggists in town and country throw every impediment in
the way of the purchase of poison. Some poisons would not be sold to strangers under
any circumstances ; others, of a quasi-medicinal character, would be sold only under the
prescription of a medical man, or upon the written order of some medical practitioner
known to the druggist. They will also question the person who proposes to purchase
a poisonous drug, respecting the intended use of it; and if his answers are not quite
satisfactory, they properly refuse to serve him. A leading chemist of London who deals
in poisons of a deadly kind, informed me that about the time of the trial of William
Palmer, when the public mind was so much excited on the subject of secret poisoning, a
respectable person entered his shop, and required him to make up a grain of aconitia, the
alkaloid of monkshood, into ten pills, representing that they were required for medicinal
use. The druggist, knowing the properties of the alkaloid, refused to serve him, and
informed him that if he had any knowledge of the drug, each pill would form a danger¬
ous, if not a fatal dose. Admitting that public safety is thus in some cases well looked
after by respectable druggists, it must be borne in mind that they form only a small
proportion of those who are allowed to retail poisons ; and that after all, health and the
security of life are to a certain extent left to their discretion. The lower class of drug
dealers, including grocers, oilmen, and the general shopkeepers of villages, have no such
scruples ; and although, if we except strychnia, many of the more potent poisons are
not found in their shops, they have still a sufficient number of noxious drugs to endanger
health and life, by reason of the facility writh which they dispose of them to the
public.

The careless custody of poisons is a fertile source of danger to the public. They are
either not labelled, or so imperfectly, that they are liable to be used on a large scale
by mistake for other substances which they resemble. Orpiment may be sold by mis¬
take for chromate of lead, turmeric, or mustard. In a set of cases which occurred in
June, 1862, about forty members of a volunteer corps suffered from symptoms of
arsenical poisoning in consequence of having eaten cheese which was found to contain
arsenic. The poison had probably been ignorantly used in the state of orpiment for
colouring the cheese. In December, 1859, six persons suffered severely from the usual
symptoms of poisoning by arsenic, owing to their having eaten some Bath buns pur¬
chased of a confectioner at Clifton, near Bristol. This confectioner, wishing to improve
the appearance of his buns by giving to them a rich yellow colour, sent for some chrome
yellow (chromate of lead, which is itself a poison), and mixed wffiat he supposed was the
chrome yellow with the dough. The druggist to whom he applied, ignorantly supplied
him with orpiment or sulphide of arsenic, and this mistake gave rise to a degree of illness
the real extent of which could not be ascertained. An analysis of the buns proved that
sulphide of arsenic, or orpiment, was the yellow-colouring ingredient.

professor taylor’s report on poisoning.

181

In November, 1858, a confectioner at Bradford wishing to adulterate his peppermint
lozeuges with some cheap white material in order to save the cost of white sugar, sent a
boy to a druggist for 12 pounds of “ daff ” (plaster of Paris, or sulphate of lime). The
druggist, being at the time ill, directed his shopboy, a lad eighteen years of age, and
who had been only three weeks in the business, to procure the “ daff ” from an attic in
which it was kept with other chemicals. The boy was simply told that the “ daff” was
in a cask in the corner of the attic. He found a cask containing something white,
which he concluded to be the article required. He weighed out twelve pounds of what
he thought was plaster of Paris, but which was subsequently proved to be white arsenic .
The confectioner mixed this large quantity of poison with four pounds of gum and
water, forty pounds of sugar, and an ounce and a half of peppermint. The whole was
made into lozenges, and delivered to a dealer in four parcels for sale in the open market
on a Saturday. The man who made the lozenges suffered severely from sickness, from
one o’clock until nine at night, without any suspicion of the cause. Large quantities of
the lozenges were sold at the remarkably low price of two ounces for three- half pence,
the admixture with the supposed plaster of Paris enabling the dealer to sell them at a
great profit at this price. Many persons purchased two ounces, this quantity containing
about half an ounce of arsenic. Some of the lozenges were subsequently found on
analysis to contain nine grains and a half of the poison ; others from eleven to sixteen
grains. On an average each lozenge contained one-third of its weight of arsenic.

Some children who had partaken of the poisoned lozenges died on the evening of the
day on which they had purchased them, and it was at first supposed that they had died
from a severe attack of cholera. On the following day other persons were attacked with
similar symptoms, and it was then found that all who had thus suffered had partaken
of lozenges purchased of the same dealer in the market on Saturday. It was difficult
to determine the exact amount of illness and mortality caused by this serious mistake ;
but I have been informed on good authority that more than 200 persons who had eaten
the lozenges suffered from the usual symptoms of poisoning by arsenic, many of them
in so severe a form that seventeen died, twelve from acute poisoning and five from the
secondary or chronic effects of arsenic. Many were for a long time ill.*

The druggist who sold the arsenic by mistake for plaster of Paris was tried at the
York winter assizes in 1859 on a charge of manslaughter, and acquitted by the
direction of the judge, the late Baron Watson. He directed the jury that there had
been no negligence in the case, to make the prisoner or any one legally responsible
for the deaths of those who had eaten the lozenges. Criminal negligence must be
proved, in order to convict a person of manslaughter under such circumstances.

The facts in reference* to the custody of the arsenic were these : — A police inspector
visited the attic or loft where drugs were kept, and he found a cask containing two
hundredweight (224 pounds) of arsenic, two or three yards from the corner of the room.
There was no label on it ; but it was subsequently found that the cask was resting on
the labelled end, and was too heavy to be turned over, — hence it was not visibly labelled.
In the same room, but in a corner, was the “daff,” or plaster of Paris, in a similar cask.
A boy of only three weeks’ experience in a druggist’s shop, was thus sent with verbal direc¬
tions to procure plaster of Paris in a loft in which a large quantity of arsenic was kept in
a similar cask, and without any visible label. He was not required to bring the sample
to his master to let him see that no mistake had been made, but to make the best selec¬
tion that he could from a three weeks’ experience in drugs. The loss of seventeen lives , and
the serious illness of one hundred and eighty-three persons were the results of this mistake,
and no negligence could be legally established against any one ! The learned judge re¬
marked that “ he did not know that a man could do more (thau the druggist had done),
except not keep arsenic.”

The case, however, conveys this warning, if we desire to prevent the wholesale destruc¬
tion of life. If arsenic and plaster of Paris, which present a somewhat similar appear¬
ance in powder, are kept in similar casks in the same loft, they should be at least plainly
and distinctly labelled, so that no mistake could be made by even an experienced man.
If, however, the poison and the innocent substance are kept in the same place in similar
casks unlabelled, a youth of three weeks’ experience in drugs, who admitted that he

* See Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions, 1858, pp. 297, 340, and January, 1859,
p. 390

183

professor taylor’s report on poisoning.

could not distinguish arsenic from plaster of Paris, was not a proper person to send to
make the selection upon a conjecture. Had the cask of arsenic been labelled, as it should
have been, in a visible and conspicuous manner, this great destruction of life and injury
to health would not have occurred. It will be seen that the evil of adulteration in selling
plaster of Paris for white sugar was the main cause of this wholesale slaughter.

A large number of cases of poisoning by sugar of lead occurred at Stourbridge, some
years since. By some negligence or carelessness, about thirty pounds of sugar of lead in
powder were mixed at a miller’s with eighty sacks of flour, and the whole was made into
bread by the bakers, and supplied as usual to their daily customers. According to the
report of Mr. Bancks, no fewer than five hundred persons were attacked with symptoms
of lead poisoning, after partaking of this bread. In a few days they suffered from a
sense of constriction in the throat, pain at the pit of the stomach, violent cramps, drag¬
ging pains in the loins, and paralysis of the legs. There was obstinate constipation ;
the pulse was generally slow and feeble ; the countenance anxious and sunken, fre¬
quently of a peculiar livid hue. Other symptoms characteristic of lead-poisoning were
present. It is remarkable that not one of the cases proved fatal ; for among the more
severe there was great prostration, with collapse, lividity of the face, universal cramps,
and other alarming symptoms. After apparent recovery, some of the symptoms returned
in a more aggravated form without any obvious cause, and for a long time the patients
were out of health. The quantity of sugar of lead taken by each person could not be
determined, as on analysis the samples of bread were found to be very unequally im¬
pregnated with the poison.*

The following is an additional illustration of the danger to health and life which may
occur from the reckless- use of poison under circumstances in which such use would not
be suspected. In December, 1857, I was consulted on the chemical nature of a liquid
which had caused symptoms of poisoning among the children at a large industrial school
at Norwood. Soon after their usual breakfast on bread and milk, three hundred and
forty children had been suddenly seized with violent vomiting, purging, and other
symptoms of irritant poisoning. The only cause to which the illness could be assigned
was a green-coloured liquid, some of which had been put into the steam boiler on the
previous night, for the purpose of cleansing it of fur. A portion of this water had been
drawn off in the morning, in order to mix it with the milk for the children’s breakfast.
An analysis of the liquid speedily showed that it consisted of a strong alkali holding
dissolved a large quantity of arsenic : it consisted of arsenite of soda in its most concen¬
trated form. Remedies were suggested accordingly, and all the children were placed
under active treatment, which was so effectual that not one death took place. The
history which I obtained of this wholesale poisoning was as follows : — The engineers
who had fitted up the steam boiler had directed one of their workmen to employ two
gallons of this cleansing liquid, of the poisonous nature of which no information -was
given to any one in the establishment, — to remove the calcareous deposit in the boiler.
This quantity, containing, as I found by analysis, about nine pounds of arsenic , was well
mixed with the water in the steam boiler. Fortunately, only four gallons of the poisoned
water were drawn from the boiler on the following morning. It was mixed with thirty
gallons of milk, and divided among 340 children, about a gallon of the mixture being
shared by ten children. Upon an average each child took a grain of arsenic , more
or less. The symptoms from which these unfortunate children suffered were severe pain,
vomiting, purging, shivering, and discharge of mucous fluid from the nose. Seven had
cough of a croupy character, three vomited blood, and one passed blood from the bowels.
Some suffered from inflammation of the stomach ; of these, six only were under treat¬
ment at the end of the first week, and one did not recover until after the second week.
The escape of these children may be attributed to the great dilution of the arsenic in
the water of the boiler, its still further dilution by the large proportion of milk with
which it was mixed, and the early and active treatment to which they were subjected.

As there was no loss of life, no legal question arose here in reference to simple, gross,
or criminal negligence. No proceedings could be taken against the parties under the
Arsenic Act, because the poison had not been sold. The great danger to life, however,
was unquestionable ; and had the workmen put eight gallons instead of four into the
boiler, to give it an additional cleansing, it is probable that there would have been 340

* See Report by Mr. Bancks, Lancet, May, 5, 1849, p. 478.

professor taylor’s report on poisoning. 183

deaths in this establishment. As it was, each child had taken a quantity just within
the fatal dose of arsenic.

This poisonous liquid for cleansing boilers appears to be still in use in some quarters,
for in December, 1863, an inquest was held in the east of London on the body of a man
who by mistake had drunk some beer from a can which had contained the arsenical
cleansing liquid. He died from its effects, and five other men were made seriously ill.

From the cases recorded in this report, it will be perceived that, without defining the
precise extent of the evil, injury to health and danger to life frequently result from the
ignorance, incompetence, and carelessness of persons who are employed in retailing
drugs ; and that those criminals who are disposed to destroy life by poison have the
greatest facilities afforded to them for this purpose. Further, the careless custody and
reckless use of poisons lead occasionally to a large amount of illness, and in some
instances cause a great destruction of life.

The suggestions which I beg leave to offer for diminishing these evils are : —

1. That none but qualified persons, educated to the trade of druggists, should be

allowed to vend by retail drugs or medicines capable of acting as poisons.

2. That the sale of poisonous drugs by chandlers, grocers, oilmen, drapers, or small

shopkeepers should be strictly prohibited.

[A licence might, if necessary, be granted, enabling these persons to sell
certain specified medicines used by the poorer classes.]

3. That the sale of arsenic, strychnia, and other specified poisons should, after a

certain date, be restricted to Pharmaceutical Chemists and Licentiates of the
Apothecaries’ Society. Any other persons acting as druggists not to be per¬
mitted to sell them, until they have proved their knowledge of poisonous drugs
by undergoing a proper examination.

4. Under no circumstances should boys or girls, or persons who cannot read or

write, be permitted to sell poisonous drugs.

5. Some rules are required for the management of a licensed retail trade in poison¬

ous drugs. No youth should be allowed to dispense or sell them who is not
above the age of eighteen years, and who has not been for at least one year
engaged in the practice of pharmacy, under a Pharmaceutical Chemist or Licen¬
tiate of the Apothecaries’ Society. This restriction not to be applied to one
who has passed an examination either at the Pharmaceutical Society or at
Apothecaries’ Hall, as to his knowledge of poisonous drugs.

C. That poisonous drugs and medicines having a similar colour and appearance
should not be kept near to each other in similar bottles, drawers, or boxes with
similar labels.

7. That less facility should be given for the purchase of arsenic, strychnia, and

other deadly poisons, which can be used for the purpose of suicide or murder.

8. That no poisonous drugs should be sold to girls or boys under the age of twenty

years, on any pretence whatever, and that in all cases of purchase there should
be a witness of adult age.

9. All poisonous drugs sold should be distinctly labelled with the name of the drug,

the address of the vendor, and the date of sale.

10. That noxious substances, such as arsenic, corrosive sublimate, sugar of lead, and
tartar emetic, and others of the like nature, when stored in large quantities in
casks or packages, should be distinctly labelled, and kept apart from other
substances of an innocent kind which they resemble.

[Many of the accidents which occur from carelessness in dispensing, and
ignorance in administering, medicines, might be prevented by the adoption
of Mr. Thonger’s patent labels, which are provided with a sand-paper
border. If these labels were generally employed in shops to mark poi¬
sonous drugs, and were used in all cases on bottles containing liquids of a
noxious kind, and intended for outward use, there would be a great saving
of life, so soon as this simple distinction had become known to the public.
The mere feeling of the label, even in the dark, would be sufficient to call
attention to the nature of the contents.]

It will be perceived from the reported cases, that the public are at present without any
sufficient legal protection against mistakes which are so often fatal. In nearly all cases

184

MEDICAL OFFICERS REPORT.

which arc the subject of inquests or trials for manslaughter, it will be observed that
proof of negligence is not sufficient ; the proof must amount to gross or culpable negli¬
gence in law, or the wrongdoer will escape. What gross or culpable negligence is has
not yet been defined, but wre learn from the verdicts of juries that the keeping of poi¬
sons and medicines similar in appearance on the same shelf close to each other is not
gross negligence ! So the selling of oxalic acid or nitre for Epsom salts, and the keeping
of these substances in contiguous drawers or packets, unlabelled until the time of sale,
and then labelling the poison as an innocent medicine, does not constitute culpable neg¬
ligence ! The employment of youths of no experience in drugs, who cannot distin¬
guish arsenic from calomel, magnesia, or plaster of Paris, — powdered opium from
powdered rhubarb, or laudanum from tincture of rhubarb, furnish, — by the destruction of
life, merely illustrations of unavoidable accident or misadventure, and not of gross negli¬
gence on the part of an employer ! If, however, there be any truth in the proposition
Solus populi suprema lex, it should apply pre-eminently to cases in which life is exposed
to destruction under circumstances in which a person is unable to foresee danger, or to
take any precautions against it.

REPORT OE THE MEDICAL OFFICER OF THE PRIVY COUNCIL
ON ACCIDENTAL AND CRIMINAL POISONING!.

To what extent the administration of poison causes death or disease in England is not
even approximatively known. From the Registrar General’s last Annual Report it appears
that during the four years 1858-61, 1,059 deaths by accidental poisoning, and 509 deaths
by voluntary self-poisoning, were returned to him as certified. And during the same
four years there were also certified 1380 murders, of which no doubt a considerable,
though not ascertained, proportion was due to poison. But evidently it wculd be
erroneous to infer from these figures that poison does not in England prove fatal to more
than four to five hundred persons per annum. The list of deaths by poison is at best
only the list of the fatal poisonings which are discovered. But here is a cause of death
which is peculiarly apt to be undiscovered. For the murderous poisoner of course plans
not to be found out. And the accidental poisoner — the careless dispenser, for instance,
who supplies a poison instead of ail innocent medicine — is at first unaware of his mistake,
and may perhaps never be made aware of it. Further, as regards the victim himself, —
poisons which make no decided impression on the mouth or palate may be swallowed
quite unconsciously of harm, and their effects may then be confounded with symptoms
of ordinary disease. And thus, in various ways, whether the administration of poison
have been accidental or felonious, the essential circumstances of the case may easily be
such that suspicion is not aroused as to the real cause of the illness.

Both with reference to the number of cases in which poison is recognized to be the
cause of death, and with reference to the doubt whether perhaps many other deaths are,
without discovery, caused by poison, my Lords have deemed it important to consider
what security the public enjoys against an indefinite multiplication of such cases. And
in order to the consideration of this question, I, under their Lordships’ orders, requested
Dr. Taylor to report, from his large experience, what, in his judgment, is the present
degree of the insecurity, viz. (1) to what extent is injury occasioned by the carelessness
and incompetence of persons employed in retailing drugs ; and (2) to what extent are
unnecessary facilities given for the purchase of poison for criminal purposes.

Dr. Taylor’s report points in both respects to a most unsatisfactory state of things.

First, as regards the facility with which poison may be obtained for criminal pur¬
poses, Dr. Taylor sums up the case by stating that “ so long as a person of any age has
the command of threepence, he can procure for this sum a sufficient quantity of one of
the most deadly poisons to destroy the lives of two adults ... No one wishing to
destroy another by poison, and having the knowledge to make a selection among drugs,
can meet with any difficulty in carrying out his design. If refused at one shop, he can
procure the poison at another If refused by a druggist, he can procure it at a grocer’s.
If refused at a grocer’s, he can procure it at a village general shop, where poisons are
retailed by girls and boys, and no questions are asked. ... In the course of more than
thirty years’ experience in investigating charges of poisoning, I have met with a large

MEDICAL OFFICER’S REPORT.

185

number of cases in which murder and suicide have been perpetrated or attempted, as a
result of tbe dangerous facilities which exist for the purchase of poisons.”

One particular poison has indeed been tbe subject of legislation. Under 14th and
15th Viet. cap. 13, arsenic (in quantity under 10 lb.) ought not to be sold otherwise
than coloured with soot or indigo, — nor except with full registration of tbe buyer’s
name and residence, and of the time, quantity, and professed purpose of his buying, —
nor even thus to any person unknown to the seller, unless it be in presence of a witness
known to both buyer and seller. But, says Dr. Taylor, “ in several cases of criminal
poisoning (two occurring in 18G3) which I have been required to iuvestigate, iuvolving
charges of murder, uncoloured or white arsenic has been used as the instrument of death.
Its great cheapness (one penny to twopence per ounce) places it within the reach of the
poorest person. It is sold to any applicant on the most frivolous pretences; and even in
the coloured state it affords but little protection, except when it is mixed with liquids.
The better class of druggists do not sell arsenic by retail ; the grocer, chandler, oilman,
and village shopkeeper are the principal vendors of this poison ; and it is clear from the
numerous deaths which take place from white arsenic that they set the law at defiance,
and sell the poison in an uncoloured state, in which case it may be readily administered
iu any article of food, without exciting suspicion.”

With the sale of other poisons there is not even nominal statutory interference. And
whether they are wanted for murder, or for suicide, or for the procuring of abortion, the
facilities are such as Dr. Taylor describes ; — for though doubtless druggists of the best
class are extremely chary of selling poisons, yet, says Dr. Taylor, “ the lower class of
drug-dealers, including grocers, oilmen, and the general shopkeepers of villages, have no
such scruples ; and although, if we except strychnia, many of the more potent poisons
are not found in their shops, they have still a sufficient number of noxious drugs to
endanger health and life, by reason of the facility with which they dispose of them to
the public.”

Secondly, as regards the ordinary business of retail druggists in dispensing and vend¬
ing medicines, Dr. Taylor testifies to the frequent employment of entirely unskilled
and heedless persons in this business, and to the mischief which results from the incompe¬
tence or slovenliness of such persons ; — how “ a large number of persons wholly unac¬
quainted with the properties of powerful drugs and medicines are allowed to retail them
to the public, on demand, without any check or control ; — how “ persons who have had
no professional education as druggists, and acting as oilmen, grocers, or village shop¬
keepers, keep for sale laudanum, tincture of rhubarb, senna, black draughts, etc. and
either from carelessness in placing the bottles containing these medicines near to each
other, or from ignorance, supply laudanum for the tinctures above mentioned, and thus
either injure health or destroy life — how, for instance, opium and its tincture have
often been given in mistake for rhubarb and its tincture, — how oxalic acid and other
poisons have again and again been given for Epsom salts, — how chloride of zinc has on
several occasions been given for fluid magnesia, — how arsenic has been given instead of
calomel and instead of magnesia, — and so forth. In part-explanation of these lament¬
able accidents, Dr. Taylor points out that the natural results of incompetence and gross
ignorance on the part of those who are allowed to retail drugs to the public “ are
increased a hundredfold by reason of the carelessness displayed in keeping innocent
medicines and poisonous compounds resembling each other on shelves or drawers in
close proximity.” Thus, in the shops of ordinary druggists, tincture of opium, and
tincture of senna, and tincture of rhubarb, like one another in colour, may be standing
side by side on a shelf, in bottles of like size and shape, and with labels which, if
only half-read, seem identical. Or strychnine may be side by side with jalapine,
morphia, salicine, quinine ; — and “ cases have come to my knowledge,” says Dr. Taylor,
“ where strychnine has thus been dispensed by mistake, and has caused death.” But
the greatest dimensions of this particular danger, — dimensions, in fact, which are almost
incredible, — are reached in the general shops of country villages, where draperies, and
groceries, and drugs, and poisons are all sold, and where perhaps even foods and poisons
are not kept well asunder. From shops of this description (in cases which Dr. Taylor
quotes from among various instances known to him) arrowroot, rice, oatmeal, or some¬
thing else in common demand, has reached its purchaser with a fatal admixture of
arsenic. And in one such case (where arsenic had been given instead of arrowroot, and had,
of course, killed the consumer) a witness who “ went to the shop after the accident to

186

MEDICAL OFFICER’S REPORT.

make inquiries, found rice, corrosive sublimate, jalap, and oxalic acid in different papers
in the same drawer, and all under the care of an ignorant hoy.”

And, beyond the limits of the petty village shopkeeping, the careless custody of
poisons leads sometimes to their being sold for other matters, and used, even on a larger
scale, accordingly: orpiment (arsenical yellow) sold instead of the milder poison of
chrome yellow, or instead of turmeric, or instead of mustard, and used as turmeric, to
colour buns, — or 12 lb. of white arsenic sold instead of 12 lb. of plaster of Paris, and
used in this supposed capacity to adulterate lozenges, — or 30 lb. of sugar of lead sent
(perhaps instead of alum) to a miller’s, and used for admixture with eighty sacks of
iiour. Dr. Taylor gives cases where occurrences such as these have led to wholesale
poisoning ; the Bradford case, for instance, where arsenical lozenges killed seventeen
persons, and severely injured 183 others; and the Stourbridge case, where, some years
since, under the circumstances I have just described, no fewer than 500 persons were
more or less affected (none fatally, but some with great severity) by the poisoning of
their bread with lead. And in illustration, not necessarily of the mistaken sale, but
assuredly of the most wanton and reckless use of a poison, he describes how, seven years
ago, the 340 children of the Norwood school took with their morning milk and water
about one grain of arsenic each, and suffered, of course, sharp symptoms of arsenical
poisoning, in consequence of a workman’s having left in the boiler, which he was
employed to clean, as much arsenite of soda as contained about nine pounds of arsenic.
“ Fortunately (and this accident saved 340 lives) only four gallons of the poisoned water
were drawn from the boiler on the following morning. Each child had taken a quantity
just within the fatal dose of arsenic.”

I venture to submit that the above-described state of things deserves the particular
consideration of Parliament. For the unrestrictedness with which at present the retail
trade in drugs and poisons is conducted, confers, in a curious way and to an extent which
could scarcely have been foreseen, irresponsibility even for mischievous acts. Apparently
the view which the Legislature has taken of the matter has been, that the trade might
safely be left unshackled by special regulations, and open without special licence to all
who chose to undertake its practice ; for that the common law would suffice to protect
the public by punishing any druggist who by his own incompetence or carelessness, or
by the employment of an incompetent or careless agent, should have caused any personal
harm. But the view taken by the administrators of the law has not corresponded with
that supposed view' of the legislature, and the absence of special enactment on the sub¬
ject seems in most instances to be accepted as a ground for concluding that a druggist’s
carelessness and malpractice, however extreme in degree, and however fatal in result, are
not in the eye of the law criminal carelessness and malpractice. Thus, in nearly all the
scandalous cases which Dr. Taylor describes, the tradesman whose ill-conducted business
led to loss or endangerment of life escaped with absolute impunity. “ In nearly all cases
which are the subject of inquests or trials for manslaughter, it will be observed that
proof of negligence is not sufficient ; the proof must amount to gj-oss ov culpable negli¬
gence in law, or the wrongdoer will escape. What gross or culpable negligence is has
not yet been defined, but we learn from the verdicts of juries that the keeping of poisons
and medicines similar in appearance on the same shelf close to each other is not gross
negligence ! So the selling of oxalic acid or nitre for Epsom salts, and the keeping of
these substances in contiguous drawers or packets, unlabelled until the time of sale, and
then labelling the poison as an innocent medicine, does not constitute culpable negli¬
gence ! The employment of youths of no experience in drugs, who cannot distinguish
arsenic from calomel, magnesia, or plaster of Paris, or powdered opium from powdered
rhubarb, or laudanum from tincture of rhubarb, — furnish, by the destruction of life,
merely illustrations of unavoidable accident or misadventure, and not of gross negligence
on the part of an employer !” Even in the Bradford case, where in 1858-9, 200 persons
were poisoned, and seventeen of them fatally, through the sale of arsenic for plaster of
Paris, it was ruled that no legal carelessness had been committed, — no legal carelessness,
though arsenic and plaster of Paris were kept in similar casks side by side, in a loft, with
no evident label upon either of them, — no legal carelessness, though a boy who had but
three weeks’ experience in the shop was sent to choose between these imperfectly dis¬
tinguished casks, — no legal carelessness, though the stuff which he brought down was
given without the master’s examination to the man who was waiting to make it into
lozenges. Evidently this state of things implies more than the Legislature can mean to

MEDICAL OFFICER’S REPORT. 187

sanction ; it implies not merely that the right-doing druggist shall be free from inter¬
ference, but that the wrong-doing druggist shall he almost secure from punishment.

Dr. Taylor concludes his report with suggestions which deserve to have much weight,
as to the reforms which are desirable in the conduct of pharmaceutical business. Ilis
fundamental opinion, that poisons, and medicines likely to act as poisons, ought not to
be sold in retail except by properly educated persons, and under some other reasonable
restrictions as regards both seller and purchaser, is an opinion which I submit for con¬
sideration, as one in which I entirely concur. And it seems to me that this object might
be attained without giving the drug trade any reasonable ground of complaint, and with¬
out inconveniencing the public as regards the purchasability of non-poisonous drugs.
Facilities might be given to druggists to divide themselves into an upper and a lower
class. At first such a division might be made by an enactment constituting into an
upper class all who had previously passed an examination as Pharmaceutical Chemists or
as apothecaries; perhaps with the further addition of all who at the time of the making
of the enactment should be in bond fide practice as druggists on their own account, pro¬
vided their trade as druggists were conducted separately from all other trade ; and,
subsequently to the first constitution of this upper class, admission into it might be
obtained on examination before some appointed authority or authorities. To persons of
this class (but with express exclusion of general shopkeepers) the office of selling
poisons might be restricted. And the purchasability of poisons by the public might at
the same time be made effectually subject to the rule which now ineffectually relates to
the purchase of arsenic ; — that no such sale shall be made except with full registration
of the buyer’s name and residence, and of the time, quantity, and proposed purpose of
his buying ; nor, even thus, to any person unknown to the seller, unless in presence of a
witness acquainted with both seller and buyer. But whether or not provisions like these
may seem to the Legislature fit and proper for enactment, I must submit that, with or
without such enactments, one particular act of legislation is urgently wanted in the
matter ; an act, namely, which, either by its own language, or by empowering some
department of the Government to make regulations in the matter, shall directly or
indirectly provide for the establishment of a legal criterion as to what is culpable care¬
lessness in the sale of drugs and poisons, and shall thus render every such carelessness an
offence punishable at law.

Before closing this section of my report, I beg leave to bring under particular notice,
as connected with the present subject — first, the statements which, in relation to manu¬
facturing towns,* I submitted two years ago concerning the destructive practice of drugging
infants with opium, and, secondly, the statements which are contained in Dr. Hunter’s
appended report (No. 14, already adverted to) concerning the use of opium in our prin¬
cipal marsh districts. “ There can (says Dr. Hunter) be no doubt of the truth of the
horrid statement made by almost every surgeon in the marsh land, that there was not a
labourer’s house in which the bottle of opiate was not to be seen, and not a child but
who got it in some form. In other countries, where women work away from home, as
in the factory towns, the children are drugged by the nurses, and one need not be sur¬
prised to find the same plan adopted here ; but other circumstances combine to render it
a common practice to push this drugging system to an extent known only in the districts
in question. The painful rheumatisms and neuralgia which still continue to be common
in the Fens [f.e. among elder persons, but probably without any suspicion that the infants
suffer from them] have been generally treated by the free use of opium, and with this
drug the whole people have become thoroughly familiar. The wholesale druggists report
that they send immense quantities to these countries, and the retail druggists often dis¬
pense so much as 200 lbs. a year.f It is sold in pills or penny sticks, and a well-accus-

* Fourth Keport ; pp. 32-35, and App. IY.

f Dr. Thudichum gives me the following curious information as to the quantity of opium
annually sold at one country town in Lincolnshire : — “ Seven druggists in the town of
Spalding sell 27 stone 3?) lb. of opium, partly in the form of laudanum. There are 21,000
souls in the town and district of Spalding (last Census) supplied by these druggists. This
gives a consumption of opium of 127 grains per head per annum. A small portion of the
opium is used for sheep during lambing season. Allowing the 27 grains of every 127 to
cover that purpose, which is probably an excessive estimate, there remains the startling
circumstance that the consumption of opium in the Spalding district amounts to about 100
grains per individual of the population per annum. The opium is used for eating by adults,

188

PHARMACEUTICAL RESPONSIBILITY.

tomed shop will serve 300 or 400 customers with the article on a Saturday night. The
druggists thought their largest customers were not the villagers, or people of the little
town in which the shop was, but rather the inhabitants of small hamlets or isolated
farms in the Fens. Opium is often asked for under some cant name, and the idea of it
is as of a forbidden jollity. The quantity which an old opium-eater will take has often
been reported (about half an ouuce a day is common) and finds its limit rather in the
cost than in the strength of the drug. A man in South Lincolnshire complained that
his wife had spent £100 in opium since he married. A man may be seen occasionally
asleep in a field leaning on his hoe. He starts when approached, and wmrks vigorously
for a while. A man who is setting about a hard job takes his pill as a preliminary, and
many never take their beer without dropping a piece of opium into it. To meet the
popular taste, but to the extreme inconvenience of strangers, narcotic agents are put into
the beer by the brewers or sellers. Half a century ago the growth of poppies for the London
drug market was conducted in this light land. Then the husbandman took poppy drink
with him to the field ; and now, although the cultivation of the article for sale is almost
abandoned, the poppy capsule forms the principal ingredient of the herb teas and do¬
mestic medicines of the neighbourhood. With such familiarity with the drug, no
wonder that every one is ready to use it to quiet a crying child, though only to ensure
its crying again as soon as awake. Opium eaters are said to be always proselytizers, and
will even give a child opium behind the back of the mother or nurse. The favourite form
for infants is called Godfrey’s Cordial, a mixture of opium, treacle, and infusion of sassafras.
This is thickish, and is often fetched in a teacup. When the mother going to field-work
deposits her child with a nurse, she thinks it best to leave her own bottle of Godfrey,
because the preparations of the different shops vary, and there is not a little village shop
in the country that sells anything that does not sell its own Godfrey. To push the sale
of opiates in these little shops is the great aim of some enterprising wholesale merchants.
By druggists it is considered 1 the leading article,’ and the profit on it is small when
sold in a crude state. It has not unfrequently happened that a nurse has substituted
her own Godfrey for her client’s, and, frightened at its effects, has summoned the
surgeon, who finds half-a-dozen babies, some snoring, some squinting, all pallid and eye-
sunken, lying about the room, all poisoned.”

PHAEMACEUTIOAL HESPONS1BILITY.

TO THE EDITOR OF TIIE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — A correspondent in the last number of your Journal suggests that the
sympathy of the Pharmaceutical profession should be expressed by a subscrip¬
tion to pay the damages and costs which we have lately incurred. A similar
wish has been expressed privately by several friends, and one gentleman, prompt
in the exercise of generous feelings, has sent us a post-office order. A cor¬
respondent of ‘ The Chemist and Druggist ’ has advocated the same course, and
announced several subscriptions for the purpose.

We appreciate very highly the sympathy of our brethren, and return our best
thanks to those who have come forward spontaneously and generously to alle¬
viate our misfortune ; but we take the earliest opportunity of requesting that
you will be good enough to allow us to inform your readers that we do not
desire, and should respectfully decline to accept, such an expression of their
sympathy, welcome as that sympathy is. Heavy, and as we believe undeserved,
as is the penalty that we have had to pay for the act or supposed act of
another, we are thankful that we are able to bear it.

We do however hope that the Council of the Pharmaceutical Society will
take steps to obtain an alteration of the law, and we may take this opportunity

and for drugging infants. Infant mortality in that district is 21,845, while in all England
it was 17,731 out of 100,000 living. The population of Spalding had decreased during the
last ten years. The quantity of opium does not include the opium used by the medical
practitioners. The data regarding the quantities of opium sold at Spalding have been
collected by Dr. E. Morris, of Spalding, and communicated to me.”

PHARMACEUTICAL RESPONSIBILITY. 189

of mentioning an interpretation of the law which was not afforded to us until
near the termination of the proceedings in which wre were involved.

We had been led to suppose that the word “ may ” preceding the words
“ give such compensation ” in the second clause of Lord Campbell’s Act, quoted
by you at page 94 of your last number, wTas intended to give the jury a discre¬
tionary power, and enable them to take into consideration the blameworthiness
of the employer whose servant might have accidentally caused death. But our
counsel, Mr. Stephen Temple, Q.C., and Mr. J. R. Quain, advised us otherwise,
— that, in the connection in which it is used, the word “ may” is equivalent to
shall , and that whether the death was occasioned wholly by the act of our ser¬
vant, wholly by our own act, or partly by one and partly by the other, was im¬
material in assessing the amount of the damages.

Under this interpretation of the law, it is evident that the richest member of
the profession is liable to total ruin for acts which he can neither foresee nor
prevent. We do not believe that any intelligent person who may consider the
operation of such a lawr can believe that it is reasonable. We should be content
with such an alteration as would convert the compensation into a flue propor¬
tioned to the blameworthiness of the parties.

We were informed that the deceased had insured his life for £1000, and we
were advised that this sum, diminishing the loss to his family, was a set-off in
our favour.

W e crave also to put on record that the strychnia was in an opaque bottle, of
which there were only fourteen in the shop, which were placed separate from
the dispensing counter and from the bottles in ordinary demand, and that it
was not near the Dover’s Powder.

We are, your obedient servants,

Clay and Abraham.

Liverpool , 24 th September , 18G4.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — It was with much pleasure that I perused your able and equitably
written article in the present number of the Pharmaceutical Journal on the
above subject, and a few of the remarks you make therein induce me to take
the liberty of intruding myself on your notice, to offer briefly a suggestion or
two relative to the subject of which you treat.

You make the inquiry, “ Now does it not behove us to consider how we can
best turn this occurrence” — the late decision in the case of Messrs. Clay and
Abraham, of Liverpool — “ to account in providing for the future?” and further
on, u May there not be something done to relieve the individual who stands
legally responsible for a fatal accident, when the most approved precautions
have been adopted, from the infliction of an unmerited, although it may be not
an unjust penalty ?”

I fully agree with you that the knowledge that at any time his business may
be shattered, and himself ruined, through the inadvertence or momentary care¬
lessness of even a trustworthy and efficient assistant, however well that business
is habitually carried on, may well cause “painful reflections” in the mind of
any thoughtful man ; but while reading your remarks, I could not help think¬
ing that such anxiety might be removed in a very simple manner.

Let a fund be established bearing the title of “ The Chemists’ and Druggists’
Guarantee Fund,” the object of which would be to defray the fine imposed upon
any subscriber to it who might have such fine imposed upon him in consequence
of medicine of a poisonous nature having been by mistake supplied at his
establishment, and death resulting to the person taking that medicine.

VOL. VI.

P

100

POISON CLOSETS.

As the net income of many chemists does not exceed a hundred and fifty or
two hundred pounds a year, I would suggest that the annual sum to be con¬
tributed by each subscriber to entitle him to receive the benefit arising from the
fund should not of necessity exceed half-a-guinea ; but, nevertheless, it might
be intimated that an additional half-a-guinea would be gladly received from
those who, in advanced and more prosperous circumstances than the majority of
their brethren in the trade, are well able to contribute that amount.

It would be expedient to make a regulation that no fine should be defrayed
by the society except in cases where it was clearly and publicly proved that the
accident causing such fine to be inflicted was wholly unavoidable on the part of
the proprietor of the business, and that all desirable precautions had been taken
by him to prevent any such occurrence; and, in addition, that the amount of
the fine only , and not the costs ofi defending the action , should be defrayed by tlie
society, except in cases where the amount contributed had exceeded the stipu¬
lated sum of one half-guinea.

To illustrate the method I suggest, let us suppose a fund to have been esta¬
blished two years since, and that immediately on its formation four thousand
chemists and druggists had become contributors, of whom three-fourths sub¬
scribed half-a-guinea, the remaining fourth one guinea ; let us suppose that at
the end of the first year an additional one thousand members had been enrolled,
of whom eight hundred had contributed half-a-guinea, the remaining two
hundred one guinea ; had this been the case, at the present time, two years after
the establishment of the fund, there would be in the hands of the treasurer the
sum of five thousand eight hundred and eighty pounds, less the current ex¬
penses. Now, out of such an amount as that, the fine lately imposed at Liver¬
pool could easily be paid, together with the costs of the action, and a consider¬
able sum still remain for future contingencies.

I think that, were these or similar measures adopted, the minds of many
conscientious and careful chemists would be relieved of a great and pressing
anxiety, while the expense would not be such as to make the tax burdensome ;
and an association formed on these principles might eventually prove the means
of rescuing from bankruptcy and ruin those whose constant endeavours were to
perform their duties to the public, their families, and themselves in a right and
high-principled manner, but who nevertheless from quite unavoidable circum¬
stances, except for such guarantee, would be subject to overwhelming losses.

I beg leave to apologize for thus trespassing on your time and attention, but
hope that should you deem my communication worthy of appearing in the
pages of the Pharmaceutical Journal, it might lead its readers to give the
method I have suggested their thoughtful consideration, after which it could
be adopted or abandoned, as was thought best.

I have the honour to be, Sir, your obedient servant,

J. C.

September , 18GL

POISON CLOSETS.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — Among the numerous precautions against accidental poisoning, the
most favoured scheme at present seems to be the poison closet ; now it is very
easy to make your closet, but wffien made, then comes the question, what are
you to put into it? and here lies the difficulty. If too many things are put in,
the effect of the special caution is lost ; if not enough, and a fatal accident
should occur with one of the excluded bottles, a jury would most probably pass

THE SUPPLY OF COD-LIVER OIL.

191

a more severe condemnation on the master in consequence of his keeping that
particular article among harmless drugs, when he had a special place for poisons.
W ould it not be valuable to have a list of those articles that should, in the
opinion of those most competent to judge, be kept apart as especially dangerous,
so that some uniformity may be observed by those pharmaceutists who adopt
this plan? About strychnia, morphia, hydrocyanic acid, Tinct. Opii, and
many others, there can of course arise no question, but with Liq. Plumbi, Pulv.
Ipecac. Co., Ext. Belladonnas cum Opio, the strong acids, etc., there might be
a doubt as to where they ought to be placed. Again, certain chemicals having
very distinctive characters, such as Hyd. Iodid. Rub., Plumbi Iodid., Hyd!
Oxyd. Rub., Cupri Sulph., would be as safe out of the closet as in it.

Another question that might be considered is, should the closet only contain
the bottles used for dispensing and retail, or should the stock of such articles be
kept there also ? My own opinion at present is in favour of a very restricted
list, but I should like to hear what others in the trade think advisable.

I remain, yours faithfully,

Ipswich , Sept. 23, 1864. II. Chapman.

THE SUPPLY OF COD-LIVER OIL.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — The following practical information relating to the supply of cod-liver
oil, has been given to me by the captain of a ship, who has been engaged for
many years in the Newfoundland trade.

Yours very obediently,

Gracechurch Street , Sept. 15, 1864. Robert Howden.

Cod fishing begins in Newfoundland on or about the 20th day of June, and
ends on the last day of October.

The capeling (a small fish) strike in about June 20th, in great numbers, the
codfish follow preying upon them.

The fishermen use these capeling as bait from the 20th of June to the end of
July, but after that time, to the 10th of August, the codfish have become so
glutted with capeling that they will bite no more : when the bait is lowered
among them, they can be seen to swim away from it.

Squids and herrings strike in about the last w7eek in August, and are closely
followed by other codfish preying upon them. These that follow the squids and
herrings are much finer, heavier, and fatter fish than those that follow the
capeling.

The capeling are very lively and agile fish, and so are the cod that pursue
them, their movements are swift, and they both swim near the surface of the
water ; but the squids and heavy codfish are only found near the bottom. The
lines for the latter have to be heavily leaded.

The livers taken in October are much finer than those taken earlier, but the
weather in October is rough, and often so violent as to render fishing impos¬
sible.

Therefore the cod-liver oil made in the beginning of the season is the most
certain supply, and it may happen in some years to be the only one ; but that
made later, though not so sure, is superior in quality.

192

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

A NEW INDIAN VERMIFUGE.

Mr. G. II. K. Thwaites, Director of the l!oyal Botanical Garden of Peradenia,
Ceylon, thus writes in a recent letter to Mr. D. Ilanbury, London :

“There is a species of Erythroxylon here, Sethia indica , DC., which is
in great repute as a vermifuge for children. The leaves are dried and
pounded, and given to the child with boiled rice. Sethia acuminata Arn.
is also given for the same purpose in the same way. Would it be worth
while sending you some of the dried leaves for analysis ? any quantity
could be procured iu the low country near the sea. It goes here under the
name of Matura Worm Medicine.'1'1

BOOKS RECEIVED.

The Laboratory Guide for Students of Agricultural Chemistry. Arranged by
Arthur Herbert Church, M.A., etc. London: John Van Voorst, Paternoster
Row. 1864.

First Outlines of a Dictionary of the Solubilities of Chemical Substances. By
Frank H. Storer. One volume in three parts. Part III. Cambridge : Sever
and Francis. 1864.

Cooley’s Cyclopaedia of Practical Receipts, Processes, and Collateral Informa¬
tion in the Arts, Manufactures, Professions, and Trades ; including Medicine,
Pharmacy, and Domestic Economy. Designed as a comprehensive supplement to
the Pharmacopoeias, and general book of reference for the manufacturer, tradesman,
amateur, and heads of families. Fourth edition, revised and enlarged. By Arnold
J. Cooley and J. C. Brough. 8vo. Pp. 1393. London: John Churchill and
Sons, New Burlington Street. 1864.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

Had. Senegce (Glasgow). — (1.) The Regulations will be forwarded on application by
letter to the Secretary, 17, Bloomsbury Square. (2.) Pepsine Wine, vol. xviii. p. 197.
— Pepsine jiss, Distilled Water 5vi, White Wine (of Lunel) “xv, White Sugar $i,
Spirit of Wine 5iii : mix, until the Sugar is quite dissolved, and filter. (3.) Syrupus
Ferri , Strychnia, et Qninia Citratis. — We are not acquainted with the formula for this
syrup.

We have received a communication from “A Member,” in reference to some
remarks by Professor Balfour on “Botanical Science and the Bible,” iu our last
number. Our correspondent thinks that the discussion of such subjects is not appro¬
priate for the pages of a scientific journal.

The Liverpool Poisoning Case. — Communications have been received, suggesting
that a subscription should be raised for the purpose of reimbursing the firm, but it
will be seen, in another part of this Journal, that Messrs. Clay and Abraham respect¬
fully decline this proposal.

A Member (Gloucester) wishes for a recipe for a red and black enamel for filling in
inscriptions on tombstones, etc.

Tymm (Mexboro’)% — (1.) Berg, ‘ Pharma zeutische Waarenkunde,’ Berlin, 1863;
Regnault, ‘ Premiers Elements de Chimie,’ 5 francs. (2.) Wjggers, ‘ Handbucli der
Pharinacognosie,’ Gottingen, 1864. (3.) Regnault, ‘ Cours Elementaire de Chimie,’

20 francs. (4.) We must see the books before we can compare them.

Erratum. — Page 97, line 18 ,for 21st of October read 26th of October.

Instructions from Members and Associates respecting the transmission of the
Journal before the 25th of the month, to Elias Bremridge, Secretary, 17,
Bloomsbury Square, W.C.

Advertisements (not- later than the 23rd) to Messrs. Churchill, New Bur¬
lington Street. Other communications to the Editors, 17, Bloomsbury Square.

THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

SECOND SERIES.

YOL. YI.— No. Y. — NOVEMBER 1st, 1864.

ON THE DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHEMIST

IN DISPENSING MEDICINES.

A case of attempted criminal abortion which recently occurred at Brighton
has raised some questions relating to the duties of dispensing chemists, to
which it is right to direct the attention of our readers. It appears that a
young unmarried woman, a “lodging-house keeper,” obtained from a medical
man a prescription ordering two ounces of tincture of ergot and two drachms
of oil of pennyroyal, of which a teaspoonful was directed to be taken three
times a day in water. This prescription was written in the usual medical
form, and signed with the initials of the prescriber. It had been made up at
various times by at least two different chemists in Brighton during the last
four years, but latterly several bottles of the medicine were obtained within a
comparatively short time from the chemist with whom the patient usually
dealt ; and the patient having died while taking the medicine, an inquest was
held, and, after a full investigation of the circumstances of the case, in which
it was proved that the deceased was four months gone in the family way, a
verdict of felo de se was returned. This verdict was accompanied by a state¬
ment from the jury that “ they thought greater precaution should be used by
chemists in dispensing such deleterious medicines.” A report of the proceed¬
ings at the inquest will be found in another part of this Journal. No one,
after reading that report, can doubt, we presume, that the patient took the
medicine with a criminal object, namely, that of producing abortion, and that
the result of persisting in its use was the destruction of her own life. The
questions to be considered by medical men and pharmaceutists are these : — -
Was the medical man justified, under the circumstances, in ordering such a
medicine, and was the chemist justified in dispensing it? Of course, we
assume here that the medicine was originally prescribed for some other ob¬
ject than that for which it appears to have been frequently taken. The
writer of the prescription alleges that the medicine was ordered for a bron¬
chial affection, but this will hardly be credited. We do not, however, pro¬
pose to discuss here the conduct of the prescriber so much as that of the dis¬
pensers of the medicine ; and we are the more induced to notice the subject in
consequence of some remarks made upon it in the ‘ Medical Times and Gazette’
for October 15th. The editor, in a leading article on the subject, calls the
“ attention of the Pharmaceutical Society to the following particulars :” —
1st. The custom of prescribing, per se. 2ndly. The fact that strong me¬
dicines, such as Linurn catharticum, were prescribed for a woman of twenty-six,

VOL. vi. Q

194

ON THE DUTIES AND llESFONSIBILITlES OF

whose catamenia had ceased six weeks. 3rdly. That one of the witnesses,
Mr, S to well, not only undertook to prescribe, but alluded to some superior
knowledge he possessed, stating, “ ice have better medicine to 'produce the
desired results .” 4thly. That, spite of the habit of prescribing, respectable
chemists, in giving evidence in this case, profess to be ignorant of the only
purpose to which a compound of ergot and pennyroyal, in such doses, coiild
be applied by a woman. He proceeds to say: — “We desire to hear the
Pharmaceutical opinion of this case, officially ; and meanwhile say : Take
your line and keep to it. If you are to prescribe, please to study medicine,
so that there may be no chance of giving Linum catharticum to pregnant
women. But it will not do, both to prescribe and then to pretend that you
are mere ministers who will sell whatever you are asked for, and that even
though you supply a woman with means of abortion, you are to be considered
innocent of all complicity.”

How, three out of the four charges here made, and so pointedly urged, are
disposed of by the simple statement, of which evidence will be found else¬
where in the present number of this Journal, that none of the chemists who
gave evidence or were in any way implicated in the case, prescribed either
Linum catharticum or anything else to the deceased. The editor of the

4 Medical Times’ has evidently fallen into an error in supposing that Mr.

5 to well was a chemist and druggist, whereas he is a member of the College
of Surgeons of London, and has also an M.D. diploma. How this mistake
could have been made we cannot conceive, for in the accounts we have
seen in the newspapers he is represented as a medical practitioner. In one
of his circulars now before us he speaks of having studied medicine at St.
Bartholomew’s Hospital, so that in this case at least the study of medicine
does not appear to have prevented the chance of Linum catharticum being
given to pregnant women, for it was he who gave it. We would ask any can¬
did peruser of the evidence fin this case whether there is anything in it to
justify the editor of a medical journal in passing over almost without com¬
ment the practices of members of his own profession, while he severely criti¬
cizes the conduct of the chemists who dispensed the medicine or gave evidence
at the inquest. There is only one ground upon which any exception could
possibly be taken to the conduct of the chemists in this case, and that is that
they are expected to exercise a judicious control over the unsafe administra¬
tion of medicine. The question might certainly be raised whether such con¬
trol was exercised throughout in this case. We do not wish to exonerate
those who undertake the duty of dispensing medicines from such responsibility.
We have often referred to the importance of such a control being exercised
to show the necessity for the acquirement of a considerable amount of pro¬
fessional knowledge by Pharmaceutical Chemists. Although we have reason
to complain of much disingenuous criticism, on this and other occasions, we
are glad to see some evidence of a new light breaking in upon the vision of
our contemporary. We gather from the purport of his remarks above quoted
that the dispenser of medicines is expected to know something more than the
mere mechanical operations of correctly mixing and labelling what the phy¬
sician orders. This is a great step in advance of what he stated a few months
ago. In February last we were told by him that “ any intelligent neat-handed
lad or woman of ordinary education can be taught to dispense accurately and
well in three months .” And further, we were told, “ Of this the chemist may
be certain, that if any one is killed by the prescription of a physician, the
penalty of the law will certainly not fall on the dispenser, if his duty be ac¬
curately performed, but on the prescriber.” Again lie says, March 5 th, “We
hold that dispensers of medicine should possess competent knowledge of dis¬
pensing, (sic) just as other tradesmen should be acquainted with their several

THE CHEMIST IN DISPENSING MEDICINES.

195

callings.” “ To become an expert dispenser of medicines, it is only necessary
that a lad should have an ordinal education at a third-class grammar school,
and an apprenticeship to a competent master for a moderate length of time.”
Now surely, if the duties of dispensers of medicine were correctly repre¬
sented by the editor of the ‘ Medical Times’ in last February and March, they
were not improperly performed by the chemists who dispensed Dr. Pymer’s
prescription at Brighton. There is not the slightest imputation of any want
of accuracy in dispensing the medicine.

But we never have contended or admitted that the duty and responsibilit}7-
of the dispenser are limited to the strict and accurate fulfilment of the written
instructions of the prescriber. We contend that the dispenser ought to pos¬
sess a knowledge of the probable effects of the medicines he dispenses, and to
exercise this knowledge with discrimination and judgment for the prevention
of injury to the public. This is a part of the duties of the pharmaceutist
that is not acquired in three months or in three years, — which is altogether
independent of a competent knowledge of dispensing, and involves a consi¬
derable amount of professional acquirement. The interference of the dis¬
penser in refusing to supply a medicine ordered by a physician’s prescription
is a duty which sometimes occurs, and when it does occur it requires the exer¬
cise of much judgment and some amount of medical knowledge. It seems
to have been implied in the case under notice that the chemists ought not to
have supplied the medicine, but in this we do not agree. Such medicines are
not unfrequently ordered in medical practice. A reference to Pereira’s
4 Materia Medica ’ will show that the medicine prescribed in this case may be
used for many legitimate purposes, some of which would involve a lengthened
continuance of its use, yet the patient would naturally be averse to any in¬
quiry being made by a dispenser as to the object for which it was adminis¬
tered. Even if circumstances, other than the mere nature of the medicine,
should cause suspicions to be entertained, the task of objecting in such a case
to dispense a physician’s prescription for a known customer wrould be a deli¬
cate and difficult one, which few would like to undertake. It must be borne
in mind, with reference to the conduct of the chemist who latterly supplied
several bottles of the medicine, that the prescriber had previously called on
him and told him he was ordering such a medicine for the patient. Could he,
under such circumstances, and especially if he had refreshed his knowledge
of the therapeutic uses of ergot by a reference to Pereira, decline to supply
the required dose without some more specific ground of objection than that
of its possible application for an unlawful purpose ? A further and sufficient
ground of objection was afterwards afforded him, and then he refused to
supply any more.

Under all the circumstances of the case, we have no hesitation in saying
that we had rather represent the pharmaceutical than the medical agents in
this affair.

196

TRANSACTIONS

or

THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

AT A MEETING OF THE COUNCIL, 5 th October , 1864,

Present — Messrs. Bird, Bottle, Davenport, Deane, Hanbury, Haselden, Hills, Morson,
Orridge, Sandford, Savage, Squire, Standring, and Waugh,

The following were elected

MEMBERS.

Charles Uraney . London.

James Faulkner . London.

The death of Mr. Thomas Herring, of 40, Aldersgate Street, having been announced,
a letter of condolence was ordered to be sent to the family of the deceased gentleman.

Resolved — That Mr. William Manning Watts, of 32, Whitecross Street, be appointed
to fill the vacancy in the Council occasioned by the death of Mr. Herring.

EXAMINATION, October 19 th, 1864.

MAJOR (Registered as a Pharmaceutical Chemist).

Eminson, John Milton Oxley . Gainsborough.

MINOR (Registered as Assistants).

Daggers, Frederick . Preston.

Hill, Henry . Kendal.

Lacey, Richard . Norwich.

Mansell, Thomas . . . East Retford.

Rastrick, Robert Joseph . Southsea.

Rickards, Edwin . Ludlow.

Smith, John . Derby.

REGISTERED APPRENTICES.

Name. Residing with

Ball, George Stephen . Mr. Merryweather .

Beedzler, John . Messrs. Sturton and Co.

Blanchflower, John Coleman... Mr. Blanchflower .

Corner, Robert . . Mr. Corner .

Dax, Henry John . Mr. Saunders .

Hart, James . Mr. Williams .

Haydon, Frederick William ...Mr. Groves .

Houghton, Henry Thomas ...Mr. Shone .

James, David . Mr. Evans .

Matthews, Charles William ...Mr. Kingsford .

Newman, Joshua Booth . Mr. Hamp .

Noakes, Henry Thorby . Mr. Noakes .

Padwick, Thomas . Mr. White .

Pickering, Samuel Whaley ...Mr. Higgins .

Rowell, Robert Henry . Messrs. Proctor and Son

Taylor, James . Mr. Andrews .

Tunley, John . Mr. Tunley .

Wilkinson, Joshua Hardisty ...Mr. Miller .

EXAMINATION, October 2 6th, 1864.

MAJOR (Registered as Pharmaceutical Chemists).

Bailey, John . London.

Balkwill, Alfred Payne . Plymouth.

Davies, William . ..London.

Address.

Leicester.

.Peterborough.

.Yarmouth.

.West Hartlepool.
Oswestry.
.Manchester.
.Blandford.

.London.

.Cardigan.

.London.

.Wolverhampton.

.Brighton.

.Havant.

.Chester.

.Newcastle-on- Tyne.
.London.

.West Bromwich.
.Blackheath.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

197

Gibbans, Thomas Gilks

Fitzhugh, Richard .

Heanley, Marshall .

Hickey, Evan Lewis ...

Jones, William .

Orpe, Thomas Mansell

Sims, Joseph .

Taylor, Thomas .

Thomas, Rees .

Upjohn, Henry C .

Young, Robert Fisher

.Manchester.

.Nottingham.

Peterborough.

London.

.London.

London.

Hirwain.

.Peckham.

Merthyr.

.Oxford.

. Gringley-on-the-Hill.

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

Wednesday , October oth, 1864.

MR. SAXDFORD, PRESIDENT, IN THE CHAIR.

The minutes of the previous meeting having been read, the following
DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY AND MUSEUM
were announced, and the thanks of the meeting given to the respective donors
thereof : —

The Chemical Neivs.

The Chemist and Druggist.

The British Journal of Dental Science.

The Dental Revieiv.

The Medical Circular.

The Photographic Journal.

The Educational Times.

The Technologist.

The Veterinarian.

The Journal of the Society of Arts.

The Journal of the Chemical Society.

The Canada Lancet.

The Quarterly Journal of Science.

Bulletin de la Societe de Chimie de Paris.

Bulletin de la Societe Botanique de France.

Watts's Dictionary of Chemistry . Parts XVI. to XX. From the respective
Editors.

Proceedings of the Linnean Society. From the Society.

Proceedings of the Annual General Meeting of the Members of University College.
From the College.

Index Fungorum Britannicorum.

The Genus Ascobolus. By M. C. Cooke.

Elatine. Solution aqueuse de Goudron de Sapin concentre.

Ueber Pharmalco-dynamische Aequivalente fur die ITauptbestandtheile der Mineral
ivdsser und uber einiges Verwanclte.

Die Delondre- Boucharclaf schen China-Rinden.

Ueber die Natunvissenschaften. Yon Dr. P. Phoebus.

Commentar zur Preussischen Pharmacopoeia. Vierte Lieferung. Yon Dr. F. Mohr.
From the respective authors.

Parcel of Chinese Medicines. Received through Mr. Frederick Barron.

Case of the Acids and Alkaloids of Opium. From Messrs. Smith, of Edinburgh.

The President said it gave him much pleasure to meet his friends again in
that room for the renewal of their evening discussions ; he thought these meet¬
ings one of the most important features of the institution. There were other

198

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

occasions on which the business of the association wTas transacted, but it was in
the evening gatherings that they w'ere, in the best sense of the word, a Society ;
they came together to communicate to each other the result of their individual
experience, — sometimes to have opinions confirmed, sometimes corrected, — but
always, he believed, for mutual advantage, lie looked back with satisfaction
to the meetings of last session, which had been as well attended and pleasant as
any the Society had ever held, and he trusted the coming session would be as
successful. When they met last year they were all expectation for the British
Pharmacopoeia, but now that it had been in their hands for some months there
was as much, or more, uncertainty respecting it than before, and he did feel
it was desirable that, if possible, this Society should make some effort to re¬
move that uncertainty : he thought many expected a revised edition, but he be¬
lieved there wTas no ground for such expectation ; another edition would doubt¬
less come in due time, but they might have to wraitlong for it, and in the mean¬
time there should be uniformity of practice among dispensers. Good or bad,
the British Pharmacopoeia was their legal authority ; and it was a great incon¬
venience on receiving a prescription from a customer which had been previously
prepared elsewhere to feel doubtful whether P.L. or P.B. had been the guide of
the former dispenser ; in many cases, such for instance as infusion of gentian,
the difference would be apparent and, although really immaterial, would shake
the confidence of the patient.

The Poison question was attracting great attention just now, and he thought it
very probable that some legislative action would be taken on it during the next
Session of Parliament ; it might be well to introduce some provision on this
subject into the new Pharmacy Bill, but that was a matter for grave considera¬
tion ; it was one of the most difficult questions they had to deal with ; there
had been a discussion on it in the Conference at Bath, but he could find no
satisfactory measures proposed. If poison-closets were established nobody knew
where to stop, and between different poisons in the closet there must be great
distinctions ; still the public, who knew nothing of the practical difficulties of
the trade, seemed to demand some action, and it became the Pharmaceutical
Society to be prepared. This public desire had been much stimulated by the
recent report of Dr. Taylor, and there was one case mentioned therein to wdiich
he, the President, must refer. It was one in which it was alleged that four
packets of oxalic acid had been sold by a druggist in mistake for Epsom salt,
and death had been caused thereby. Now the circumstances corresponded so
perfectly with those of an established case of fraud, that the identity of the
two seemed almost certain. Epsom salt had been asked for, and w7as really
supplied ; but it was proved that the purchaser, whose life had just been heavily
insured, had on the same day bought half a pound of oxalic acid, and although
the remaining packets labelled Epsom salt contained oxalic acid, they contained
also in the folds of the paper Epsom salt, and wrere sealed with wax differing
from that used by the druggist. A verdict of Suicide w7as given after a length¬
ened investigation. Pharmaceutists wrere liable to such a danger as this amongst
others.

The first evening of the session was usually devoted to the distribution of
prizes ; this must be always a pleasing duty ; it wras a pleasure to be brought
face to face with successful men, indeed success itself made a man interesting,
but in this case the success had been achieved in their own institution, and was
satisfactory evidence that the system adopted had worked well. The President
hoped the reports which he now called on the Professors to give would further
prove this.

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

199

CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.

Professor Redwood then presented his report. He said that after perform¬
ing a similar duty for twenty years it was difficult to find anything fresh to
say. He must report the same good conduct and diligence on the part of
the pupils, and with regard to their progress, he must remark that the standard
at these examinations had greatly advanced. Much more was expected of the
pupils now than used to be expected ; the questions given out were more diffi¬
cult, and the answers generally were better than they were twenty years ago.
It was well to take a retrospective view occasionally of the results of their
labours in the cause of pharmaceutical education. In doing so he saw no ground
for discouragement, but much to induce them to persist in the course they had
hitherto adopted. In accounting for diminished attendance in the school, it
should be remembered that the Society had now for many years sent out large
numbers of qualified instructors, and that candidates came from them ready
prepared to pass the examinations of the Society. On the whole, the retrospect
afforded him great satisfaction.

The questions and awards were as follows : —

1. What are the respective weights of a pint of each of the following liquids : — Recti¬

fied Spirit, Proof Spirit, Chloroform?

2. What is the meaning of the term Specific heat ; how is the specific heat of bodies

determined ; and what is the specific heat of Olive Oil as compared with Water ?

3. What is meant by the term Dialysis ? Describe the method of conducting the pro¬

cess to which this name is applied, and mention some of the results which have
been obtained by it.

4. Describe the preparation and properties of Phosphorus and Phosphoric Acid.

o. State the sources from wrhich Bromine is obtained, and describe the method of iso¬
lating it, and also its properties and atomic weight.

G. Name the body represented by the formula CoNH, and describe its properties and
tests.

7. Give the atomic formula for Urea ; describe the method of producing it artificially,

and the nature of the change effected by the application of heat to it.

8. Describe the processes of the British Pharmacopoeia for the preparation of emetic

tartar and hydrochlorate of morphia.

Medal . John Watts.

Certificate of Honour ...John Bingley.

„ ...Fredk. R. Pasmore.

Certificate of Merit . Edward B. Goulden.

„ John M. 0. Eminson.

BOTANY AND MATERIA MEDICA.

Professor Bentley said that he had on the present, as on all previous occa¬
sions when he had to make his annual report on the class of Materia Medica and
Botany, to speak in the highest terms of the general conduct, diligence, and
progress of the students both at the Society and at the Royal Botanic Gardens ;
in fact, such a statement, if stereotyped, would be always found applicable to
pharmaceutical students. Professor Bentley stated that he spoke from an ex¬
perience founded on sixteen years’ active labour as a professor of the Phar¬
maceutical Society, and hence it could not but prove most gratifying to those
gentlemen who had for so many years sacrificed a great part of their time,
money, and energies to the promotion of pharmaceutical education ; the seed which
they had sown had kindly germinated and grown, and was now putting forth its
branches and ripening its fruit in all directions. Professor Bentley then an¬
nounced the result of the Terminal Prize Examination. The competition was
a severe one and the result most creditable to all concerned, for those who had
gained honours might well be proud of their distinctions, for they eminently

200

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

deserved them. Professor Bentley, in referring to the successful candidates,
said that he felt called upon to allude especially to Mr. Watts, who had carried
off all the Sessional Prizes. He could not speak in too glowing terms of such
a pupil, and he trusted all future students would look up to him as their model.
It Avas especially gratifying to him to find Mr. Watts in such a distinguished
position on the present occasion, as he had at a previous distribution of prizes
spoken in very high terms of his acquirements, and had then predicted that
Mr. Watts’s career would be a very distinguished one.

The questions for the written examination were as follows : —

1. Describe the physical and chemical characteristics of Chlorophyll. State where it is

found, the conditions favourable to its development, and the .’changes Avhich it
undergoes at the different seasons of the year.

2. Define the following: — Bulb, Corm, Rhizome, Tuber, and Tubercule. Mention the

various substances of the Materia Medica which present illustrations of them re¬
spectively, and name the plants which yield them, and the Natural Orders to
which they belong.

3. Define the following terms : — parasite, epiphyte, serrate, ligule, cupule, involucre,

panicle, hypogynous, syngenesious, isomerous, gynandrous, and tetradynamous.

4. What are the substances required for the support of plant-life; and in Avhat manner

are they taken up by plants ?

5. Describe the physical and chemical characteristics of both colchicum corm and seeds ,

and state the time of the year in which they should be collected for use.

G. Mention the officinal plants of the British Pharmacopoeia derived from the Ranun-
culacea:. Mention the botanical and geographical sources of podophyllum rhi¬
zome. , and describe its physical and chemical characteristics.

7. Describe the physical characteristics of Croton Seeds; state their botanical and geo¬

graphical source, the manner in which Croton Oil is obtained, and the differences
between East Indian Croton Oil and English Croton Oil.

8. Give the essential characters of the following Natural Orders, and enumerate the

officinal plants of the British Pharmacopoeia which they respectively contain : —
Cruciferae, Umbellifene, Atropacese, Polygonaceae, Iridaceae, and Melanthaceae.

VIVA VOCE EXAMINATION.

Besides the above questions, the following plants Avere submitted to the several
competitors, who were required to name them, to state the Natural Orders to
which they respectively belonged, to mention their medical and economical pro¬
perties, and to describe any peculiarity they might present worthy of notice : —

Aconitum Napellus — Delphinium Staphysagria — Hypericum calycinum — Althaea
officinalis — Epilobium angustifolium — Ecbalium officinarum — Conium maculatum —
Coriandrum sativum — Foeniculum dulce — iEthusa Cynapium — Artemisia Absinthium —
Pyrethrum Parthenium — Matricaria Chamomilla — Anthemis nobilis — Inula Helenium —
Knautia arvensis — Tanacetum vulgare — Lobelia infiata — Solanum nigrum — Atropa
Belladonna — Datura Stramonium — Nicotiana rustica — Hyoscyamus niger — Solanum
Dulcamara — Solanum Dulcamara, var. alba. — Borago officinalis — Marrubium vulgare —
Origanum vulgare — Pentstemon species — Lysimachia Nummularia — Gentiana species — •
Mercurialis annua — Lilium species — Funkia ovata — Veratrum album.

The medal and certificates were aAvarded as follows : —

Medal . John Watts.

Certificate of Honour ...John Bingley.

„ ...F. R. Pasmore.

Certificate of Merit . Alfred R. Hall.

„ . John M. 0. Eminson.

,, . Peter W. Squire

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

201

PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY.

Dr. Attfield remarked, that although the questions for examination in the
class of Practical Chemistry were all of an analytical character, it was not
therefore to be supposed that students in the laboratory learnt nothing but ana¬
lysis, — they learnt synthesis, or the manufacture of chemical substances as well ;
above all, they learnt the principles and facts on which manufacturers and ana¬
lysts depend. Students who entered the laboratory, especially those working
for short periods, learnt not so much to be accomplished analysts or expert
manufacturers, but by means of synthesis and analysis made themselves ac¬
quainted with the chemistry of medicinal substances and became familiar with
chemical manipulation. To ascertain the synthetical ability of students he
carefully noted and recorded during the session the neatness, completeness, and
excellence of their work, and the observations influenced, to some extent, the
result of their analytical labours on the examination day. He was much grati¬
fied with that result on the present occasion. There was a larger number of
competitors than the previous year, and with regard to them he would say that
even the unsuccessful ones were well pleased with their day’s work, one of the
latter stating that it had taught him he could do much more analysis in a given
time than he believed himself capable of accomplishing. Dr. Attfield was glad
that the medal had been obtained by Mr. Watts, who having carried off the
first prizes in other subjects, was not open to the suspicion that he had neg¬
lected some studies to excel in one. He also had great pleasure in recom¬
mending the Council to award a Certificate of Honour to Mr. Smith, whose
answers had brought him close to the position of Mr. Watts. The first Certi¬
ficate of Merit was fully deserved by Mr. Goulden, who had worked at Prac¬
tical Chemistry under the disadvantage of being engaged at Practical Pharmacy
during the evening. Mr. Pasmore, who was a particularly neat operator, had
unfortunately suffered from ill-health or would probably have stood higher ;
and Mr. Bingley had worked during a portion of the session only — his position
above some others was the result of unwearied application.

The questions and awards were as follows . —

1. You are furnished with four unlabelled Pharmacopoeial preparations ; analyse and

name them.

2. Examine the specimens of Calomel, Sulphur, Sulphate of Quinine, Hydrochloric

Acid, and Chloroform, supplied to you, and report on their quality.

3. The solutions marked A and B may contain any of the ordinary salts used in medi¬

cine ; analyse them, and state the result.

4. The powder given to you is also a mixture of medicinal salts ; examine it, and state

its composition.

Medal . John Watts.

Certificate of Honour ...Herbert A. Smith.

Certificate of Merit . Edward B. Goulden.

„ . Frederick R. Pasmore.

„ . John Bingley.

PEREIRA MEDAL.

This medal is awarded to the student who in the List of Honours has passed
the best Major Examination in Materia Medina, Chemistry, and Botany during
the session.

The following are the names of the persons who passed in honours : —

Chave, William F . 30

Gowland, William . 37

Greaves, William S . 30

Hamp, John . 35

Holmes, Edward M . 38

Scruby, William Y . 38 |

Medal ..Watts, John . 39 J

Number of marks
[> taken by them re-
i spectively.

203

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

MINOR EXAMINATION PRIZE OF BOOKS TO THE VALUE OF

TWO POUNDS.

Five persons took equal number of marks ; a competition took place ; when
the prize, Miller’s 4 Chemistry,’ was awarded to John Thomas Mayfield.

The prize is given for highest number of marks on the following subjects : —

MINOR PRIZE QUESTIONS. — PHARMACY AND CHEMISTRY.

1. Describe the composition of Emetic Tartar, the approved processes for its prepara¬

tion, the changes which take place in its production, the characters it presents
in the crystallized state, the tests by which it may be distinguished, the impu¬
rities which are most likely to be present, and the means by which these may
be detected.

2. What is the composition of Cane Sugar, and in what respects does this differ in

composition and in properties from Grape Sugar ? How is one of these con¬
verted into the other, and what bearing has this upon the preparation and pre¬
servation of Medicinal Syrups ?

3. Describe the production and preparation of Alcohol by fermentation from Grain,

representing the change which occurs in the Malting of Grain, the conditions
under which this is made to yield spirit by fermentation, the method adopted
for the purification of the Spirit, and for the production of absolute Alcohol.
Give the specific gravity of Proof Spirit, Rectified Spirit, and Absolute Alcohol.
State the ultimate composition of Alcohol, and the proportions of Alcohol and
Water in Rectified Spirit and Proof Spirit.

4. Describe the compounds of Nitrogen and Oxygen, their composition, the methods of

producing them, and their properties.

PRIZES FOR HERBARIA.

Professor Bentley said that only two collections of plants had been sent this
year for competition ; this was to be regretted, because nothing so much tended
to make a practical botanist as commencing at an early age the collection and
naming of plants. Both the collections forwarded were, however, deserving of
some distinction, and the Council upon his report had awarded a bronze medal
to the first in order of merit, which was that of John James Thorn, a registered
apprentice of the Society, residing with Mr. Jackson, Pharmaceutical Chemist,
at Crediton ; and a certificate of honour to the second, that of Thomas Collier,
a registered apprentice, residing with Mr. Collier, Pharmaceutical Chemist,
Sheffield.

The medal and certificate were awarded as follows : —

Bronze Medal . John James Thorn.

Certificate of Merit . . Thomas Collier.

JACOB BELL SCHOLARSHIPS.

_ Seven candidates presented themselves for examination for the Junior Scholar¬
ship.

Successful candidate, Henry William Harris, pupil of Messrs. Ford and Miller,
Reading.

One competitor only presented for the Senior Scholarship,

John Watts,

To whom the Scholarship was awarded.

I— I CO IQ r-t O') CO 10 CO

PIIAllMACEUTICAL MEETING.

203

SENIOR BELL SCHOLARSHIP.

ARITHMETIC.

1. What number is that from which if you subtract -JT of § of a unit, and to the re¬

mainder add £ of % of a unit, the sum will be 9 ?

2. Required the cube root of 122G15327232.

LATIN.

1. What is the gender of phoenix (the name of a Bird) ?

2. In hypothetical cases, state the two clauses of which they consist.

3. Translate to the end of fifth paragraph of Chap. VI., Book II., of Celsus.

ENGLISH COMPOSITION.

4. Write on the following subject : — The Pharmaceutical Society, its history and pro¬

spects. Describe the advantages which have been conferred upon the public and
the pharmaceutist.

BOTANY AND MATERIA MEDICA.

1. Describe the different kinds of wood-cells, and mention the plants and parts of plants

in which they are respectively found.

2. What do you understand by determinate and indetenninate inflorescence? Define a

spike, raceme, panicle, capitulum, umbel, and cyme.

3. What are the officinal sorts of Cinchona bark ? State briefly their leading physical

characteristics.

4. What are the officinal plants of the Natural Order Cruciferce ? State the physical and

chemical characteristics of black and white mustard seed.

CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.

1. Describe the theories of heat that have been generally received, and especially that

which is known as the dynamical theory.

2. Give the composition of potash-alum, representing the quantities of the approximate

constituents in 100 parts of the salt, with such details as will show the method of
calculation from the well-known atomic formula.

3. An organic body is found to have the following composition : —

Carbon . 42*11

Hydrogen . G*43

Oxygen . 51*46

100-00

What is the most simple atomic formula for this body, and how do you arrive at
such formula ?

4. If a specimen of citrate of iron and quinine were submitted to you for examination
how would you judge of its qualities and determine its composition?

JUNIOR BELL SCHOLARSHIP.

* ARITHMETIC.

. Reduce to its lowest term.

. Take •§ from T\.

. Divide *37046 by 16.

Multiply 4*82 by 3‘53.

What is the cube root of 125 ?

LATIN.

Give the superlative of citerior.

To what conjugation does the verb eo (I go) belong ?

What does the ablative denote ?

In what case is the subject of a sentence generally found?

State the perfects of the following : — crepo, ciibo.

Translate Phaedrus, Fable No. 10, “ Lupus et vulpes —

“ Quicunque turpi fraude semel iunotuit ” — to the end.

ENGLISH COMPOSITION.

1. Write upon one of the following subjects : — Truth, Genius.

O 'O

204

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

BOTANY AND MATERIA MEDIC A.

1. Describe the general characters and structure of starch granules.

2. State briefly the characteristic distinctions between the stems of acotyledonous, mono-

cotyledonous, and dicotyledonous steins.

3. Distinguish between epiphytical and parasitical plants.

4. What is the botanical source of scammony ? Describe its physical characteristics, and

the tests of its purity ?

5. What are the botanical sources of the officinal and Sumatra camphors , and how may

they be distinguished from each other ?

G. What are the officinal plants (Brit. Pharm.) of the Natural Orders Ranunculacece, Com¬
posite, and Liliacece ?

CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.

1. What is the composition of Rochelle salt, and how is it prepared ?

2. What is the proportion of anhydrous hydroc}ranic acid in the diluted hydrocyanic acid

of the London Pharmacopoeia ?

3. What is the difference in composition between hard and soft soap ?

4. What are the proportions of rectified spirit and water in proof spirit, and what is the

specific gravity of proof spirit ?

. What is the composition of muriatic acid, and from what is this acid made ?

. How is Mistura Ferri Composita of the London Pharmacopoeia made ? What is the
nature of the change which occurs during the process, and also of that which
occurs when it has been kept for some time exposed to the air ?

The President, after distributing the prizes and certificates to the success¬
ful competitors, addressing Mr. Watts, congratulated him, and hoped that on
going forth to the world to utilize the knowledge he had obtained he would be
as successful as in acquiring it. His great practical education was now to
commence; the encomiums passed on him that evening must not dazzle and
divert him from his course ; it was to him, and such as him (speaking generally
to the prize-men), that the Pharmaceutical Society must look for credit and
support, and he trusted the connection between them would long continue a
source of mutual honour and pleasure to both parties.

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE HISTORY OP BALSAM OF PERU.

BY J. ATTFIELD, PH.D., F.C.S.

DIRECTOR OF THE LABORATORIES OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN.

There are still some links missing in the history of Balsam of Peru. To
Pereira we owe the first precise information as to the localities in which the
drug is produced, the tree which yields it, and the method by which it is ex¬
tracted. Warszewicz, Bailey, Le Nouvel, and Dorat have given their testi¬
mony as eye-witnesses to the process by which the balsam is collected ; while
Hanbury has gathered many historical particulars, which have rendered our
knowledge of the subject more exact. To the last-named writer is due the
introduction of the tree to the botanical gardens of Europe, as well as to the
islands of J amaica, Trinidad, and Ceylon.

The process which is now followed, in the State of Salvador, for the extrac¬
tion of the so-called Balsam of Peru is, as we are told, simply this : — the bark
of the tree is somewhat loosened and bruised by the blows of a mallet or
other blunt instrument. It is then charred by the flames of torches ; this
occasions it to drop off, and a fluid resin to exude from the now hared wood.
This fluid resin is not collected by being simply allowed to flow down into a
vessel, but is absorbed by cotton rags, which are laid over the sticky exuding-

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE HISTORY OF BALSAM OF PERU.

205

surface of the trunk, until they have imbibed as much of the resin as they
will hold, when they are removed and boiled in water. This causes the sepa¬
ration of the resin, which, after some mechanical purification, constitutes the
liquid known in Europe as Balsam of Bern. The chemistry also of the com¬
mercial balsam has been tolerably well ascertained, and with Fremy, we may
regard it as a mixture of volatile oil, crystalline cinnamic acid, and resin.
But with regard to the state in w hich the balsam exists in the tree, and the
extent to which it may be altered by the manipulations of extraction and ex¬
posure, we know nothing.

It w'as in the hope of supplying some of these deficiencies in the pharmaco¬
logy of Balsam of Peru that I recently examined a small branch of Myroxy-
lon Pereirce, sent to me by Mr. Hanbury, and a portion of a section of the
trunk of the tree from the Museum of the Pharmaceutical Society. The
branch was so young that it contained no heart-wTood, but the trunk, which
had apparently been about twelve inches in diameter, had dark mahogany-
coloured heart-wood, nine inches thick. The bark of the trunk was about
a quarter of an inch thick.

The bark, white-wood, and heart-wrood of the specimens were each finely
rasped and examined separately. In imitation of the method of extraction
actually adopted, each was subjected to the action of heat very gradually
raised, but no exudation was obtained in either case, nor even any odour
emitted at all resembling that of Balsam of Peru. On continuing the appli¬
cation of heat destructive distillation was at last effected, but the product
was onl}r the usual acid water and tar obtained on heating any kind of
wood.

The characteristic constituents of Balsam of Peru being soluble in ether,
the several portions of the specimens were each boiled with that liquid
for some time, and after filtration the ether removed by evaporation. By this
treatment the bark of the large specimen yielded a soft resin of light-brown
colour, the white-wood a similar but less soft residue of lighter colour, and
the heart-wood a reddish-brown soft resin, on which, after a day or two, a
light-brown oil floated. The odour of these three residues was alike, but
strongest in that from the heart-wood ; it did not resemble that of Balsam of
Peru. On heating these resinous products with water, an odorous steam was
evolved, least odorous from the white-wood, most so from the heart-wood,
but in each case this odour was also unlike that obtained when Balsam of
Peru is similarly treated. Nor had the water an acid reaction on blue
litmus paper, as water warmed in contact with Balsam of Peru invariably
has, a reaction due to the presence of cinnamic acid. The bark and wood of
the small branch yielded small quantities of similar products. The volatile
oil of Balsam of Peru being very well characterized by its odour, its absence
from the resinous products, obtained as above, may be fairly inferred. The
absence of cinnamic acid ia the products is also indicated by these experi¬
ments, but was confirmed by boiling the several resins with solution of carbo¬
nate of soda, neutralizing the resulting liquid by hydrochloric acid and filter¬
ing while hot ; on cooling, no crystalline plates of cinnamic acid separated
out as would have occurred in the case of Balsams of Peru or tolu. Finally,
to detect the third characteristic constituent of Balsam of Peru, the resin,
each of the products was moistened with concentrated sulphuric acid, which
gives a persistent dark-purple colour with Peru and tolu balsams, but in
neither case was any such coloration produced.

From these experiments it is obvious that the Balsam of Peru tree
contains an oily resin, which is either perfectly distinct from the exudation
known as Balsam of Peru, or else is a product of the alteration of the balsam ;
a production which no trace of the constituents of Balsam of Peru remains.

206

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

Concerning the nature of the balsam before exudation from the tree, and
the alteration it undergoes in the charring process, we must remain in igno¬
rance until fresh specimens of the bark, wood, and balsam obtained during
the season of collection can be examined. The balsam collected directly from
the tree should be immediately secured in a well-closed bottle, so as to exclude
the action of air upon it. It would also be interesting to know if a balsamic
resin could be extracted without charring the wood, for it is asserted by De
Laet, as Hanbury has shown, that the charring is only a custom of Indian
origin, the Spaniards extracting balsam without the aid of heat. The result
of making deep incisions into the trunk of the balsam trees should also be
ascertained. Possibly a resin similar to balsam of tolu might be thus ob¬
tained. The resin which spontaneously exudes from the Salvador Myroxylon,
is not balsamic, as I have shown in a former paper, published in the £ Phar¬
maceutical Journal’ for December, 1863.

ORIGINAL AND EXTRACTED ARTICLES.

ON THE EXTRACTION AND PRESERVATION OE AROMATA.

BY CHARLES R. C. TICHBORNE, F.C.S.,

CHEMIST TO THE APOTHECARIES’ HALL OP IRELAND, ETC.

{Read at the Rath Meeting of the British Pharmaceutical Conference , Sept. 1864.)

Some time ago I noticed in my garden a vegetable curiosity of some interest.
As I was desirous of preserving this lusus naturx , I submerged it in some weak
glycerine, considering that that fluid would be less likely to shrivel the tender
stems, and also remembering that it had been found most efficient in the pre¬
serving of animal tissues.*

The glycerine answered its purposes admirably, preserving the delicate parts
in all their contour , and at the same time preventing decomposition.

I immediately saw that this property of glycerine might be made available
for certain pharmaceutical processes where it is desired to preserve, or to extract
the aromata of vegetable products, i. e. it is applicable to the preserving of
elder, orange, or rose flowers ; and also as will be shortly explained, it may be
substituted for the oils and fats used in the process termed enfieurage.

Flowers for making the officinal Aqua Sambuci may be preserved for an inde¬
finite period, the following being the mode of operating : — The elder-flowers
should be gathered when the corolla is fully expanded, but not too far gone ;
they should then be plucked from the stem and packed firmly in wide-mouth
bottles or jars without crushing them, and finally be well covered with gly¬
cerine and corked. It is not necessary that the glycerine should be pure
for this purpose, but it should be devoid of odour and have a high gravity
(about 1*240 at 60° F).f The common glycerine made from soap or plaster has
generally a slight odour, which must be got rid of before it is used for this pur¬
pose. When they are wanted for the distillation of the water, the flowers with
the glycerine are put into a still, or what is preferable, the glycerine is ex¬
pressed and is then found to be saturated with the otto. Water is then added,
the quantity being regulated by the original weight of the preserved flowers, or
the amount it is determined to distil. I have preserved flowers for two years,

* Experiments of M. De Marquay, ‘ J ournal de Cliimie Medicate. ’

f Pure distilled glycerine lias generally a specific gravity of about 1*260 at 60° F., but
ordinary glycerine may be concentrated upon a water bath until it has a specific gravity of
1*240.

ON THE EXTRACTION AND PRESERVATION OF AROMATA. 207

and on distilling them this summer I have procured a water, the perfume of
which equalled that made from flowers of this season.

As the essential oil seems soluble in all reasonable proportions, this is a very
■convenient method of making a concentrated water, either by treating the gly¬
cerine after expression with a fresh portion of flowers or by regulating the
•amount of water added on distillation. This process of preserving flowers will
be found to far exceed the old plan of preserving them between layers of salt,
particularly as it is almost next to impossible to distil the flowers so preserved
without a small portion of the salt being mechanically carried over, which cannot
be a desideratum in an emollient.

By diluting with water the expressed glycerine, and shaking it with melted
lard, and then allowing them to separate, an ointment may be obtained, which
has the natural properties and aroma of the elder-flowers.

I will now draw your attention to what may probably be a very useful appli¬
cation of the above properties of glycerine, — I mean in cases where the aroma of
the flower is so delicate as to be much injured, if not entirely destroyed, by the
application of heat. When such is the case, the extraction of the perfume by
glycerine may be substituted for the process of enf, enrage as now carried on to
such a large extent in the Yar district, France.* The process would then be¬
come one of cold maceration, no heat being employed. After digesting the
flowers for some considerable time in the glycerine, the latter is expressed and
again treated with fresh flowers until the excipient is thoroughly saturated
with the volatile oil ; the extraction seems perfect, as the glycerine evidently
has a great affinity for the odoriferous essences. (Fresh mint placed over a
thin layer of glycerine imparts in a short time a considerable odour to that
fluid, although it may not be in actual contact.) The saturated glycerine is
diluted with water and shaken with a small quantity of chloroform ; after
well agitating, the latter is allowed to subside ; it carries down with it nearly
the whole of the essential oil. The chloroformic solution, after being separated
by a funnel, should be filtered, if necessary, and allowed to evaporate sponta¬
neously iu a shallow vessel. The residual matter dissolved in spirit forms the
spirituous extract of the flower, whatever that may be. If operating upon large
quantities it becomes desirable to economize. Therefore in such a case, the
greater part of the chloroform may be drawn off in a still, the last portion being
allowed to evaporate spontaneously ; the boiling-point being so low that even
the most delicate perfumes would hardly be deteriorated by the heat employed.
Even the offensive smelling bisulphide of carbon, from its ready volatility, may
be used ; but it must be quite pure, or, in other words, it must be perfectly free
from all after-smell on evaporation.

The glycerine may be used over and over again after diluting, passing it
through charcoal, and then evaporating it to the desired gravity.

As regards the application of glycerine to the preserving of leaves, etc., for dis¬
tilled waters, I have myself practically carried it out with great success, having
kept flowers for two years, and on opening them, found not only the perfume na¬
tural, but the structure of the flowers without the least disorganization. The
process proposed as a substitute for the ordinary one of enjleurage by fats, of
course I merely throw out as a suggestion, as it could only be practically put to
the proof at some place where the flowers are cultivated extensively. The great
number of men and women employed in the present process at Grasse and
Cannes would point out that a great saving would be made both in time and
money by a method similar to the above. Another object is that although there

* The commercial importance of this branch of trade may be indicated by the quantity
of flowers annually grown in France, i. e. 2,284,000 lb. This only includes orange, cassia,
jasmine, and such-like blossoms, the perfumes of which are extracted by the aid of fats.
( Vide Exhibition Record, 1862.)

208

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

are large growers at the above-named localities, the mass of the flowers are
grown by cottagers, and collected from them by commissionnaires. In the gly¬
cerine plan the flowers could be placed in perfect safety as brought in, and by
this means all danger from heating by fermentation is thrown out of considera¬
tion. I have extracted on the small scale, and by the above means, the aromata
from Heliotropium grandiflorum , Clieiranthus Cheiri , and others.

ON COMMERCIAL CARBONATE OE BISMUTH.

BY MR. C. UMNEY.

( Read at the Bath Meeting of the British Pharmaceutical Conference , Sept. 18G4.)

Carbonate of bismuth, occasionally used in medicine, is seldom obtained
pure, but occurs in commerce mixed with various proportions 0f basic nitrate
of bismuth.

It has been asserted that this nitrate is 'present in large quantity ; it must
therefore either be put in as an adulterant, or else be formed in the production
of the subcarbonate. The experiments I have made upon six samples of carbo¬
nate of bismuth, obtained from six of the principal manufacturing chemists in
London, prove the contrary. In one of them it is not to be found at all ; and,
although the nitric acid can be easily detected in the other five (by boiling the
salt with carbonate of soda, neutralizing with hydrochloric acid, and then ap¬
plying the ordinary sulphate of iron test) the quantity is very minute. It can
scarcely therefore be regarded as an adulterant, but rather as an indication of
impurity, — doubtless arising from an attempt at economy in the manufacture.

Carbonate of bismuth is generally obtained by the following process : — Me¬
tallic bismuth is dissolved in slightly diluted nitric acid, carbonate of soda is
then added, which precipitates a subcarbonate of bismuth, — not pure, but con¬
taining nitrate of bismuth. The carbonate of soda is preferable to that of
potash, for if the latter be used, not only is the nitrate formed as well as the
subcarbonate, but also a portion of carbonate of potash is carried down with
the precipitate, and is not easily removed by subsequent washing.

Sometimes a mixture of carbonate of soda and carbonate of ammonia is used,
but this fails to produce the pure carbonate of bismuth.

The best process, although more expensive than the preceding ones, is to take
a solution of the metal in slightly diluted nitric acid, add carbonate of am¬
monia, dilute the solution, and boil for ten minutes before the precipitate is
filtered off. The boiling is necessary, for without it a portion of oxide would
be retained in solution by the precipitant.

The composition of the precipitate when so prepared is as described by Lefort
(Comptes Rendus, 27-268) Bi03,C02,H0 ; which gives theoretically in 100
parts : —

Teroxide of bismuth... . 88*30

Carbonic acid . 8-30

Water . 3*39

The following are the results of the analyses for the quantity of teroxide of
bismuth present in each sample (in 100 parts) : —

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

89 88*5 86*16 87*66 87*66 86*

which, I think, are as nearly uniform as can be expected of a commercial article
no better defined than this carbonate.

"The carbonic acid present, with one exception, exceeds the normal quantity: —
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

9*08 8*87 10*95 10*75 8*667 7*28

ON THE PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATION OF GLYCERINE.

209

The amount of hydration in some is less, while in others it is considerably more
than the theoretical quantity : —

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

1-27 2-57 2-75 1-5 3-51 6-71

In none does the percentage of anhydrous nitric acid exceed -6, in some it is
as low as -03 ; and in one sample it is totally absent.

ON THE PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATIONS OF GLYCERINE.

BY MR. F. BADEN BENGER.

( Read at the Bath Meeting of the British Pharmaceutical Conference , Sept. 1864.)

The Edinburgh branch of the Pharmaceutical Society thought proper to
award me the President’s Prize for an essay on this subject a few months since,
and it is from that paper chiefly that I have taken the following notes. It is
needless to detain the Members of the Conference by giving a detailed account
of the introduction of glycerine into pharmacy, nevertheless I should like to
make a few remarks on this part of the subject. Glycerine, as is well known,
was discovered by Scheele ; but I find considerable discrepancy in the ascribed
dates. "Watts, in his ‘ Chemical Technology,’ gives 1776 ; Demarquay, in his
recently-published treatise ‘ De la Glycerine,’ Gerhardt, and others, 1779 ; M.
Chevalier, in reporting on a paper by M. Bruere Perrin in the ‘Journal de
ChimieMedicale,’ 1782-83 ; while Dr. Abbotts Smith and others make it as late
as 1789 ; but the fact that Scheele published his discovery in the ‘Transactions
of the Royal Academy of Sweden’ in 1783, seems to prove the latter date erro¬
neous. It is to M. Chevreul, however, that we are indebted for giving to this
substance “ a local habitation and a name,” which he accomplished about thirty
years after its discovery, by demonstrating the true part it played in the consti¬
tution of fatty bodies (viz. that of a base, combined with stearic, margaric, and
oleic acids). He gave it the name of glycerine, it having been previously known
as the “ sweet principle of oils.” In 1844 it was first used in England as a
therapeutic agent, but attracted little attention till the publication of the admirable
papers of M. Cap, in the ‘Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie’ for February, 1854,
and MM. Cap and Garot in the same Journal, August, 1854. These gentlemen
pointed out the peculiar advantages offered by glycerine as a solvent, and, by a
very complete course of experiments, suggested for it almost innumerable phar¬
maceutical applications. They devised means of obtaining it in a much greater
state of purity from the waste liquors of the soap-boiler than it had hitherto
been supplied, but it was found impossible to rid it entirely of the impurities
(especially volatile fatty acids) derived from the substances used in the manufac¬
ture of the soap. The purest glycerine was at this time obtained during the
process of making lead plaster. A very important discovery was made by
Mr. Richard Albert Tilghman, of Philadelphia, about this date, viz. the possi¬
bility of separating glycerine from fats by the aid of heat and water only. A
patent was granted to this gentleman January 9tli, 1854. In his specification
Mr. Tilghman says, “ I subject these fatty or oily bodies to the action of water
at a high temperature under pressure, so as to cause the elements of these bodies
to combine with water, and to obtain, at the same time, free fat acids, and solu¬
tion of glycerine.” The temperature used by Mr. Tilghman was that of melted
lead (612° F.). Great improvements in the details of this process were
shortly afterwards made by Mr. G. F. Wilson, F.R.S., of the firm of Price and
Co., Vauxhall. As a source of glycerine he employs palm-oil bleached by expo¬
sure to the air ; this is decomposed in suitable apparatus by steam at a tempera¬
ture of 550° to 600° F., maintained for several hours. The glycerine is then

VOL. VI. B

-210

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

allowed to distil over with/the fat acids and water, and is concentrated by eva¬
poration. Price’s glycerine is well known at home and abroad for its great
superiority and almost absolute purity, being of necessity free from inorganic
matter. For, as Mr. Wilson has himself said, “ The only chemical agents used
for decomposing the neutral fat, and separating its glycerine, are steam and heat,
and the only agents used in purifying the glycerine thus obtained are heat and
steam.” Mr. Wilson tells me that they are now making one ton per week of
this pure medicinal glycerine, and, in order to ensure its perfect purity, it is fre¬
quently distilled five or six times. Like Bennett’s watches, Price’s glycerine
leaves “nothing to be desired but the money wherewith to buy it.”

It is in external remedies that the greatest field appears to be open for the
further introduction of this substance in pharmacy, and I shall first call atten¬
tion to the compound of starch and glycerine known as “plasma.” It had long
been thought desirable to find a substitute for fatty matters in ointments not
liable to become rancid, and in 1858 Mr. Schacht, of Clifton, read a paper before
the Pharmaceutical Society, in which he proposed for that purpose a mixture of
seventy grains of starch with one ounce of glycerine, heated together to a tem¬
perature of 240° F. The product is a plastic mass well suited in most re¬
spects for the purpose, but has been objected to from its tendency to absorb
moisture and become fluid by long exposure to the atmosphere. The inconve¬
nience arising from this source, however, might be easily obviated by keeping
the plasma in air-tight jars, and dispensing it when necessary in wide-mouthed
oottles. A much more serious hindrance to its general use is the fact that it
costs about five times as much as the ordinary adipose basis of ointments.

I have made a variety of experiments with “ plasma,” substituting in its com¬
position for the common wheat starch that of arrow-root, rice, potato, tous-les-
mois, etc., all of which yield compounds differing from each other in some of
their physical properties. The arrow-root plasma is beautifully transparent, but
has an objectionable tenacity if more than sixteen grains to the ounce be used.
On the whole, I prefer the tous-les-mois preparation to any other. The best
mode of preparing this is, to rub together in a mortar fifty grains of tous-les-
mois with one ounce of glycerine ; transfer this to a porcelain evaporating-dish,
and heat over a gas flame to a temperature of 240°, constantly stirring with an
ivory or wooden spatula. (A prescription recently came under my notice, in
which an eminent surgeon had ordered starch and glycerine to be heated to this
temperature over a water-bath ! !) Some pharmaceutists recommend that the
plasma should be kept at 240° for twenty minutes, but I see no advantages likely
to accrue from this, and unless great care be taken to regulate the temperature
the compound will become coloured, and will always be found to have dimi •
nished considerably in weight, a result not at all satisfactory to the operator.
If the application of heat be continued only long enough to burst the starch
granules, or till the mixture becomes transparent, the loss will be about twenty
grains to the ounce. The presence of a little water is not detrimental ; indeed,
I believe it improves the condition of the product, as it will be found more
plastic and better suited for rubbing over the surface of the skin : even after it
has been exposed to the air a few weeks, and thus absorbed more moisture.
M. Surum, a French pharmaceutist, who has paid much attention to the subject,
advises ten per cent, of water to be added to the starch previous to mixing it
with the glycerine. I do not think plasma would be advantageously substi¬
tuted for fats in all ointments, but in those cases where there is a great tendency
to rancidity, as in the Cer. Calam., Cer. Plumbi Acet., Ung. Zinci, etc. of the
old Pharmacopoeia, and where the active ingredient of the ointment is soluble
in glycerine, as in the Ung. Potass. lod., Ung. Aconitise, Ung. Atropiae, Ung.
Belladonnse, Ung. Creosoti, and Ung. Veratriae of the British Pharmacopoeia,
the plasmas appear preferable to the analogous ointments ; it also has the ad-

ON THE PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATIONS OF GLYCERINE. 211

vantage of being easily removed from the skin without the aid of soap or
friction.

Those preparations in which glycerine alone is the basis have received the
name of glyceroles. Many substances'are more soluble in glycerine than in water
or alcohol. When an aqueous or spiritous solution is applied to the skin it ra¬
pidly becomes dry ; and it seems reasonable to suppose that absorption would
then be greatly retarded. Glycerine is free from this objection, and its pecu¬
liar power of penetrating the pores of the skin renders it the best menstruum for
many substances. Dr. Richter, of Vienna, proposed, in 1857, a caustic appli¬
cation, composed of one part of iodine, two of iodide of potassium, and two of
glycerine. I am surprised that this in various states of dilution has not been
more frequently used instead of the tincture. Glycerine dissolves five grains of
iodine to the ounce without the addition of iodide of potassium. A glycerole,
composed of tannin one part, glycerine four parts, is a very elegant preparation,
and is used as an application to the throat, etc. per se, and as an addition to
gargles, lotions, injections, etc. One ounce of glycerine dissolves fifteen grains
of atropine, and seems to offer some advantages over solutions containing acids
in combination with the alkaloid in ophthalmic surgery. Borax is soluble in
glycerine to the extent of fifty per cent., and by adding this solution to tincture
of myreh, we obtain a “tincture of myrrh with borax” superior to that pre¬
pared in the ordinary manner. The non -resinous vegetable extracts are soluble
in glycerine, — a solution of the alcoholic extract of Calabar bean has lately been
used with success.

In the other class of medicaments, viz. internal remedies, the use of glycerine
has hitherto been more limited. Although glyceroles have often been brought
before our notice as substitutes for syrups, I do not find that they generally
possess any superiority. I have prepared the glycerole of iodide of iron in two
ways : — first, by making a very concentrated solution of iodide of iron (about
equal weights of water and iodine with iron wire, q. s .) and filtering this solu¬
tion into glycerine ; and, secondly, by a process suggested by Mr. James C.
Leamy, of America, in 1848, viz. to make a more dilute solution of the iodide,
mix with the glycerine, and evaporate the water over a water-bath. The former
is nearly colourless, but remains so only for a few days. The latter is of a pale
straw colour, and appears much less liable to undergo further change. A gly¬
cerole of carbonate of iron may be made by dissolving separately, each in 2
ounces of glycerine, 76 grains of sulphate of iron and about 60 grains of carbo¬
nate of potash, and mixing the solutions. The result will be a pale-green solu¬
tion of carbonate of iron, containing 1 gr. in f 5i, which will keep a considerable
time without change. The carbonate of iron is thrown down as a flocculent pre¬
cipitate on the addition of water. Gum Ammoniacum forms a white creamy
emulsion with glycerine, in the proportion of 5i to f ^i, which, according to De-
marquay, does not separate. I imagined this might be useful for the instanta¬
neous production of a kind of Mist. Ammoniaci, but the result of my experience
is that the resinous part of the Ammoniacum gradually separates and rises to the
surface, leaving an opalescent solution of the gummy constituents below. There
is one other use for glycerine which must not be overlooked, — that of an. exci¬
pient in pill-masses. Alone or diluted with an equal weight of water it is de¬
cidedly the best thing for “ making up ” pepsine and vegetable powders, care
being taken not to add too much, and to thoroughly knead the mass. Pills made
with this do not become hard, and are therefore always in a condition to be
readily dissolved in the stomach. A two-ounce wide-mouthed bottle fitted with
a cork perforated in two places, through one of which a piece of quill is inserted
for dropping the glycerine from, will be found a very serviceable adjunct to the
dispenser’s board.

Glycerine has been honoured with a place in the British Pharmacopoeia, where

R 2

212

BIIITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

however, it has only been thought worthy of acting as a solvent for the tannin
in “ Suppositoria Tannici.” The test there given is that it shall have a density
of 1*26 (the new Pharmacopoeia of the United States gives D25). Price’s is
almost the only sample I have met with which reaches this standard, the speci¬
mens of foreign glycerines I have examined being considerably below the mark,
and, with one exception, having a disagreeable odour. This odour may easily
be detected by rubbing a few drops on the back of the hand. One of the worst
of these importations was advertised as “ equal to Price’s in every respect.” I
have not detected much inorganic impurities in the foreign glycerines, and the
presence of water would be of comparatively little import, if it were possible to
free them from the well-known rancid odour, which renders them totally unfit
for pharmaceutical uses. The olfactory nerves of that man must indeed be
torpid, who fails to discover a wide difference between Price’s and the cheaper
glycerines. Should odour, however, not be sufficient proof, let a little solution
of nitrate of silver be added to the specimen in a test tube and exposed to the
light ; Price’s will be found to remain nearly colourless, whilst the inferior sam¬
ples will rapidly become dark-coloured. When we are able to obtain Price’s*
glycerine, or glycerine equal to it in every respect, at Is. Gd. per pound, I have
no doubt but it will find many applications in pharmacy from which it is now
debarred by its great cost. •

338, Oxf 07' cl Street , London.

ON THE APPLICATION OF DIALYSIS IN DETERMINING
THE NATURE OF THE CRYSTALLINE CONSTITUENTS OF
PLANTS.

BY J. ATTFIELD, PH.D., F.C.S.,

DIRECTOR OF THE LABORATORIES OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN.

( Lead at the Bath Meeting of the British Pharmaceutical Conference , Sept. 1864.)

Some two years ago (‘ Pharmaceutical Journal ’ for March, 1862) I published
the results of an examination of the saline efflorescences which are occasionally
found on medicinal vegetable extracts. These crystalline out-growths were found
to be chloride of potassium or nitrate of potash. The former salt had often been
observed, but the latter had not been noticed although it is of common occur¬
rence. From that examination, it seemed that nitrate of potash was a more fre¬
quent constituent of plants than had been suspected, and I then proposed the
application of a method whereby the presence of it and of similar salts could be
detected in the fresh plant. The suggestion was to dialyse expressed juices, con¬
centrated decoctions or infusions of plants, and then to evaporate the diffusate
to a small bulk, when it was to be expected that the nitrate of potash, or any
other crystalline salt would separate out in a solid and recognizable form.

Since that time I have submitted a few plant-juices, the first that came to hand,
to the process, and have obtained results which justify me in recommending the
method as one likely to be of great service in the study of vegetable physiology.
Crystalline salts can be thus obtained which would inevitably be destroyed in
burning a plant for its ash. The following are the details of the experi¬
ments : —

Solanum tuberosum. — A few pounds of potato tops were collected and at once
crushed and pressed and the juice dialysed for twenty-four hours. On evapo¬
rating the diffusate and cooling, small prismatic crystals separated, having all
the physical and chemical characteristics of nitrate of potash. Under the micro-

f Mr. Wilson tells me that should the demand increase, the cost of Price’s glycerine
will be greatly reduced.

ON AN APPLICATION OF DIALYSIS.

213

scope they were found to be six-sided and to twist a ray of plane polarized light,
were not volatile, gave a violet tint to flame, and deflagrated on charcoal ; their
aqueous solution gave a yellow crystalline precipitate with bichloride of platinum,
no odour on heating with caustic alkali, a black colour with sulphate of iron and
sulphuric acid, and yielded ammonia on heating with potash, zinc and iron. It
was deemed desirable to apply all these tests in this and similar examinations, as
a pound of vegetable seldom yielded more than a few grains of crystals, a quan¬
tity sometimes too small to purify by recrystallization, and always too small to
admit of the production of strongly marked analytical reactions. In the case
of potato however I went to the trouble of operating upon thirty or forty pounds
of the tops and thus obtained about the same number of grains of nitrate of pot¬
ash, and the extra labour was rewarded, for the mother-liquor of the nitre, after
standing aside two or three days, yielded a small crop of beautiful little crystals,
of which I can at present say but little more than that they were not nitrate of
potash. They were perfect little hexagons, not much longer than broad, with
flat heads ; I suspect them to be a magnesium salt. Besides these constituents,
the juice of potato yielded cubes, hollow pyramids, and prisms of chloride of po¬
tassium, much ammonia and sugar, even immediately after expression, and other
matters, the nature of which was not ascertained.

Atropa Belladonna. — The leaves and soft parts of the Deadly Nightshade also
yielded nitrate of potash by the above process. But in addition some acicular
crystals, single and in tufts, were obtained. These were carefully separated from
the nitre crystals and were recrystallized. They were then found to be square
prisms, neither deliquescent nor efflorescent, and containing magnesium as the
sole inorganic constituent. The nature of the organic matter associated with
the magnesium, could not be ascertained, apparently it was not any of the ordi¬
nary organic acids. The juice of Belladonna also contains ammonia, a matter
which reduced copper salts as sugar does, and other bodies not examined.

Pisum sativum. — Several quarts of peas, in the shell, were similarly treated.
The product was a thick syrup of light-brown colour, yielding no crystals even
after the lapse of several weeks. The ash of a portion of it gave a pure po¬
tassium tint to flame, and its solution a slight chlorine reaction. Ammonia
was also evolved on heating the diffusate with potash, but no nitric acid could
be detected. Apparently, therefore, the fruit of the pea contains no nitrate
of potash, and only a minute quantity of any inorganic crystalline salt. The
chief organic crystalloid is obviously sugar.

Lactuca sativa. — Half-a-dozen large garden-lettuces were next submitted to
the process. Here, again, the concentrated diffusate yielded nitrate of potash.
The crystals were however mixed with many perfect tetrahedra, but in quantity
insufficient to admit of chemical analysis. The mother-liquor contained sugar
and ammonia.

Cucumis sativus. — Several cucumbers were then operated on. They furnished
a diffusate, of which the chief constituent was sulphate of lime, but it also gave
reactions indicating sugar, and the juice, immediately after expression and
again after dialysis, yielded ammonia on warming with dilute solution of
potash.

Brassica oleracea. — The juice of three or four cabbages, treated in like
manner, also gave a diffusate, from which much sulphate of lime separated on
evaporation. It also yielded ammonia when heated with fixed alkali, but be¬
sides sulphate of lime no crystals were obtained from it.

Datura Stramonium. — This plant, the Bitter Thorn-apple, I found to contain
so much nitrate of potash that a dried portion quite deflagrated on being
burned in a muffle.

From these few experiments it is, I think, obvious that this application of
Graham’s beautiful process of dialysis promises to be of great service in inves-

214

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

tigating the nature of the crystalline constituents of plants. It may assist u
in extending our knowledge of the natural state of combination of the alk a-
loids and organic acids ; it may demonstrate the presence of salts previous ly
unknown, and may show that salts, hitherto only occasionally met with, are of
common occurrence. Moreover, by showing the presence or absence or varia¬
tion in amount of a given crystalline constituent, it will help us in ascertaining
the influence which variations in climate and soil have upon vegetables, will
doubtless aid in determining more exactly the office of the various parts of
plants, and, lastly, may throw light on the changes which go on at different
periods of the life of a plant.

ON THE PURITY OF FOREIGN IODIDE OF POTASSIUM.

BY MR. F. C. CLAYTON.

{Read at the Bath Meeting of the British Pharmaceutical Conference , September , 1864.)

The results of an examination of a subject like the present may be most
easily comprehended by means of a Table.

[

French and German.

English.

I.

II.

III.

IV.

V.

*

VI.-IX.

X.

XI.

XII.

XIII.

XIV.

XV.

Carbonate of)
Potash ...I

•7

•31

•7

•2

•15

0

•14

•28

0

•11

•3

Sulphate of")
Potash ...j

Trace

tr.

tr.

tr.

0

tr.

tr.

tr.

0

0

tr.

Iodate of)
Potash ...)

•8

0

0

•7

tr.

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Chloride of i
Potassium /

1-56

♦3

'5

1-5

3-74

tr.

•52

•31

tr.

•1

•15

Bromide of)
Potassium j

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Moisture .

1-1

1-4

2-5

2-4

•8

1-2

•9

•6

•5

3-7

1-75

Iodide of)

Potassium )

96-

98-1

96-4

95-4

95-3

98-9

98-4

98-7

99-5

96-28

97*8

100-16

100-11

100-1

100-2

.

99-99

100-1

99-96

99-89

100-

100-19

h->

O

o

For the sake of comparison, a few samples of English manufacture were ana¬
lysed and are represented by Nos. X.-XV.

The methods employed for the estimation of the various constituents are as
follows : —

Carbonate. — Volumetrically, by means of very dilute sulphuric acid, 10 c.c.
of which = *05 grm. K0,C02, an addition of one drop of tincture of litmus
being made previous to analysis. The quantity operated on was about two
grammes.

Iodcite. — Chlorimetrically, by treating a known quantity of pure iodate of
potash with tartaric acid and iodide of potassium, and comparing with the con¬
taminated sample in a test tube of the same diameter, etc.

Chloride. — About two grammes were dissolved in the smallest quantity of
water, two c.c. of NOs added and then chloroform or benzole and more water.
Agitate and repeat, adding the chloroform till it ceases to be coloured. The
chlorine is left in the aqueous solution and may be estimated by the usual
methods.

Bromide. — Precipitate the iodide as subiodide of copper, filter, and treat the

* Samples VI. to IX. were examined only for iodate and bromide.

ON A TEST FOR METHYLIC ALCOHOL. 215

clear filtrate with chlorine water and ether. (Vide Wood and B ache’s U. S*
Dispensatory.)

Moisture. — Heat at 250° till the residue ceases to lose weight.

Iodide. — Precipitate the chloride and iodide as silver salts, and subtract from
the total the chloride found.

[N.B. — When a sample contains iodate and carbonate, the latter may be esti¬
mated as carbonate of lime by the usual methods ; and when the iodide is esti¬
mated, the resulting iodide of silver contains the iodine due to the decomposition,
of the iodate, by the addition in the first instance of NO-.

See also the 1 Pharmaceutical Journal,’ April, 1864, under the 4 Transactions
of the Leeds Chemists’ Association.]

The Table speaks for itself in regard to the results to be deduced from it.

That old and inconvenient impurity, iodate of potash, is fast disappearing,
and here it is that the English samples claim the preferences ; still, the quantity
is so small, that had the calcination been carried a little further, none of it
would have remained undecomposed. Bromide of potassium has been men¬
tioned by various writers (see 4 Lancet,’ February 20th, on the British Phar¬
macopoeia processes) as a common impurity. However, not even traces have
been found.

I have noticed in proceeding with the analyses that those samples known to
have been crystallized from spirit contain more moisture than the others (Nos.
XIV. and XV.). No. III. is an exceptional instance, through having been
transmitted by post, and is only inserted for the sake of the other constituents.

It shoukl also be stated that the samples were of the best quality offered by
the various makers, though in several instances there were good reasons for sus¬
pecting them.

The general conclusion to be drawn is that iodide of potassium, as at present
offered for sale, is practically pure.

ON A TEST FOB METHYLIC ALCOHOL WPIEN MIXED WITH
ETHYLIC ALCOHOL, WITH BEMABKS UPON METHYLATED
SPIBIT.

BY MR. JOHN TUCK.

(Read at the Bath Meeting of the British Bharmaceutical Conference , Sept. 1864.)

Methylated spirit, as is well known, is a mixture of ten per cent, ordinary
wood naphtha with ninety per cent, of spirit of wine. This mixture is allowed
to enter commerce duty -free, and has proved a great boon to the arts and manu¬
factures of this country generally. I need only refer to its great use in the beau¬
tiful coal-tar dyes, varnishes, polishes, fulminating mercury, spirit of nitre,
chloroform, ether, the alkaloids, and resinous principles of drugs, and its applica¬
tion as a cleanly and cheap source of heat in the laboratory, and when mixed
with hydrogen as a source of light as well, not to mention numberless other
uses to which it has been applied, to show it to be an article of the greatest im¬
portance.

From the nature of its manufacture, wood naphtha, or methylic alcohol, will
always be a variable mixture ; it is never produced by any kind of fermentation,
and is met with in the liquid products of the destructive distillation of wood,
and it is obvious that these products will be materially affected according to the
nature of the wood, and the greater or lesser degree of heat employed in its de¬
structive distillation. These condensed products, consisting of naphtha, acetic
acid, acetone, acetate of methyl, acetate of ammonia, oily hydrocarbons, as
benzole, toluole, xylole, cymole, and other compounds, such as picamar, eupion,
capnomor, pyroxanthin, and creasote, as well as tarry and resinous matters, after

216

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

standing some time, and being roughly filtered, are submitted to two different
processes, in order to separate the naphtha from the acid portion of the liquid.
In one process the naphtha is distilled direct from the crude liquor, in the other
the liquor is first neutralized with lime, and then distilled ; in both cases, how¬
ever, heat is applied till about one-fifth of the contents of the still has condensed
in the receiver. The weak spirit thus obtained is next subjected to repeated
distillation, in order to obtain the spirit in a more concentrated form ; it is
finally rectified with lime, or with a mixture of lime and caustic potash. The
naphtha as thus obtained, and as is usually met with, is possessed of a very pe¬
culiar strong and disgusting odour, and in this state it is mixed wTith spirit of
wine, and renders it unpotable by communicating to it its own disgusting odour
and flavour. By this admixture with naphtha the spirit becomes totally un¬
fitted for all the purposes of a beverage, and therefore the revenue is not on
that account at all injured. I am well aware, however, that many erroneous
notions exist as to the security this admixture of naphtha with the spirit affords
to the revenue, but as the results of many experiments, made both on Esch-
wege’s patent naphtha and the ordinary naphthas, with the object of finding an
answer to the question of the Conference, I think I am perfectly justified in,
boldly stating that at present there are no known practicable means of separating
the naphtha from methylated spirit , nor do I believe it can, nor have I heard of its
having ever been clone.

Whilst maintaining the utter impossibility of separating the naphtha from
the methylated spirit, I do not deny the possibility of purifying the spirit from
the empyreumatic oils upon which the odour of the naphtha previous to admix¬
ture depended. I am well acquainted with a patent process by wThich naphtha
itself may be rendered as odourless as spirit of wine. I have a copy of the pa¬
tent, and have had at different times, samples of this purified naphtha, and of
the oils obtained from it and upon which its odour depends ; the wdiole of which
were placed at my disposal to aid me in my researches by the kindness of M.
Eschwege, the patentee of the “ Pure Wood Naphtha.” Nevertheless , I am
convinced that there is not the slightest danger to be apprehended to the revenue
from this source , — it is impossible to adopt this process to any extent without the
knowledge of the excise ; an extensive system of filtration and distillation , and con¬
sequently almost sure detection, coupled with its illegality , renders the revenue per¬
fectly safe. Although heartily wishing That pure spirit of wine, duty free,
could be supplied for other purposes, such as that of pharmacy and per¬
fumery, for which methylated spirit does not at all answer, it will at once be
obvious to all that such cannot be under existing circumstances. I feel con¬
vinced too, that the Board of Inland Revenue would gladly grant the boon, if
it could be granted without danger to the revenue, but as there appears to be
no means of so granting it, wTe must continue to use a duty-paid spirit for those
purposes, as heretofore.

It has, I believe, been stated that a considerable amount of methylated spirit,
either “ cleaned” or “ uncleaned,” in a highly cordialized and flavoured state,
found its way into use as a beverage under the names of “ Gindee ” and “ Indian
Brandie.” As such was a decided fraud upon the revenue, and as no ready me¬
thod of proving the presence of naphtha appears to have existed, it leads me
next to consider the best means of detecting it, and its behaviour with reagents
of various kinds.

# Ure’s test for naphtha — the only one, I believe, formerly used or known— con¬
sists in adding to the suspected spirit caustic potash ; if naphtha were present
the spirit wTas to turn brown, no change of colour wras taken to indicate the
sample to be pure spirit of wine. This test, however, is not at all a reliable one,
the change of colour wTas principally due to the action of the potash upon the
empyreumatic oils dissolved in the naphtha ; these being absent, there would, of

ON A TEST FOR METHYLIC ALCOHOL.

217

course, be no change of colour, therefore, it would be reasoned, there was no
.naphtha present. On the other hand, a spirit of wine containing oils or organic
matter in solution would be readily coloured by the caustic alkali, from which
it would be inferred to contain or consist entirely of naphtha. The fallacies of
the test will be rendered still more evident when I state that Escliwege’s patent
naphtha and pure spirit of wine are not at all coloured by alkalies.

A test quite as good as Ure’s will be found in strong sulphuric acid. If a drop
each of spirit of wine, patent naphtha, ordinary naphtha, and methylated spirit,
are placed separately on a white slab, and a drop of sulphuric acid added to each,
the dark coloration produced will readily distinguish the ordinary naphtha and
methylated spirit from the patent naphtha and the spirit of wine ; the naphtha
itself will be indicated by a very dark colour, the methylated spirit by a much
lighter one, whilst the spirit of wine and patent naphtha will be totally unal¬
tered.

The difference in the boiling-point of absolute alcohol and absolute methylated
spirit is so slight, only 4° of Fahrenheit (methylated spirit boiling at 169°, alco¬
hol at 173°), and its exact determination being somewhat difficult, I do not
think this difference is of much practical value, although a spirit boiling at less
than 172° would certainly not be pure alcohol, but then on the other hand, it
would not necessarily follow that it contained naphtha.

It occurred to me early in my experimental trials, that there was a possibility
of a test being based upon some difference in one or other of the ethers of the
respective alcohols, but after many trials I have not met with any success in this
direction. Without enumerating them, I should perhaps state here that most
of the methylic ethers are remarkably similar in properties to the corresponding
ethylic ethers ; and when there is a difference, it is of such a nature that it is
not at all applicable as a test. The only one I had strong hopes of being suc¬
cessful with was the methyl- oxalic ether. This is formed on submitting naphtha
to the action of about its own weight of sulphuric and a like quantity of oxalic
acids and then distilling, and occurs in the form of transparent, colourless,
rhombic, crystalline plates, which melt at 124° and boil at 322° ; this ether is
freely soluble in alcohol, naphtha, and water. The corresponding ethylic oxalic
ether is a colourless oily liquid, boiling at 363°, and but little, if at all, soluble
in water. It was on this difference in the appearance of the two ethers that I
at first had some idea of basing a test ; but after making many trials, I have
come to the conclusion that the difference is not available in any way, for methyl-
oxalic ether, although crystalline under ordinary circumstances, does not crys¬
tallize in the presence of ethyl-oxalic ether, and both ethers are necessarily pre¬
sent in the distillate on submitting methylated spirit to the action of oxalic acid
and distilling. The next trials were upon the difference in their respective solu¬
bilities ; it occurred to me that if ethylic- oxalic ether was insoluble in water and
methylic- oxalic ether perfectly soluble, a method of separating and proving the
presence of the latter might be based on its solubility. The mixed ethers could
have been washed with pure water, the ethyl-oxalic ether allowed to settle, and
the perfectly clear watery solution of methyl- oxalic ether poured off and tested
with ammonia, when the formation of oxamide would indisputably have proved
its presence ; but, unfortunately for this theory, I find that the ethyl-oxalic
ether is sufficiently soluble in water to throw down a very decided precipitate of
oxamide on the addition of ammonia, so that no reliance whatever can be placed
upon this method of proceeding.

The ethers having failed, I next tried the action of various salts and reagents
generally ; after numbers of trials, many of them with no particular results, I
resolved to see what effect a “ photographic intensifying solution ” would have,
composed of biniodide of mercury dissolved in a solution of iodide of potassium,
and to which along time before had been added some solution of potash, in order

218

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

to try its effects on the salts of ammonia. On adding a few drops of this solu¬
tion to pure spirit of wine, there was no immediate change beyond a very faint
opalescence, but on boiling it there was an abundant dirty yellowish-wliite pre¬
cipitate thrown down. On adding a few drops of the same solution to about an
equal amount of methylated spirit, there was neither an immediate change nor
the slightest alteration after boiling, — the spirit remaining perfectly clear. Here
then in this solution was at last found a chemical test which, although negatively,
nevertheless, I think, infallibly proves the presence of methylated spirit. I
have made many trials of it, both with different samples of spirit of wine and
methylated spirit, and always with the same results. The test solution I use is
made according to the following form : —

Biniodide of Mercury . . 15 grains.

Iodide of Potassium ... 25 grains.

Water . 1 oz.

Solution of Potash . . . 1 oz. (Pharmacopceiastrength.)

Dissolve the biniodide of mercury and iodide of potassium in the water, and when
dissolved add the solution of potash.

In using this test I generally put about half a drachm of the suspected spirit
in a test tube and add about eight or nine drops of the test to it and then boil ;
no change indicates methylated spirit, whilst an abundant precipitate proves the
presence of pure spirit. I have not been able to try the test on u cleaned spirit,”
not knowing where to obtain it, but I have no doubt of its action being the same
on that as on the “ uncleaned ” methylated spirit ; I have, however, tried its
effects on both methylated and pure spirit diluted with an equal bulk of water,
and with the same results as when .they are in a strong state. In testing spirits,
such as tinctures, mixed with or holding in solution organic matters, it will
perhaps be best to distil over a few drops of it, although I do not think this will
be absolutely necessary in all cases. I have not yet ascertained whether the vo¬
latile matters which might accompany the spirit in such a distillation interfere with
the action of the test. On this application of the test I hope to read a paper at
a future meeting.

I have tried the test solution without the potash, but it has no effect on me¬
thylated spirit or pure spirit, either before or after boiling, but on adding
the alkali and then boiling, the results are the same as when they are both
added together.

In conclusion, I think it right to state that I have not yet ascertained with
sufficient accuracy to publish it, the cause of the precipitate in the spirit of wine
on adding the test solution. The component of naphtha which prevents the
formation of the precipitate in methylated spirit is acetone.

Wilton , near Salisbury, Auyust 30, 1864.

REPORT ON THE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES USED IN

PHARMACY.

BY MR. BARNARD S. PROCTOR.

( Read at the Bath Meeting of the British Bharmaeeulica l Conference , Sept. 1864.)

At the Pharmaceutical Conference held at Newcastle last year, I read a paper
on weights and measures, the object of which was to show, roughly, the nature
of the changes which have gradually taken place in metrology, to infer from the
past the nature of future changes, and the goal to which all changes must tend ;
to compare various systems, either at present in use or proposed for adoption,
and show wherein lay their faults or their advantages, and thus to conclude
which would, with the least inconvenience, lead us forward in the direction in
which we must inevitably move.

ON THE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES USED IN PHARMACY. 219

British metrology was found to be full of disorder and inconsistency. The
French metric system was held to be incomparably better than any other system
which has as yet been brought into practical use ; but it also was found to have
its faults. The octavial system was recommended as superior to any other for
practical use, even when combined with decimal arithmetic, and was held to have
advantages also for purposes of calculation, if combined with an octavial system
of expressing numbers.

The present paper may be regarded as a continuation of the subject, but is
more limited in its scope, as it principally treats of pharmaceutical weights and
measures.

My first object is to compare the apothecaries’ weights of our own country
with those of other civilized nations ; then to review what changes have been
proposed ; and to conclude with a consideration of future changes, briefly taking
cognizance of weights and measures for general as well as pharmaceutical use.

Looking over the weights and measures used in Europe, we find about forty
different pounds and almost as many different ounces, most of which are esta¬
blished by the laws of the land in which they are used.* Pharmaceutical weights
do not take such multiform proportions, some two or three systems being pretty
widely used, and, on the other hand, the discrepancies between the different sys¬
tems are often not so great.

For example, the Nuremberg weights used by the German States are divided
as the English, but are a little less than 5 per cent, lighter. Swedish pharma¬
ceutical weights are also divided in the same way, but are about 5 per cent,
lighter than the English. Swiss pharmaceutical weights are divided in the
same way, but are still a little lighter ; and the Prussian a little more than 5
per cent, lighter, but still retaining the same division and the same names, the
• weight of the pounds in English troy grains being —

English . 5760

Nuremberg’ ...... 5520

Swedish . 5501

Swiss . 5486

Prussian . 5413

As the relation between the pound and the smaller weights is retained, the
English may be used for any of the others without inconvenience.

The Genoese and Piedmontese weights, using some of the same names, differ
both in distribution and value, thus : —

Genoese. English.

24 grani

= 1 denario .

. . 17 grains

24 denari

=^1 oncia

. . 407

99

12 oncie

= 1 libbra .

. . 4892

99

Piedmontese.

24 granotini

= 1 grano

. . 08

19

24 grani

= 1 denario .

. . 19-8

*55

3 denari

= 1 ottavo .

. . 59-3

99

8 ottavi

= 1 oncia

. . 474-4

99

12 oncie

= 1 libbra

. . 5693*0

99

The French metric system, discarding all the old names and old divisors, stands
thus : —

French. English grains.

10 milligrammes = 1 centigramme . . . 0T544f

* For full particulars see Woolliouse’s ‘Weights and Measures of all Nations,’ from
which much information has been gathered for this paper.

f These numbers are only approximative ; the gramme being stated in Bedwood’s Sup¬
plement as 15-4340234; in Miller’s ‘Chemistry’ as 15"432348 ; in ‘ Chemical News/ May
31st, 18G2, as 15-432349.

220

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

Avoirdupois pounds.

10 centigrammes = 1 decigramme . . . 1/544

10 decigrammes = 1 gramme .... 15*44

10 grammes = 1 decagramme . . . 154*4

10 decagrammes = 1 hectogramme . . 1544*0

10 hectogrammes = 1 kilogramme . . . 2*2057

10 kilogrammes = 1 myriagramme . . 22*057

It is also convenient to reverse the comparison, and state the value of the En¬
glish weights in those of the metric scale, thus : —

•

English. French grammes.

G-rain . 0*0648

Scruple . 1*296

Dram . 8*888

Ounce . 31*104

Pound (troy) . 373*248

„ (avoirdupois) . . 497*664

In Italy, weights more or less resembling the English are used in the Roman

States ; but in the Venetian they bear the names of grain, pennyweight, ounce,
and pound, while the distribution is decimal. The grain is about 1^ grain, the
pennyweight is the French gramme, the ounce is a little more than our troy ounce,
and the pound a little less than 3 troy pounds. At Baden, while they have
pharmaceutical weights similar to the English, they have for other purposes a
decimal system, the smallest weight being 0*77 grain and the pound 7720 grains.
Thus, while we find a decimal system almost universally used in scientific che¬
mistry, where the quantities simply require to be expressed upon paper, calcu¬
lated and compared ; we find for practical use, where the quantities are actually
to be used, divided mechanically, proportioned to one another or to change of '
circumstances, that the old systems have been retained with greater persistence ;
and while decimal weights have been adopted for commercial purposes, that the
long-used systems have retained their hold upon the medical profession. This
is not so much an indication that the weights used are better in the abstract
than others which might be adopted, as it is an indication of the strong feeling
which exists in favour of uniformity in medical weights, and against changes
which are sure to be followed, for a time, by doubt and difficulty, if not by mis¬
takes of the gravest consequence.

What objections are there to the use of the English apothecaries’ weights for
pharmaceutical purposes ?

In the abstract there is little to be said against it. The gr. 9i. 5L ^i. and lb.
are all convenient units for practical use. The relation which they bear to one
another, though a sort of haphazard affair, is not inconvenient. The lb. divides into
i and ^ ; a and without dividing the ounce. The ounce divides into and
without involving fractions of the dram. The dram divides into \ and ^ ; a, £
and ; £ and -A-, without dividing the grain. The grain is a small enough
unit, and the pound a large enough unit for medical use. The objections are
almost all external to the system itself ; they arise out of its relation to other
systems, from which, in practice, it cannot be abstracted ; and this fact let us
keep in view as a caution against systems which appear promising when seen
only upon paper. However good they may be in the abstract availeth not, for
they must be judged by their readiness to fit into other systems, — to fill their
own place well and work harmoniously with all collateral institutions. It is in
these points that the shortcomings of our present system are found. While we
buy and sell by one weight, and dispense by another, both of which have units
bearing the same names, but of different values ; while we have ounces of water,
which, though used for dispensing purposes, correspond to the commercial
weights, and drams of water which do not agree with either the apothecaries’ or

ON THE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES USED IN PHARMACY.

221

avoirdupois dram ; while a pound of water may be prescribed, but who can tell
what it means ; for it is frequently dispensed as f^xvi., sometimes as f^xii.,
and neither of these is an apothecaries’ pound ; while we have grains in England
which are heavier than grains in Ireland or Germany, and lighter than grains
in Austria, and wThile we require to make a separate calculation for every quan¬
tity mentioned in a French formula, before we can prepare it, or even compare
it with a formula expressed in English weights, — there certainly are inconveni¬
ences in the present arrangement which it is desirable to remove. But even the
very statement of these inconveniences shows that no change in our own system
can remove them. If we move towards the Irish, we will be further from the
Austrian and no nearer the French. If we adopt the metrical weights, unless
they be used for all purposes, we will find a greater disparity between our dis¬
pensing and our dealing than exists at present. No wonder that all the changes
which have been proposed have been rejected ; they were all partial evils, not
universal good. But to notice more critically several that have been suggested
with good promise of advantage, I will begin with the remarks of Jacob Bell.
Nine years ago (‘ Pharmaceutical Journal,’ xiv. p. 444), he said, “ He was quite
sensible of the existing evil, arising chiefly from the confusion between the troy
and the avoirdupois weights, but thought it desirable to provide the nearest ap¬
proach to a remedy with as little change as possible ; in other words, he would
prefer a reform to a revolution in the system of weights. He thought the best
arrangement, under existing circumstances, would be a modification of the troy
and avoirdupois weights in this manner, making weights and measures cor¬
respond : —

{c 20 grains = 1 scruple.

3 scruples = 1 dram = 1 fluid dram.

8 drams = 1 ounce = 1 fluid ounce.

16 ounces = 1 pound = 1 pint.

8 pounds = 1 gallon.

u He would suggest the adoption of this modified scale of weights and mea¬
sures for all purposes, either retaining the present grain, and in consequence in¬
crease the larger weights, or, adopting the ounce as the starting-point, reduce
the weight of the grain below its present standard.”

At the same date, April, 1853, Mr. Griffin advocated a decimal system, founded
upon the avoirdupois pound ; from which, being 7000 grains, he derives his
unit of 7 grains, and calls it a baro, — a baro of wrater being the unit of mea¬
sure, under the name of barim. His scale of weights stands thus : —

10 baros = 1 dram (g more).

10 drams = 1 ounce more).

10 ounces = 1 pound.

10 pounds = 1 stone (T4? less) .

10 stones = 1 cwt. (Tg less).

10 cwts. = 1 ton (T°T less).

His scale of measures, thus : —

10 barims = 1 millim (f- more than f 5) .

10 millims = 1 centim (f more than f 5).

10 centims = 1 decim (= 16 f^)-

10 decims = 1 gallon (the same as at present).

10 gallons ■= 1 pipe ? (Tb present pipe) .

10 pipes = 1 tun? (about \ present tun).

The scale of weights is almost the same as the Baden weights, wdiich from the
pound of 7720 English grains descends decimally to the ass of 0‘7720 grains.
Griffin’s suggestion has in its favour various good points, such as retaining a
palpable and readily observed relationship to our present scales of weights and

222

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

measures, and bringing them into accordance with our system of numbers;
while it approaches pretty closely to the Baden weights, and involves only a
simple calculation for its mutual conversion with the metric system. Thus, the
baro is ~ gram ; the gram is ^ baro, and so on through the other weights
and measures of the system. His proposition to retain the names dram and
ounce for 70 and 700 grains is unquestionably to be condemned. This he seems
to have felt with regard to the measures, as he has adopted the names millim
and centim for the corresponding quantities, and he has marked with a (?) the
words pipe and tun where they are used for capacities differing much from those
at present bearing these names.

The next proposition which it is desirable to notice, is that of Dr. C. Wilson,
the object of which was to assimilate weights and measures by the reduction of
ounce, dram, scruple, and grain of the present apothecaries’ weights. The ounce
being made equal to the avoirdupois ounce, and the smaller divisions being de¬
rived from it, as at present derived from the troy ounce, — the new grain would
be 0-91145 of its present value ; the scruple and dram, being 20 and 60 new
grains, would also be 0-91145 of their present weight.

The chief recommendation to Wilson’s plan is its rendering uniform and con¬
sistent all the weights and measures in use in British pharmacy ; and this cer¬
tainly is the first thing for us to aim at. It would also have the merit of making
the British pharmaceutical weights more nearly correspond with those most
used on the Continent. But on the other hand it is not without serious ob¬
jections.

At present we have in Britain, one grain, about which there is no mistake ;
while all other weights are subject to equivocal interpretation. The scruple is
20 grains in England and 18 in Ireland ; the dram is 60 grains or 27 grains
in England, or 54 in Ireland ; so the ounce is 480 or 437 grains ; the pound
7000 or 5760 grains. We cling to the grain, reluctant to lose our last unequi¬
vocal weight. It has been urged that the change in the grain is only Ar of its
weight, and that this being a diminution is on the safe side ; but this rendering
of the grain an equivocal quantity, counterbalances many advantages which the
system as a scale of apothecaries’ weights and measures would possess. It also
has the disadvantage of reviving the all-but-obsolete avoirdupois dram ; and
this in the transition state would render us liable to mistakes of the most serious
consequence. Even with these disadvantages, the report on weights and mea¬
sures in the Proceedings of the American Pharmaceutical Association for 1859,
declares it an improvement upon the present troy scale.

Next in order, we have the proposition of Mr. Warington.* It is founded
upon the avoirdupois pound, which is decimally multiplied, and divided down
to 70 grains ; he does not advise any weight between 70 grains and the single
grain, the use of which he thinks it desirable to retain. The names he proposes
have the merit of avoiding confusion, as the pound and grain being old weights
retain their old names, and the new weights have allotted to them the designa¬
tions of tenths and hundredths for those less than the pound, and tens and hun¬
dreds for those which are multiples of the pound. Setting aside the question
of names, we have simply to decide whether it is better to have the old grain
and a 70-grain weight, or the baro of 7 grains, and discard the grain in favour
of fractions of the baro. Their merits appear to be about equal.

Turning now to the modified avoirdupois weight which has had a brief trial
in Ireland, and the weights at present authorised by the Medical Council, we
find further attempts to reconcile the incompatible troy and avoirdupois systems.
They cannot both continue to exist ; and these struggles at amalgamation are
the natural result of an unwillingness to lose the good parts of either. No one

* See ‘Pharmaceutical Journal/ xviii. p. 570.

ON THE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES USED IN PHARMACY". 223

would much regret the loss of the avoirdupois dram, or the troy pound, but
no one is willing to part with the avoirdupois pound or the troy grain. So the
two systems are pitted against one another ; compromise is found impracticable,
— the contest is a struggle for existence, a war of extermination which must
end in the annihilation of one or both of the competitors.

It is not likely that a scruple of 18 grains and a fraction, or a dram of 54
grains and a fraction, would ever be willingly tolerated ; but had the grain been
raised to exactly the of the new scruple, it would have been quite satisfactory
for practical purposes. The new grain would be 1 ’01259 troy grains, and the
addition of the fraction 0-01259 would be of no importance medicinally, though
it would still have the objection of interfering with the certainty and accuracy
which are pre-eminently important in scientific matters ; e. g. if the 1000
grains sp. gr. bottle was constructed for one kind of grain and used with the
other, its indications of course would be worthless.

The table, if constructed upon this plan, would stand thus : —

Tew grains. Troy grains.

T = 1-01259

18 grains = 1 scruple = 18 = 18-229

3 9 =1 dram = 54 = 54-687

85 =1 ounce = 432 = 437-5

16 * =1 pound - 6912 = 7000-0

This is probably the nearest approach to an amalgamation of the two systems
which could be accomplished. It is not in reality an amalgamation, for the
troy is totally sacrificed ; the only indication of it being the grain, which is al¬
tered. The apothecaries’ weight is also represented only in name, the scruple
and dram being changed from their present English to their present Irish
value ; ambiguity in the value of these latter weights is less important than in
the case of the grain, because of their not being used in occasions where scien¬
tific accuracy is important. The objection to the ambiguity of the grain is re¬
duced, in consequence of there being only an error of 0-012 instead of 0-089,
or -f of the amount of deviation from the present standard. Even this is only
to be tolerated as being a. less evil than the alteration of the ounce and all the
weights above it. As a further protection against error when either grain was
used for scientific purposes, the old one should be marked troy and the new one
“ transition grain.”

This table cannot be said to look very promising in appearance, yet it is not
without its merits. For example, though 7000 is a much more attractive-look¬
ing number than 6912, it is not any better for practical purposes, but on the
contrary, does not divide so usefully : the latter number divides without frac¬
tions by 2, 4, 8, 3, 6, and 9 ; while the former divides by 2, 4, and 8 ; but not
by 3, 6, and 9, — to set against which 7000 is divisible by 4, and 10, which is
not the case with 6912 ; the convenience of being able to take a third and sixth,
more than compensates for the loss of divisibility by 5 and 10. If we look to
the division by higher numbers, the superiority of 6912 will be still more evi¬
dent, which, however, will be best shown by taking the ounce ; in one case it
contains a fraction of a grain, and of course any fraction of it must do the
same, adding however complexity at every step. On the other hand, 432 can
be divided into a great number of useful fractions without involving fractions
of a grain ; thus it is divisible by 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 16, 18, 24, 36, 48, 72, 144,
etc.

The dram of 54 grains, of course, has great advantages over the avoirdupois
dram of 27 grains and a fraction, though it does not in the abstract possess any
advantage, or scarcely an equality, with the apothecaries’ dram consisting of 60
troy grains ; thus, 54 is divisible by 2, 3, 6, 9, and 18, while 60 is divisible by

224

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, and 20. The scruples are almost equally convenient, 18.
being divisible by 2, 3, 6, and 9, — 20 being divisible by 2, 4, 5, and 10.

The proposition of the American Pharmaceutical Association, unquestionably
the most carefully considered, the most elaborate, and most ambitious of the pro¬
posed plans, is based on the belief, and I think I may say the well-grounded
belief, that for all practical purposes counting by eights has the greatest sum of
advantages. It is founded, like the metrical system, on geometrical measure¬
ment : a sextant of the equator being 8 times divided by 8, to give their module
or radical measure of length (15f inches) ; the cube of this measure gives the
root of the table of capacities, under the name of modius. The weight of a
modius of water gives the pondus, or root of their system of weights. Their
proposed tables are as follows : —

Measures of

8 minims =
8 morsels =
8 ligules =
8 cups =
8 gills
8 pints
8 gallons =
8 modiuses -
8 butts
8 cords =

capacity.

minim

- 1 morsel
= 1 ligule

- 1 cup
: 1 gill

; 1 pint
= 1 gallon
; 1 modius

- 1 butt
= 1 cord
= 1 vat

English measures.
0-488 m.

3-905 in.

31-244 m.

4 ounce (about).

If pints
131 pints
13^ gallons
106f „

850
6600

Weights.

English weights.

mite

=

0*464 grains.

8 mites

=

1 grain

—

3-712

8 grains

=

1 scrap

=

29-696

8 scraps

=

1 dram

=

4 oz. avoirdupois (

8 drams

r=

1 ounce

=

4 oz.

8 ounces

=

1 pound

=

2 lb. 2 oz.

8 pounds

=

1 stone

17 lb. 6 oz.

8 stones

=

1 weight

=

139 lb.

8 weights

=

1 load

=

11121b.

•

5?

8 loads

=

1 ton

r=

8896 lb.

8 tons

=

1 keel

=

71,175 lb.

This octonary system cannot be regarded as a proposal for the reformation of
the weights used in pharmacy, but for revolutionizing the whole system of me¬
trology. It does not harmonize with any other system, and its advantages
would be materially reduced if it met with only partial adoption.

The compilers of the British Pharmacopoeia have shown their skill in evading
a difficulty which they could not overcome. They were bound to use such
weights in the work as would not be liable to be misunderstood ; they have there¬
fore adopted avoirdupois ounces and pounds, which are in general use both in
Great Britain and Ireland, and troy grains, which are also now used in both
islands. Drams and scruples, which have a different value on the two sides
of the Irish Sea, are not used in their formula nor acknowledged in their table,
and their disuse is recommended. But this recommendation is not likely to be
followed ; drams and scruples will still be used and will have different values
in the sister isles, so the difficulties will continue till a more potent remedy is
discovered.

The metrical system must next claim our consideration, and the advantage o
adopting it for pharmaceutical purposes will readily be admitted to depend upon
its adoption, either immediately or at no long interval, for general trade use.
To attempt its introduction for pharmacy while troy and avoirdupois were still
authorized for general trade, would lead to inconvenient complications ; not, it

ON THE WEIGHTS AND MEASUEES USED IN PIIAHMACY.

225

may be, of so serious a nature as with systems giving new values to old names,
yet of too great importance to be justified by any advantage to be gained from
a partial adoption of the metrical system. What wTould be the advantages of
the metrical weights if limited to pharmaceutical use ? First, wre should be rid
of the doubts about drams, ounces, and pounds, for they would all be abo¬
lished. We should have concordance between weights and measures, and we
would be in harmony with pharmaceutical practice in France, etc., but the dis¬
agreement between our trading and dispensing weights would be a constant
source of danger. We would have two sets of weights and measures in perma¬
nent use ; and during the long transition state the weights would be of three
kinds, — apothecaries’, avoirdupois, and metrical, — and we should have recipes
written in all these till the last book using apothecaries’ weights became obsolete,
when we would again find the weights reduced to two incompatible systems. We
should have to keep two sets of dispensing bottles and jars, one series being on
the ounce scale, the others on the litre. We should have complications of price,
by buying oil, etc., by the avoirdupois pound or gallon, and selling it by avoir¬
dupois pound or ounce, by the fluid ounce, pint, litre, or gram. We should have
constant calculation to convert one weight or measure into the other. We should
have mistakes arising from the gram and grain. An unusually small dose
written in grains might be understood grams, and an unusually large dose written
in grams might be understood grains. We should be especially liable to this
mistake in those cases, sure to occur, where both kinds of weights or measures
were used in one formula, thus —

“ Iodid. Potass. . . 8 grams.

Water . 8 oz.

Two tablespoon fuls twice a day.”

Though wre have seen this salt prescribed in doses of less than a grain, and also
in doses exceeding a gram, wre could not say that the one dose could be inno^
cently substituted for the other.

Something has now been said about the advantages and disadvantages of the
various systems which have been adopted or proposed as improvements.

We shall next consider the relative merits of several, under various circum¬
stances. First, supposing that we have to reform pharmaceutical weights with¬
out changing any other system now in use. Secondly, supposing we have to
arrange a system of weights and measures for general adoption in Great Britain.
Thirdly, supposing we have to contrive or select a system most complete in
itself, and consequently most deserving of universal adoption, without reference
to any systems at present existing.

Under the circumstances first supposed, we have to provide a system conve¬
nient in itself, harmonizing, as nearly as may be, with troy or avoirdupois
weights, especially the latter, bringing into coincidence our weights and mea¬
sures of capacity, and involving in the change as little trouble and risk, with as
little ambiguity as possible. These requirements appear to be most nearly met
in the propositions of Mr. Bell, Dr. Wilson, the Irish system, and the modifica¬
tion of the Irish system which has been pointed out above. Mr. Bell’s plan
of 1855 left, as an alternative, the reduction of the grain or the increase of the
pound and the fluid measures. The latter change he ultimately considered best
(see Pharm. Journ. xviii. 594), but this could only be best if commercial as well
as pharmaceutical measures were altered. Taking the former proposal, the grain
being reduced so that 480 make the avoirdupois ounce, his plan is just that ad¬
vocated by Dr. Wilson in 1859, and opposed by Mr. Bell on account of the
10 per cent, reduction in the value of the grain. The Irish system agrees with
it also, excepting in regard to the grain, — their ounce, dram, and scruple being
reduced about 10 per cent.

We may give the preference to the proposal of Bell and Wilson, inasmuch as

YOL. VI. S

%

226

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

it sacrifices only one point, that of the grain, to give uniformity in our fluid
measures with our weights, and the whole with the imperial measures and au -
thorized commercial weights of the kingdom ; while the Irish plan, by retaining
the agreement of the apothecaries’ with the troy grain, continues the discre¬
pancy between the grain and minim, making 54 grains and a fraction equal the
dram and 60 minims equal the fluid dram. It also produces complication
in the ounce and smaller weights, from the fractions of the grain involved in
them .

The modification of the Irish system which I have ventured to propose would
avoid these objections ; it would adopt the avoirdupois pound and ounce, the
old pint, the fluid ounce, and fluid dram. The dram would still be the
eighth of an ounce, the scruple the third of a dram, and the grain would
so nearly correspond with the troy grain that the most critical could not ob¬
ject to the change, excepting as affecting some not frequently occurring scien¬
tific operations. The greatest change in the value would be in the minim,
which in this table is increased from 0*911 to 1*012 troy grains, and this would
not involve any risk or inconvenience.

Upon the whole, I believe this would be found the most advantageous change
which the pharmaceutical body could make in their weights and measures, see¬
ing that they have not the power to change the other authorized systems of the
kingdom.

Secondly, supposing we have to select a system which shall be used for all
purposes throughout Britain, there is not the same necessity that it should
harmonize with the troy and avoirdupois weights, though a simple relation be¬
tween some prominent weight in each is desirable as a means of converting
quantity of one scale into quantity of the other. There is more need that it
should harmonize with the weights and measures of other countries ; there is the
same necessity that weights and measures should correspond with one another ;
also in this case the harmony with our arithmetic, and the abstract convenience
of the system must have a larger share of our attention. The ultimate decision
of the question depending upon the comparative importance we attach to these
several considerations.

It will readily be acknowledged that the most important question is the fa¬
cility of introduction combined with practical convenience. It is more urgent
that we provide facilities for transactions between man and man in our own
country than that we should take care of international intercourse. It is more
urgent that the new scales should be well arranged in their internal structure
than that they should assimilate, either with the scales which they will displace,
or to those of other countries with which they will have to co-operate.

The relation of the proposed system to our arithmetical scale, or to the
natural processes of halving repeated to any extent, of squaring, cubing, and the
extraction of the square and cube roots, must also have considerable weight.

And, lastly, the facility which the same scales may offer for removing the
most urgent objections to the present state of confusion, together with their
facilitating the adoption of any system which may be eventually found best, will
entitle them to more or less of our approval.

The question will now be between that supposed best under previous circum¬
stances, and those then excluded by the required concordance with existing
weights.

Regarding the group of decimal scales, Mr. Griffin’s, Mr. Waring ton’s, and
the metric, the only grounds for giving any preference to the two former is
their superior facility for introduction, and their retaining a readily- calculated
relationship to the troy and avoirdupois weights, thus facilitating our future
understanding of expressions of quantity made under present circumstances ;
but the facility of their introduction is not so great as to admit of either system

ON THE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES USED IN PHARMACY.

227

being used as a temporary change to promote the subsequent adoption of a more
permanent system, blor are the advantages of their concordance with the
English weights so important as to counterbalance the disadvantage of their
adoption perpetuating discordance of English weights with a system so exten¬
sively used as the metrical. The octonary system of the American Pharmaceu¬
tical Association, the only one which can be said to compete with the metrical
in regard to completeness and uniformity of arrangement, is also the only one
which can compete with it as a plan for universal and permanent adoption.
The existence of this rivalry is my strongest inducement for delaying the recom¬
mendation of any great change till the merits of octavial, decimal, and if
may be also of duodecimal systems have been fully canvassed, and for recom¬
mending that the reform of British metrology should, for the present, be limited
to such changes as could, without great difficulty, be made in the existing
weights and measures, and wrould render them harmonious and unequivocal. It
is on this- ground that the modification of the Irish system, which 1 before sug¬
gested for the reform of pharmaceutical weights, I would now recommend for
general national adoption — not as an institution to be unchangeable in future
ages, but as a simple alteration which could free us from all the great evils of
our present want of system, and enable us, at a future time, to adopt any better
arrangement with greater facility than at present. The table previously given
would, for general purposes, require a little expanding, thus — •

1 grain = 1-01259 troy gi-ain.

1 minim

18 grains = 1 scruple.

54 minims

3 scruples = 1 dram.

8 drams

8 drams = 1 ounce.

16 ounces

16 ounces = 1 pound.

10 pints

14 pounds = 1 stone.

1 cwt. of

8 stones = 1 cwt.

1 ton

20 cwt. — 1 ton.

Measures.

= 1-01259 troy gr. of wat jr.
— 1 dram.

= 1 ounce.

= 1 pint.

= 1 gallon,
water = 11-2 gallons.

= 224 gallons.

— the weights above the pound remaining as at present, the measures correspond¬
ing to the weights of water up to the pound. The 5-ounce gill, 20-ounce pint,
and all measures above the gallon being abolished ; though it might be admis¬
sible to estimate wrater, or any other fluid, by the ton, it being an actual weight
and not a fluid measure.

Corn and other materials now sold by bushels and quarters wrnuld be more
satisfactorily estimated by weight, especially in large quantities ; also, there is
no reason why gold and silver should not be negotiated by the same weights
that are used for other purposes, the troy weights being entirely abolished. The
rejection of either stone or quarter would be a matter for future consideration ;
useless weights might at any time be erased from the table if its further simpli¬
fication was found desirable.

Turning to the third case supposed, that is, that wre have to contrive or select
the best system possible, without reference to existing customs, which may give
a temporary and unreal advantage to those which are made to suit present cir¬
cumstances. The systems to which I shall draw attention, as suited for this
purpose, are the metric decimal and the American octavial.

The advantages of a decimal system are simply that it brings the tables of
weights and measures into accordance with our mode of expressing number,
every place giving a value to the number which occupies it ; so that if several
numbers are placed together, each has, in virtue of its position, 10 times the
value of that to the right-hand of it and -Aj of the value of that at the left ;
and these positional values are multiplied by the value of the digit which occu¬
pies the place. Thus in abstract number, 3, 3, 3 signifies 3 hundreds, 3 tens,
and 3 units, the middle digit having 10 times the value of the one and TV the

228

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

value of the other. But supposing it was money, 3, 3, 3 expressed thus, the mid¬
dle digit has, in consequence of its position, ^ the value of the left-hand figure
and 12 times the value of the right. Had it been the weight marked on a heavy
package of goods, 3, 3, 3 might express 3 cwt. 3 qrs. and 3 lb., in which case
position gives the middle figure \ the value of the left and 28 times the value of
the right. These changes in the value given by the place which a digit holds
are the cause of our requiring constant calculation to reduce numbers of one
value to numbers of another ; but the decimal arrangement, bringing weights
and measures into accordance with the method of expressing number, does away
with all this complexity, for in that case, whether it is weight, measure, money
or number, the relative value of the places is the same, each being 10 times that
of the place to the right of it.

Had our arithmetic been duodecimal, 3, 3, 3 would have expressed 3 gross, 3
dozen, and 3, and in that case duodecimal weights and measures would have
brought our metrology into unison with our numeration ; and the same may, of
course, be said of octavial arithmetic, and in either of these latter cases the
adoption respectively of duodecimal or octavial metrology would have given us
all the advantages which are now anticipated from the decimal system, and, in
addition to these, various others, which, it may be, are of equal or of greater
importance.

The report on weights and measures presented to the American Pharmaceu¬
tical Association in 1859 contains a brief discussion, and Leslie’s ‘Philosophy of
Arithmetic,’ 1817, contains a more elaborate discussion of the merits of various
irithmetical scales, and of other matters, which, though of great interest, I do
think desirable to include in the present paper. The former contains copious
testimony, from high authorities, to show that the decimal scale is not a good
one, either for abstract or practical purposes. I make use of its information
and of some of its arguments, but as I do not quote the words, I must just make
this passing acknowledgment that I am indebted to it. Like the authors of that
report, I have come to the conclusion that an octonary scale is best, both for
abstract and applied use ; but I must satisfy myself with a brief statement of
the grounds upon which I have come to that conclusion, together with a state¬
ment of what I consider the failings of their plan.

The first consideration is the ready divisibility into the most useful fractions,
together with gradations which are neither inconveniently long nor short.

All scales will afford equal facility for obtaining increasing proportions to the
unit in whole numbers ; that is, supposing 1 to be the smallest number, the de¬
cimal or duodecimal scales would be as convenient as the octavial for providing
us with the quantities 2, 4, 8, 16, or 32, but not for •§-, -/«, -gV ”, so with the
octavial and duodecimal scale, we have not facility for obtaining the fractions
h To: to: etc. ; and with the octavial or decimal scale we cannot produce a, a, -J-,
etc. It is almost unnecessary to adduce evidence to show the greater utility of
those fractions whose denominators are a power of 2. Evidence may be found
in all directions ; I shall only draw attention to a few striking instances.

We have a pound sterling consisting of 20 shillings ; £ and TV might have been
expected consequently to appear as common fractions in the silver coins, but
the A has never appeared and the only as the result of the recent attempt at
decimal division ; those which sprang up spontaneously were the I, and a.
The half sovereign is the only one of these which is commonly spoken of as a
fraction of the pound, except where values are stated in pounds and fractions,
such as, for example, share lists, where we find constantly the fractions i, and
a or | and a, but rarely i or a, and never £ or T\y.

Of old coins, the noble and the mark — I and f of the pound — have fallen out
of use, while the angel has retained its value, but changed its name to ^ sove¬
reign. The angel and shilling were our only coins holding a decimal relation-

ON THE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES USED IN PHARMACY. 229

ship to oue another ; now that the former has become a half-sovereign it has
ceased to be distinctively a decimal coin, and the florin has been introduced with
the view of making the pound a unit on a decimal scale.

In lineal measures, where the yard is almost exclusively used for trade pur¬
poses, we have similar evidence of the preference for binal division. The yard
consisting of 3 feet or 36 inches, affords facility for the use of ternary fractions,
such as g-, ^ or but, instead of these, in actual use we find i, |, and ;

also the inch, which consists of 3 barleycorns or 12 lines, is not thus divided for
actual use, but again we find the useful fractions L I, -§•, and -i-.

In measures of capacity we have dry measure where the number 4 occurs four
times as a factor, 2 occurs four times, and 5 only once. Wine measure has 4 oc¬
curring twice and 2 twice, but no number representing the decimal scale. Ale
measure has 4 twice, 2 five times, 3 once, and 9 once, but no number repre¬
senting the decimal scale.

In weights we have — troy, with the’'numbers 24, 20, and 12 ; apothecaries’,-
with 20, 3, 8, and 12 ; avoirdupois, with 16, 16, 14, 2, 4, and 20. Here we
find “ 20 ” counting three times for the decimal scale ; we have 24, 12, 3, and
12, for the duodecimal ; and 8, 16, 16, 2, and 4, for the octavial.

Looking to pharmaceutical practices for evidence regarding the comparative
utility of decimal or octavial scales, we find a general preference for the latter.
Concentrated infusions and decoctions are made so that 1 part equals 8 of the
normal strength. The great majority of bottles used for dispensing, etc., are
founded upon octavial numbers of ounces. 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, and 16, are the
current sizes. 20 ounces are not frequently used, 10 ounces still more rarely, and
5 ounces quite unknown. Looking at the posological table, in 36 cases taken at
random, the minimum dose was to the maximum —

In 11 cases as

. . . . 1 to 2.

In 10 „

. . . . 1 to 3.

In 2 „

. . . . 1 to 4.

In no case as

. . . . 1 to 5.

In 2 cases as

. . . . 1 to 6.

In 3 „

. . . . 2 to 3.

In 8 „

. . . . 3 to 4.

Thus there are 21 instances in which the octavial scale would most readily
meet the wants of the case ; 15 in which duodecimal would have the advantage ;
but no instance in favour of the decimal, — no doubt, because the decimal scale
does not so readily express these simple relationships.

Turning to Thompson’s ‘ Conspectus,1 we find a table of doses for patients of
different ages, founded upon the full dose for an adult ; thus : —

Age in years 1 2 3 4 7 14 20 21

DndP _i_ l A ± ± jl 2 ^

Supposing the full dose to be a unit of a quantity divided duodecimally, all
these fractions would be obtained in the simplest possible manner : had the unit
been divisible octavially, the fractions -j, and \ would have been obtained
without dividing the next smaller grade of quantity ; had it been decimally
divided, the \ is the only case in which the smaller grade would not be again
divided ; the involving two lower grades, and the £ involving three lower
grades. If the full dose were a multiple of the quantity at first supposed, the
duodecimal scale would retain the good qualities it at first exhibited ; and the
other two scales would improve ; thus if the full dose were 3, 6, or 9, the octa¬
vial or decimal would supply all the required fractions both accurately and
readily; but if the full dose were 5, the octavial scale would hold its original
quality, and the decimal would be one step worse, in consequence of the hall

230

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

dose then involving two grades of weights, and the £ and £ of the full dose each
involving 3 grades of weights.

Taking at random 22 prescriptions, I found the relation between the separate
ingredients, and the total quantity to be of an octavial* * * § nature in 32 cases, to
be of a duodecimal! nature in 10 cases, and of adecimalj character in only 1.

I found the total quantity, estimated as a multiple of the smallest ingredient,
was 13 times octavial, 6 times duodecimal, and only once decimal. I found the
number of doses ordered was 9 times octavial, 6 times duodecimal, and only
once decimal.

The division of paper into pages for a book is almost necessarily done by
binary or ternary folding ; we have folio, quarto, octavo, etc., and duodecimo,
but no division by tens.

The mariner’s compass is necessarily divided by fours and powers of fours.

Many other instances might be adduced in which the natural process is evi¬
dently doubling and halving repeatedly performed ; but I do not know of any
instance in which division or multiplication by 5 or 10, is by the force of natural
circumstances a matter of necessity. This repeated halving, a matter of neces¬
sity in some cases, a matter of convenience in others, has become a matter of
habit in almost all. To adapt our weights and measures to this fact is to adapt
ourselves to our circumstances, and work in harmony with natural laws. To
establish a system which does not afford facilities for this natural process, is to
work in ignorance of natural laws, if not in direct opposition to them ; and no¬
thing established upon such a foundation can be eminently convenient, or per¬
manently successful.

Having now discussed the relative merits of octavial and duodecimal division,
and having in my former paper pointed out what I considered the principal
failings of the metrical system, I have now only to point out those particulars
in which I think the American octonary scale may be advantageously modified.

There is no great advantage in deriving a system from a natural standard ;
and if the standard weights or measures are to be repeatedly derived from the
so-called natural source, they will be liable to variation, either from the “ na¬
tural source” itself varying, as in the case of the foot ; or our estimate varying,
as in the case of the metre, the pendulum, or the cubic inch of water.

The commissioners on “ standards of weight and measure” appointed by Go¬
vernment in 1838§ state in their report, that the best determinations of the
weight of a cubic inch of water in England, France, Austria, Sweden, and
Russia, varied among themselves to the extent of of their weight. At
another part, they say with regard to weights brought for examination, “ that
no greater error than ^o^oo Pai>t the quantity weighed, be tolerated.” If we
accept these statements, it is useless to hope for any cube of water being a source
of standard weights. We should have, instead of the cube of water being the
source of the weight, a law stating that the cube of water was to be considered
so many grains ; reverting to an empirical standard, only retaining a proximate
relationship between length on the one hand, and weight and capacity on the
other. From such considerations, they recommend “ that the standard of weight
be defined by a certain piece of metal or other durable substance,” — “ that the
standard of capacity be defined by the capacity which, under certain circum¬
stances of the barometer and thermometer, contains a certain weight of distilled
water ; but that it be in no way defined by reference to the standard of length.”
If we relieve ourselves from any supposed necessity for deriving our standard of

* Octavial, that is, as 1 to 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, or 128.

t Duodecimal, that is, as 1 to 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, 24, 36, 48, 72, or 144.

X Decimal, that is, as 1 to 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, or 100.

§ Consisting of Messrs. Airy, Daily, Bethune, Davies, Gilbert, Herschel, Lefevre,
Lubbock, Peacock, and Sheepshanks.

ON THE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES USED IN PHARMACY.

231

length, from any of these so-called natural sources, and of deriving the root of
our scales of weight and capacity from that of lineal measure, we are at liberty
to select any root which custom or other circumstances might render convenient ;
and provided it does not contravene any natural principle, it has as much claim
to be considered a natural standard as if it had, by some artificial process, been
obtained from the circumference of the earth, or the vibration of a pendulum.

If we accept the modified avoirdupois weight as a transition scale, the pound
would naturally become our root, both of weight and capacity ; and the inch or
foot would be a suitable root for lineal measure, which would have the advantage
of preserving a convenient relationship, and mode of converting the old quan¬
tities into the new notation, and would enable us to continue the use of esta¬
blished rules for converting bulk of various materials into weight.

The report of the American Pharmaceutical Association speaks approvingly
of the practice of calling new weights by old names. I must express my disap¬
probation of such a practice. I think one of the weak points of their scheme is
the calling 34 ounces a pound, 4^ ounces an ounce, and | ounce a dram ; their
proposed pint is 41 ounces, and their gallon 16-| imperial pints.

The octonary table, founded upon the avoirdupois pound, would stand
thus : —

1- 7097 grain.

13-6781 grains.

109-425 grains.

2- ounces.

1- pound.

8’ pounds.

64- „

512- „

4096- „

Objecting to all long compound names, and to all names having already an¬
other value attached to them, I would suggest the use of names derived from
some object of about the weight to be expressed ; thus, the use of the word grain
suggests the word “pea” to express 1-7097 grains, and “nut” for 13'67 grains.
The strangeness of using these familiar words in a new sense might be obviated by
using the Latin, this however involves an objection from the formation of the
plural by other modes than the common English rule. Adopting English words,
the table might stand thus : —

Measures.

Weights.

Equivalent in
present weights.

Dew

. . Pea .

. . 1-7097 grains.

Sip

. . Nut .

. . 13-6781 „

Spoon .

. . Plum

. . 109-425 „

Cup .

• • Egg

. . 2 oz, avoirdupois.

Can

. . Pound

1 lb. „

Hat

. . Cat

8 lb. „

Tub .

. . Ram

. . 641b.

Cask .

. . Ox

. . 5121b. „

Tank .

. . Wain

. . 4096 lb. „

If the English inch were retained as the root of the new long measure, the
table would stand as follows, the names attached being merely suggestions, but
^convenient enough for use in discussion : —

Lineal measure.

Point =

inch.

Pearl =*

1

8

Inch —

1 H

Span =

8 „

Lad -

5 ft, 4 „

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BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

Lineal measure.

Tree = 42 ft. 8 inch.

Field == 113 yds. 2 ft. 4 „

Lane = about 912 yards.

Road = about 7296 „

The cubic inch of water (252*5 grains) would be 2*307 plums, the cylindrical
inch = 1*814 plums. The cubic span would be 2*307 hats, and the cylindrical
span would be 1*814 hats. The pound of water would be, as at present, 27*7274
cubic inches or 21*777 cylindrical inches ; a “ cask ” or “ ox ” of water would be
21*777 cylindrical spans. It is to be observed, that though a decimal division
of weights is inconvenient for the practical production of eighths or sixteenths,
an octavial division of weights does not impede the use of decimal fractions in
calculations, so long as our arithmetic is decimal ; and if arithmetic itself should
become octavial, the new weights would be in perfect harmony with a system of
octavial fractions still more excellent than our present decimals.

Octavial money could be adopted with little difficulty. The present currency
would scarcely require alteration ; taking the pound and its eighth, two useful
coins now in circulation ; and making the groat, by a small reduction, of the
half-crown, the halfpenny by a similar reduction would be | of the new groat.
We have thus the elements of a new money-table almost without change in our
current coins ; these however would have to become coins of account, and thus
involve a change, but only a simple one in book-keeping.

On the adoption of the octavial weights, measures, and money, the figures 8
and 9 would fall into comparative disuse ; the former being expressed as “ 1 ’’
of the higher order, thus, 1 0 ; and the latter as one of the higher order plus
one, thus, 1 1 : this would be the first step towards octavial numeration if it
was found desirable.

In summing up a few figures, it will readily be seen, thus : —

Tare ... 4 7 2 2

Net . . . 6 4 5 7

1 3 4 0 1

But these matters are too far in the future to require further discussion at the
present time ; and in quitting the subject let me express a hope that I have not
done injustice to any of the projects criticized ; and if I have ventured to recom¬
mend other changes in preference, it is only by the light shed from those who
have preceded me that I hope to have carried the matter one step nearer to a
satisfactory arrangement.

11, Grey Street , Newcastle-upon-Tyne .

ON MICROSCOPICAL RESEARCH IN RELATION TO

PHARMACY.

BY HENRY DEANE, F.L.S., AND HENRY B. BRADY, F.L.S.

( Read at the Nath Meeting of the British Pharmaceutical Conference , Sept. 1864.)

In these days of “popular science,” when every one possesses and is sup¬
posed to use a microscope, it may seem to some to be a matter requiring apo¬
logy, to bring before an Association, counting amongst its members so many
men eminent in the practice of a scientific profession, any considerations un¬
der so diffuse and general a heading as that appended to the present paper.
It is not however our object to occupy the time of the Conference, to more
than a very limited extent, in old and well-worn lines of scientific inquiry,
but rather to explain and illustrate certain applications of the microscope to
purposes of research, which so far as we know have been but little followed

f

ON MICROSCOPICAL RESEARCH IN RELATION TO PHARMACY. 233

out, at any rate with reference to pharmacy. In other branches of science
more or less connected with medicine the microscope has been extensively
used, contributing largely to the advances which have been made during re¬
cent years in their development, and we may allude especially to Chemistry,
Materia Medica, and Toxicology, as the medical subjects affecting pharma¬
ceutists, which have been participators in the progressive movement.

In Chemistry proper the use3 which have been made of the instrument
may be defined under two heads ; firstly, the facility with which minute
quantities of crystalline bodies may be detected and identified ; and secondly,
the ease with which the effect of a ray of polarized light passing through a
body, is observed by its means. The phenomena recently detailed by Mr.
Tomlinson in his papers on the “ Cohesion Figures of Oils and other Liquids,”
though often observed with advantage on a small scale by means of magnify¬
ing powers, scarcely come^within the range of microscopical research, and be¬
long rather to physical than chemical science.

In a subject like Materia Medica, where the field is so wide and various,
the microscope has naturally been called into requisition in the investigation
of numberless obscure and ill-understood points ; and much of the value of
the great work of Dr. Pereira (i. e. so far as the original matter is concerned),
arises from his extensive knowledge of the instrument and the constant use he
made of it. Of the advances in knowledge which have been made by its em¬
ployment, in the examination of materia medica substances, we need only
make passing allusion to a few. One of the first of those which strike us is
that peculiar protean body Starch. We know how readily the starches from
many plants are now recognized and their origin traced : — the form of the
granule, its size and physical condition, and its peculiar polarizing properties,
characters which differ remarkably in the various fseculas used as food, are
easily observed under high magnifying powers, presenting distinctions of
which either physician or pharmaceutist may avail himself in the practice of
his profession, with manifest advantage. Again, the existence of many crys¬
talline active principles in crude vegetable products, such as aloine in liquid
aloes, the cinchona alkaloids in cinchona bark ; of essential oils and resinous
constituents in the UmbelliferEe, Coniferse, and other Natural Orders of plants ;
the presence of peculiar inorganic matters, as oxalate of lime raphides in
Russia or China rhubarb, and in the various products, of the Liliacese, or the
constant absence of such raphides in the whole Order Umbelliferse, — all of
these have been made the subjects of more or less successful and valuable
research.

The identification of drugs by their microscopical appearance is a process
so often resorted to that it is needless to enumerate the cases in which it is
available, and the alterations which occasionally take place in medicinal sub¬
stances by the generation of animal and vegetable life have been demon¬
strated in a similar manner by Dr. Attfield, Mr. Rimmington, and many other
observers.

The investigations made by one of us for the late Dr. Pereira as to the dif¬
ferent physical conditions presented by carbonate of magnesia in the light
and heavy states, are sufficient evidence that in inorganic materia medica the
same means is equally serviceable in widening our range of knowledge ; the
results obtained in this case affording a beautiful instance of the operation of
the great law of spherical coalescence, which, since that time, has been so
ably investigated and laid down by Mr. Rainey in his elaborate researches
upon organized tissues.

If the degree of comminution of medicinal powders be a matter of the con¬
sequence it is generally supposed to be, nothing but the microscope will assist
us in its determination. We were recently called upon, in a case of some

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BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

importance, to give an opinion on the relative merits of certain articles of this
class of English and French preparation, from microscopical examination and
measurement.

In Toxicology, again, we find equally important results follow its use. In
some cases when searching for poisonous substances which yield no reactions
to chemical tests, such as savine, we are compelled to rely upon the micro¬
scope solely as our guide ; and in others where chemical tests do afford evi¬
dence, as in nux vomica and many other characteristic vegetable structures,
valuable collateral testimony may generally be obtained thereby.

The question of the adulteration of drugs and articles of food is one by
itself and beyond our province, — the Conference has a committee devoting
itself to the subject, and the able and zealous microscopists who are working
upon it will, we doubt not, give evidence of the value of microscopic analysis
in this important matter.

Having thus briefly touched upon the field which lies around it, we may
now proceed to what more particularly appertains to our own subject, viz.
the Application of Microscopical Research to Pharmacy. To seek to draw a
well-defined line between pharmacy, and chemistry on the one hand, or ma¬
teria medica on the other, would be a hopeless task, and it is one which we
shall not attempt. Some of the examples named in a former paragraph, such
as the observations on carbonate of magnesia, might be considered as belong¬
ing to any one of the three subjects ; but there are still certain phenomena
observable with the microscope which come more properly under the head of
pharmacy than either of the others, and it is to these that we would address
ourselves.

The phenomena alluded to are those resulting from ‘pharmaceutical pro¬
cesses , viewed especially with reference to the condition in which constituents
of drugs exist in their preparations.

It was originally our intention to have communicated to this meeting a
summary of the results of a series of investigations comprising the examina¬
tion of the preparations of a considerable number of drugs, but circumstances
have prevented our bringing the work to that state of reasonable complete¬
ness which the Conference has a right to expect of the papers presented to
it, and we have consequently to ask their acceptance of an instalment only,
and this instalment is offered, rather as a preliminary research illustrating
the mode of operating than with any more ambitious aim.

We have chosen for the particular subject of the present communication,
the various preparations of opium. Whether regarded in respect to their
importance in the practice of medicine, their variability in strength and cha¬
racter, or the peculiar conditions in which the active matter exists in the
crude drug, no better subject could be found for the purpose in view.

Opium, as is well known, is an extremely composite substance, being a
pasty mass formed of resinous, gummy, extractive and albuminous matters,
containing a larger or smaller percentage of certain active principles diffused
through it. These principles are morphine, narcotine (with its two homo-
logues), codeine, narceine, meconine, thebaine, and papaverine, either existing
free or in combination with meconic, sulphuric, or other acids, the sum of the
crystalline constituents, exclusive of inorganic salts, contained in good sam¬
ples of the drug being from twenty to thirty per cent, of its entire weight.
Any preparation, exactly to represent opium, must contain the whole of these
principles, as indeed the tincture may be said fairly to do.

It has however been shown that some of the principles are inert, and others
even deleterious in their action, and we have consequently had a class of pre¬
parations introduced which are understood to be of superior efficacy, not

ON MICROSCOPICAL RESEARCH IN RELATION TO PHARMACY. 235

from their containing any active matter which the tincture does not contain,
but because they are free from certain substances which are retained by it.
Narceine, meconine, and meconic acid are believed to be inert, whilst nar-
eotine possesses properties widely different from those for which opium is
usually employed. Of the bulkier constituents, the resin appears to be worse
than useless, whereas the bitter extractive, though opinions differ with re¬
gard to its precise properties, seems at any rate to increase the narcotic power
of the more active constituents. A typical preparation of opium should
therefore at least contain the whole of the morphine and codeine, with me¬
conic or some other acid to keep them in solution, and the bitter extractive.
Codeine itself, and the salts of both codeine and morphine, are readily solu¬
ble in either water or alcohol, the remaining principles are fully dissolved by
alcohol, but scarcely soluble in water ; hence, in the preparations alluded to,
water rather than alcohol is used as the solvent.

The process we adopt in examining the constituents of a fluid preparation of
this sort under the microscope is a very simple one.

Having, as a preliminary step, taken the specific gravity, and ascertained
the percentage of carefully dried extract contained in it, we evaporate a
small quantity, usually from four to six drachms, on a sand-bath in a watch-
glass, to about the consistence of treacle. It is then poured upon a slip of
glass and covered with a piece of thin glass, and after standing a few days, it
is sealed in with gold-size. Crystallization sometimes commences before the
preparation is removed from the watch-glass, sometimes immediately after
transferring to the glass slip, but in many cases not for several days. The
time taken is dependent on one of two influences, viz. the quality of the
opium, and the exact degree of inspissation.

In determining the value of a preparation from the appearance of this ex¬
tractive under the microscope, we do not rely entirely upon the amount of
crystallization, it is requisite to go one step further to obtain the full value of
our labour, and by investigating the form and physical characters of morphine
and its compounds, of codeine, narcotine, meconic acid, etc., place ourselves
in position to see the significance of the appearance the slide presents, and to
identify any crystalline principles which may be present. Nevertheless, even
in the absence of very accurate knowledge, any one who will make a few ex¬
periments for the sake of practice, will soon be able, by observing the pre¬
sence or absence, the abundance or scarcity, of certain forms of crystals easily
seen in typical specimens, to pronounce with little hesitation on the quality
or genuineness of samples of any of the ordinary preparations of opium.

Before proceeding to speak of the opiates which have come under our
examination, it may seem necessary to say a few words on the forms assumed
by the various opium principles and the physical characters their crystals pre¬
sent. This, together with certain drawings we have made carefully from spe¬
cimens, will afford a key to our further remarks.

In the first place : —

Morphine. — The pure alkaloid crystallizes in right-rhombic prisms often run¬
ning into needles. The single crystals have but little effect upon the polar¬
ized ray, but where the solution has been concentrated (as from alcohol), and
the acicular crystals are much overlaid, they present a good deal of colour.
(Plate I. fig. 1.)

It is exceedingly difficult to say in what condition morphine exists in opium ;
we are well aware that it lias been set down as meconate, with a smaller per¬
centage of sulphate, but we have reason to suspect that sulphate is present to
a larger extent than is generally supposed. The messing and manipulation
which all kinds of opium appear to undergo before they reach this country,,
renders the belief which is suggested by other circumstances, that a portion of

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the meconic acid is decomposed, extremely probable. It is scarcely likely tliat
a substance which even boiling water decomposes, evolving carbonic acid,
sliould remain unchanged through the various treatments to which the drug
is subjected.

Meconate of Morphine is set down in chemical works as being uncrystal-
lizable, a statement to be accepted with reservation ; for by careful manipu¬
lation peculiar conical crystals may be obtained either from the solution of
the commercial salt in dilute alcohol (Plate I. fig. 3 h. a.), or by the evapora¬
tion of mixed solutions of morphia and meconic acid (Plate I. fig. 3 h.h.).
These crystals do not resemble any which are found on evaporating opium
solutions, but as we have said, the subject requires more investigation than
we have as yet been able to give to it.

Sulphate of Morphine takes the form of small flat-ended prisms, with a
strong tendency to collect in radiating tufts ; the larger flat crystals only
polarized (Plate I. fig. 3 a).

Codeine crystallizes in octahedra running into four-sided prisms. In the
octahedral condition it is not easily mistaken for any other of the opium alka¬
loids, but the prisms strongly resemble those of narcotine. (Plate I. fig. 4 a).

They may be distinguished by their not presenting the fluted or striated
surface which crystals of narcotine have, and by their much less striking
effect on the ray of polarized light.

Narcotine occurs in the form of prisms, with oblique one or two-faced ends.
As above stated, the surface of the crystals is fluted or striated, and on pres¬
sure they break up into tolerably regular smaller crystals (Plate I. fig. 2).
Owing to a sort of composite structure, they have very marked effect on the
polarized ray, more striking indeed than any other of the opium principles.
Were it not for this property, they would be distinguished with great diffi¬
culty from many other crystalline substances which they resemble in form.
There is a tendency, as in other cases, to cluster together in more or less
radiating tufts, but the individual crystals still keep their shape and do not
degenerate into mere radiating plumose needles, like those of narceine.

Narceine. — As narceine exists in opium in about the same percentage, on
the average, as morphia and narcotine, it is of greater consequence in these in¬
vestigations than it is in a medical point of view, being probably an inert sub¬
stance. It is readily soluble in alcohol, and slightly so in water, and therefore
must exist to considerable extent in most of our preparations. The absolute
form of the individual crystals it is impossible to determine, but the masses
of delicate, somewhat opaque, silky needles, either radiating from a centre or
taking an irregular feathery shape are very characteristic, and the absence of
any effect on a ray of polarized light is a negative property of importance.
(Plate I. fig. C a.)

Meconine occurs in six-sided prisms with dihedral summits, and has little,
if any, polarizing power. (Plate I. fig. 5 a.)

Thehaine is readily soluble in alcohol, slightly so in water. From solutions
in weak alcohol it crystallizes in beautiful rectangular plates, often asso¬
ciated in tufts more or less radiating from a centre. (Plate I. fig. 4 h.) It is a
most beautiful polarizing object.

Papaverine is present to so trifling an extent that it scarcely requires notice.
The little which is dissolved by boiling water crystallizes out again on cooling
in minute needles often aggregated in rounded balls, so closely packed as to
be quite opaque. The large crystals obtained from the alcoholic solution
possess slight polarizing properties (Plate I. fig. 6 b).

Meconic Acid. — Although the meconate of morphine in opium is an acid salt,
it seems probable that part of the meconic acid is also there in a free state ;
at any rate, we frequently find it in preparations. As it is soluble in both

ON MICROSCOPICAL RESEARCH IN RELATION TO PHARMACY. 237

alcohol and water, preparations are pretty sure to contain whatever quantity
does exist in the crude drug, unless it has been removed by chemical means.
The form of the crystals is primarily a square prism, but we have only seen
this in minute examples, and it is very difficult to trace the relationship to
this type in the flat, pointed lozenges, somewhat resembling the attenuated
forms of uric acid, which generally occur. Even these frequently run into
still more strange varietal shapes, whose only resemblance to the lozenge-
form exists in their broad centres and two pointed ends (Plate I. fig. 5 b).
They all have some effect on the polarized ray. Boiling water decomposes
meconic acid ; carbonic acid is given off', and komenic acid, a substance we
have not yet studied, is formed.

We may now proceed to the practical application of the facts enumerated,
and detail the results of the examination of the many preparations which have
come under our notice.

Of Turkey Opium we have investigated — firstly, the tincture, prepared by
ourselves from different samples of opium, as well as specimens procured from
certain well-known operative chemists ; secondly, the extract ; thirdly, the
wine ; fourthly, the more or less aqueous solutions sold as Liquor Opii
Sedativus, Battley’s, one or two samples prepared by ouselves, and specimens
procured from four well-known firms ; and fifthly, certain proprietary opiates,
viz. “Black Drop,” “Jeremy’s Sedative,” “Nepenthe,” and that sold as
“ Solution of Bimeconate of Morphia.”

We have drawn careful figures of the appearances presented by the whole
of these, which will do more than any description towards giving a correct
understanding of the facts elicited ; at the same time, it may be necessary to
draw attention to some matters of importance in connection with them. We
must be excused giving the name of the makers from whom specimens have
been obtained, in most cases, as it is not our object to sit as inquisitors on our
pharmaceutical brethren, though in one or two instances, where we have
nothing but good to say, we may, without offence, break this rule.

Tincture yields, on evaporation, crystals of almost the whole of the opium
principles, and we find that, as the spirit volatilizes, the resin is also precipi¬
tated in an insoluble form. Our own preparation, from different samples of
good opium, is tolerably constant (Plate II. fig. 1 a and b), and agrees in ap¬
pearance with a specimen procured from a manufacturing house of some
standing (Plate II. fig. 3) ; but neither are quite so rich in crystalline prin¬
ciples as a sample furnished to us by our friend Mr. Morson (Plate II. fig. 2),
which seems to have been prepared from peculiarly fine opium.

Extract shows a much smaller proportion of narcotine crystals, with
abundance of morphia salts and tufts of narceine (Plate II. fig. 4). Turkey
opium is not rich in codeine, and we suppose that in extract prepared from it
this principle is retained diffused through the bitter matter. A specimen of
commercial extract of opium which we have seen, recently imported from the
East, is a very different substance, showing fewer morphine crystals, but a
large proportion of codeine (Plate II. fig. 5).

Wine. — The mucilaginous matter of wine very much retards, if it does not
entirely prevent, the formation of crystals upon evaporation, and consequently
we can say but little respecting the appearance presented by the extract ob¬
tained from vinous solutions.

Liquor Opii Sedativus. — The striking appearance resulting from the eva¬
poration of Battley’s Sedative (Plate III. fig. I) first drew our attention to
the mode of investigation now described. We have examined it frequently,
and always have met with the same characters. The slides present an almost
opaque mass of crystals of morphine salts and codeine, with a very small pro¬
portion of narcotine (and meconic acid ?), and, so far as we have observed,

238

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

complete absence of resinous matter and narceine. Any one who has studied
the microscopic characters of this preparation will readily understand how it
lias kept its place with the profession in spite of the cheap imitations which
have been so largely pulled as substitutes for it. We have necessarily thought
much as to its probable mode of preparation, and cannot see any reason to
doubt the statemant made by Dr. Pereira, on the authority of the late Mr.
Battley himself, that spirit and water were the only materials used in its prepa¬
ration from Turkey opium. Dr. Christison discredits the statement, on the
ground of the comparative absence of meconic acid ; but, as we have before
said, boiling water is sufficient to decompose that acid, and therefore the ar¬
gument is not a valid one. Though we have experimented much with a view to
preparing a similar liquor, we have not yet arrived at an identical result.
Plate III. fig. 2 a and b, shows two preparations with similar, perhaps nearly
equal, sedative properties to the original fluid ; but it will be seen they both
differ considerably in the crystalline matters they contain. It is perhaps only
justice to say that the preparation which gives results most nearly like
Battley’s of any which we have had opportunity of testing is that made by
Mr. Morson, of London (Plate III. fig. 3). Of three other makes which we
have examined, one (Plate III. fig. 5) is largely charged with resinous matter,
and the proportion of crystalline constituents is so minute that we are satis¬
fied its activity must be very small ; another (Plate III. fig. 4) gives a few
morphine crystals, a good deal of narcotine, and more narceine ; a third
(Plate III. fig. 6) is chiefly remarkable for its lack of everything crystalline.

There are certain preparations, to which we must next allude, which give little
or no evidence as to the active matters they hold in solution by crystallization
on evaporation. As examples, we may instance Vinum Opii, amongst officinal,
and Braithwaite’s black drop, Nepenthe, and a fluid sold as “ Solution of Bi-
meconate of Morphia,” amongst proprietary formula?. That there should be
exceptional cases in which the reaction to a certain peculiar set of tests
is doubtful, is only what might have been expected, and it can scarcely be
regarded as a weak point in their application. Scarcely any chemical test we
use but is open to some contingency of the same sort, but as long as we know
the conditions of uncertainty it is no drawback to its employment ; it onl}r
becomes necessary that these conditions should be investigated, and compari¬
son becomes easy.

We have found that when opium is exhausted, the liquor evaporated to an
extract, and this extract redissolved in alcohol, that the tendency to crystallize
is very much lessened or entirely destroyed. The cause of this wre are net yet
able to explain with certainty, but may state the fact as one which we have
noticed in relation to every sort of opium we have wrorked upon. It will ac¬
count for the very sparing indications of crystalline principles from all pre¬
parations made by redissolving in alcohol a once-formed extract. The residue
not taken up by alcohol in the experiment is readily soluble in water, and
contains certain crystalline matters, which wre have not j7et examined suffi¬
ciently to report upon. Again, the subacid viscid matter left on evaporating
wine prevents crystallization, consequently Vinum Opii gives a clear non-
crystalline extract ; we believe this also to be the reason why one of the pro¬
prietary preparations named yields the same result, as it seeni3 to us to be a
mere solution of morphine or one of its salts in wine, and not to be made
direct from opium. The well known “ black drop ” gives no crystals upon
evaporation, but in their place a peculiar deposit, consisting of an amorphous,
almost opaque faeculence. This is probably owing, in great measure, to viscid
matter held in solution, which on evaporation becomes insoluble through some-
change and is precipitated, carrying down with it the active matter. We
know too little of the solvent employed to speak very positively, but if the

ON MICROSCOPICAL RESEARCH IN RELATION TO PHARMACY. 239

commonly received theory he true, — that it is made by a fermentation pro¬
cess, in which impure malic acid is concerned, — we can readily understand
how viscid organic matter may be present in sufficient quantity to produce
the result alluded to.

In addition to the preparations of Turkey opium, we have also had tlio op¬
portunity of experimenting on small quantities of the Patna, Malwa, and
Persian varieties, and all of them present peculiarities of interest. An aque¬
ous extract and a tincture have been made from each, and from the Patna
sort sufficient has remained to make a specimen of liquor.

The most striking fact in connection with the whole of them is the existence
of large quantities of codeine. In the extract of Patna opium (Plate IV. fig.
1) it is the chief crystalline constituent, and though the liquor (Plate II. fig. 6)
shows abundance of the other opium principles, it evidently owes its narcotic
effect much more to codeine than Turkey opium does. We have the expe¬
rience of an opium eater on this point ; he states that the quantity required
to produce the effect is larger, but there is less discomfort in the after effects
than with other sorts. Malwa opium (Plate IV. fig. 2 and 5) shows more nar-
cine and narcotine, but in the tincture we have in addition to a mass of mi¬
nute crystals, certain larger prisms, which are probably codeine. Persian
opium (Plate IV. fig. 3 and 6) also evidently contains a large proportion of
narcotine and codeine.

We stated at the commencement that this must be looked upon only as a
preliminary research, there remaining many points on which our information
is far from complete. In continuing the inquiry we intend to devote our¬
selves chiefly to the elucidation of certain particulars. Firstly , the condition
or form of combination in which morphine exists in crude opium ; secondly,
the relation of extract of poppy to opium in respect to crystalline principles j
and thirdly, the influence which the extractive matters may have in altering
the crystals obtained in opium solutions, and the variations of the normal
forms induced by this cause.

The general conclusions we have arrived at in addition to a knowledge of
the appearances presented by typical and special preparations of Turkey,
Patna, Malwa, and Persian opiums, are mainly these : —

That tincture, most nearly of any of the preparations, represents the
properties, good and bad, of the crude drug.

That when crude opium is taken up with proof spirit as in tincture, the
resin separates on evaporation.

That the preparations which have held their ground with the public
and the medical profession, in spite of price, differ from the tincture in
comparative freedom from resin and narcotine, and in containing only a
diminished quantity of meconic acid.

That in the preparation^ extract of opium' it is important to use a large
quantity of distilled water to ensure the separation of narcotine and resin.

That when extract of opium is dissolved in water, filtered and evaporated
again to an extract a second or third time, the crystals frequently differ
considerably from those seen in the normal or first formed extract.

That when extract of opium is taken up with rectified spirit 56° O.P.,
and evaporated again to an extract, crystallization does not take place, or
only to a very trifling extent.

That morphine and its salts, and perhaps other opium principles, do
not crystallize readily from their solution in wine.

Finally, it remains for us to express our obligation to our friends Mr.
Morson, of London, and Messrs. T. and H. Smith, of London and Edin¬
burgh, for the courteous way in which they have assisted us with specimens,,
when working upon those of the alkaloids which exist only in minute quan-

240

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

tities in opium ; without this assistance we could scarcely have procured
them in a state of reliable purity.

In some remarks which followed the paper, the authors drew the attention
of the meeting to a new alkaloid procured from opium by Messrs. T. and
H. Smith, a specimen of which they were enabled to lay before the meeting
through the kindness of the discoverers. They stated that for want of time
and sufficient quantity to work upon, the Messrs. Smith had not yet deter¬
mined its chemical composition nor all of its reactions, but exhibited to the
members present the brilliant colour-reactions which the minutest quanti¬
ties yielded, viz. : — a deep blue on treating with concentrated sulphuric acid,
turning rapidly to bright green on the addition of a small crystal of nitrate of
potash.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate I.

Microscopical Appearance of Opium Principles.

Fig. 1. Morphine.

„ 2. Narcotine.

„ 3 a. Sulphate of Morphine.

b. Meconate of Morphine.

ba. Commercial salt crystallized from solution in weak alcohol.

bb. Crystallization from mixed solutions of Morphia and Meconic

Acid.

„ 4 a. Codeine.

aa. Crystallized from Alcoholic solution.

ab. Crystallized from Aqueous solution.
b. Thebaine.

„ 5 a. Meconine.

b. Meconic Acid.

„ G a. Narceine.
b. Papaverine.

ba. Crystallized from Alcoholic solution.

bb. Crystallized from Aqueous solution.

Plate IT.

Fig. 1. Tinctura Opii (Turkey Opium) , prepared by the Authors as standard.
,, 2, 3. Specimens of Tincture alluded to in the text.

„ 4. Extractum Opii (Turkey),

,, 5 a. Commercial Extract of Opium, imported.

b. The same, re-dissolved, filtered, and evaporated.

„ 6. Liquor Opii Sedativus, prepared from Patna Opium.

Plate III.

Liquor Opii Sedativus ( Turlcep Opium).

Fig. 1. Battley’s.

„ 2 a, b. Two specimens prepared by the authors by slightly different

processes, from different samples of opium.

,, 3. Mr. Morson’s, alluded to in the text.

„ 4, 5, G. Specimens sent out by three operative chemists of standing hi

London.

Plate IV.

Fig. 1. Extractum Opii, prepared from Patna Opium.

5} 2. „ ,, Malwa Opium.

3. ,, „ Persian Opium.

,, 4. Tinctura Opii, prepared from Patna Opium.

53 5. „ „ Malwa Opium.

33 6* ,3 33 Persian Opium.

* The Plates will be given in the December Number.

PLATE 1.

pig: i.

MORPHINE.

MICROSCOPIC APPEARANCE OF OPIUM PRINCIPLES.

fig: 2. • .• ' T ' ‘M

N A ROOT I N E.

fig; 4>

fig: 5.

CODEINE. THEBAINE.

*7

M ECON I N E .

MECONIC ACID.

fig:

SULPH MORPHINE. MECONATE MORPHINE.

fig: 6.

NARCEINE. PAPAVERINE.

W. West, jmp.

H. B. Brady, del. ad nat

Tuf&m West, sculp.

FIG-: 3

PLATE 2

FIG-: l.

TIFT'CTURA OPII, ScC.

FIG-! 2

imp.

H_fi Bradv del ad nat

luft’en West

sctil p

W. West

FIG-: 4.

LIQUOR OPII • SEDATIVUS.

(TURKEY OPIUM.)

fig: 2.

FIG: 5.

H.B. Brady, del ad nat.

Tuffen West,, sculp.

fig: 6.

W. West, imp,

fig: 3.

PLATE .4.

fig: 6.

PERS IAN.

W. West, imp.

EXTRACTUM OPII.

FIG-: 2.

TIN C TURA OPII.
EI&: 5.

M A L W A .

Tu fieri West, sculp

H. B . Brady, del ad nat .

241

REPORT ON THE PURITY OE SULPHATE OE QUININE OE

COMMERCE.

BY MR. W. WALTER STODDART.

( Read at the Bath Meeting of the British Pharmaceutical Conference , Sept. 1864.)

Probably quinine is one of the most important therapeutic remedies for the
ills of the human body that has ever been introduced to the notice of the me¬
dical man ; so extensively is it used, and with such certainty may its effects be
calculated, that no other substance can be advantageously substituted. Yet
this very circumstance unfortunately gives the temptation for frauds and adul¬
terations so commonly said to be practised by unprincipled dealers.

The smallness of the dose with which quinine gives such remarkable results,
renders any sophistication all the more dangerous, and disappointing to the phy¬
sician ; indeed, the very turning-point of an illness may be frequently dependent
on the purity of a sample of quinine.

It is not by any means to be supposed that any suspicion is attached to the
high respectability and probity of the well-known manufacturers of quinine.
Existing adulterations, properly so called, such as the deliberate addition of sali-
cine, sugar, boracic acid, quinidine, cinchonine, etc., are only made by second
or third-rate dealers, or when it has passed through the hands of a third or
fourth party. Such samples may still bo found in shops situated in secluded
parts of the country or lowest streets of a city, and traceable to the same origin.

On the other hand, probably from difference in the mode of preparation or
separation of the cinchona alkaloids, quinine differs much from the presence of
its isomeride quinidine. The latter is often, if not always associated with qui¬
nine in tire natural state, and has many of its reactions exactly similar, besides
being nearly as soluble in the usual menstrua.

It therefore becomes to a certain extent a natural mixture, and in proportion
to the completeness of the extracting process, so will be the purity of the pro¬
duct. Opinions, it is true, vary greatly as to whether quinine and quinidine
differ in their medicinal power, and therefore some may say that the presence of
the latter (quinidine) is of no consequence ; this, however, is not the question at
issue, and the points of this report are strictly confined to the commercial purity
of quinine and its freedom from the cheaper salts.

In carrying out this object the desired results are threefold : —

First, Qualitative , or to find an easy and reliable test for the presence of the
three most common cinchona alkaloids, quinine, quinidine, and cinchonine.

Secondly, Quantitative , to find the most practical and reliable mode of sepa¬
rating and estimating these alkaloids ; and,

Thirdly, an application of the above to the examination of the sulphate of
quinine as made by the principal manufacturers.

Although the cinchona barks contain many alkaloids, only four occur in
sufficient frequency and quantity to merit notice in a commercial investigation,
quinine, quinidine, cinchonine, and cinclionidine. In actual practice the two
last may be estimated together.

The most prominent impurity in quinine is quinidine ; in none of the after-
mentioned samples was cinchonine discovered in any quantity except one. The
slight solubility of the cinchonine salts as compared with those of quinine and
quinidine, and the boldness of its crystallization would, to the practised eye, soon
lead to its detection ; experiments will easily show the truth of this, and that
quinidine and not cinchonine must be generally sought as the chief impurity in
commercial sulphate of quinine.

Notwithstanding tests for the purity of quinine are so numerous and in some
instances so trustworthy, still few apply to the separation of quinidine from

VOL. VI. t

242

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

quinine ; nearly all are proposed for the indication of quinine only, or its detec¬
tion when mixed with other substances.

The polariscope tests of Bouchardat and Pasteur, and the fluorescent test of
Professor Stokes, require too much study and practice to come into general use
for qualitative analysis among manufacturers and retailers.

The same remarks apply to the exquisitely beautiful experiments of Dr. W.
B. Herapath. It is quite true that to the expert the iodine test will detect the
presence of a very minute portion of quinine, quinidine, or cinchonidine, yet it
requires considerable experience with an expensive polarizing microscope, with
great consumption of time, to give good results, when only a minute quantity is
operated on.

The chlorine and ammonia test of Brande, and the chlorine test of Pelletier,
will not distinguish always between quinine and quinidine.

The presence of so much water and ammonia is detrimental to the British
Pharmacopoeia test, which is anything but a good modification of Liebig’s
original one.

Prom these remarks it will be apparent that a good qualitative test for de¬
tecting the several cinchona alkaloids in an unknown mixture is a desideratum.
From a considerable series of experiments it appears that these conditions may
be amply fulfilled by either of the two following methods.

The first is a modification of that proposed by Liebig.

Into a glass tube or bottle put ten grains of the suspected salt, dissolve in
ten minims of dilute sulphuric acid and GO minims of distilled water ; to this
add 150 minims of pure sulphuric ether, three minims of alcohol, and 40 minims
of a solution of hydrate of soda (1 part to 12 parts). Agitate well and lay
aside for twelve hours, when if the slightest trace of quinidine, cinchonine, or
cinchonidine be present, they will be seen at the line of separation between the
ether and solution of sulphate of soda.

If only a small percentage of quinidine be present, it will appear as an oily
substratum, appearing under the lens as dust from the minuteness of its parti¬
cles. Cinchonine will appear more decidedly crystalline. With a little prac¬
tice, the eye will easily distinguish which of the alkaloids is deposited.

This will detect a much less quantity of quinidine than the Pharmacopoeia
test. In the latter the ether dissolves a greater portion of the quinidine, while
the dilute ammoniacal solution of sulphate of ammonia is an actual solvent un¬
less great care be taken to add no more ammonia than will exactly precipitate
the alkaloids, which is often difficult and tedious.

The second method proposed is the one most generally used by the author,
and which is perhaps the easiest and most trustworthy of any hitherto sub¬
mitted. The reagent is sulphocyanide of potassium.

Into an ounce of distilled water drop ten drops of dilute sulphuric acid (Bri¬
tish Pharmacopoeia 1f-)- To tins add 14 grains (or as much as will saturate the
acid) of the suspected salt. Filter through paper, and to a little of the filtered
solution add a few drops of the solution of sulphocyanide of potassium (180
grains in 1| ounces of water). An immediate precipitate of the several alka¬
loids takes place, each of which, as seen by the sketches, is distinct and cha¬
racteristic.

If quinine, quinidine, and cinchonine be present they will all be seen on the
slide distinct from each other, becoming more so every minute.

A very good plan is to place a very small drop on a glass slip and to put an¬
other of the sulphocyanide by its side. Over both place a piece of thin glass,
which will cause the drops to touch. Examine the line of junction under a
quarter- inch lens, when the crystals are seen and may be readily recognized.
By this method of a grain of quinidine or cinchonine may easily be de¬
tected.

ON THE PURITY OF SULPHATE OF QUININE OF COMMERCE.

213

It is very interesting to see the particles all arranging themselves into the
respective groups ; the long slender needles of the quinine salt, the round crys¬
talline masses of the quinidine, and the large well- formed prisms of the cinchonine

Sulpliocyanide of quinine. Sulphocyauute of quinidine. Sulpliocyanide of cinchonine.

(450 diam.) (450 diam.) (450 diam.)

salts. So remarkably constant is this reaction, that an observer who has once
been accustomed to the general appearance can at once say with ease, this is
quinine, this quinidine, and that cinchonine.

Sulpliocyanide of potassium is not usually kept by druggists, but may readily
be made thus : —

Cyanide of potassium (fused),

Sublimed sulphur, of each 120 grains.

Distilled water, an ounce and a half.

Boil in a glass flask for fifteen minutes, filter, and make up the quantity to 1^-
ounces with sufficient distilled water.

This notice of the qualitative analysis ought not to be passed without men¬
tioning a very good application of Professor Stokes’s fluorescent test for the dis¬
covery of quinine and other substances possessing the property of epipolism.

A small Geissler’s vacuum tube is surrounded by a longer glass tube which is
capable of being closed by a cork, an arrangement that permits the tube to be
filled and emptied as an ordinary phial bottle. When any bark is suspected to
contain quinine, etc., an acid or alcoholic infusion is put into the outer tube,
and a spark from the Huhmkorff’s coil passed through. Instantly the fluorescent
salt, whatever it may be, will show its presence in the most gorgeous manner.

By this method twenty-seven samples of barks were qualitatively tested in a
couple of hours that were supposed to contain a new alkaloid, which occurs in
an Australian tree possessing very peculiar fluorescent properties.

The process most applicable for the quantitative analysis of sulphate of qui¬
nine is that by means of the iodide of potassium reaction, recommended by Dr.
De Yry some time since. The following was the arrangement employed in the
present instance : —

Into a tube containing 120 minims of distilled water and 16 minims of dilute
sulphuric acid (British Pharmacopoeia), add twenty grains of the sulphate of
quinine to be tested. When dissolved add 80 minims of solution of hydrate of
soda (1 to 12) and 300 minims of pure sulphuric ether mixed with six minims of
alcohol.

Agitate well, and lay aside for twelve hours ; decant the ethereal solution and
evaporate for the quinine. To the remaining aqueous solution add just sufficient
acetic acid to neutralize the alkali, and precipitate with solution of iodide of
potassium (1 to 4), filter, dry, and weigh the hydriodate of quinidine. One
hundred grains of this salt contain 71 ’68 of pure quinidine. To the filtered
solution again add hydrate of soda till decidedly alkaline, when the cinchonine
and cinchonidine will be precipitated if present.

244

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

It was according to the above-mentioned process that the following samples of
quinine were analysed. The first was taken from a four-ounce bottle from
Messrs. Howard’s and Sons, Stratford.

On submitting it to the soda and ether test there was no appearance of cin¬
chonine, but beneath the ether was an oily substratum, which by the usual tests
was proved to be quinidine.

The quantitative analysis showed this to amount to 2-8 per cent. After the
separation of the quinidine the soda gave no precipitate, proving the absence of
cinchonine and cinchonidine. Consequently this was an extremely pure sample
of sulphate of quinine.

The next sample tested was quinine from the laboratory of De Lisle and Co.,
Paris, better known as “ Pelletier's quiniue.” This yielded 4T per cent, of
quinidine, and the soda gave a trace of cinchonine.

The third sample was from the chemical works of Mr. Jacob II idle, Lombard
Road, Battersea. This contained 5*G per cent, of quinidine and -8 per cent, of
cinchonine and cinchonidine.

The unbleached variety of the same maker was, as may be expected, much
less pure than any of the above.

The sample examined contained 16’3 per cent, of quinidine and 4-2 per cent,
of cinchonine and cinchonidine. All these were taken out of bottles unopened
and sealed by the manufacturer.

With neither was there any precipitate with nitrate of silver and nitric acid,
proving the absence of muriate of cinchonine ; neither did strong sulphuric acid
produce any tinge except the usual pale yellow tint.

A quinine has lately been introduced by Messrs. Herring and Co., Aldersgate
Street, under the name of “ semicrystallized quinine,” but as it does not profess
to be pure sulphate of quinine, but a compound of all the alkaloids of the yellow
cinchona bark, it ought by no means to be used by the dispenser as a substitute
for quinine without the sanction of the prescriber. The same remark applies
to the unbleached variety of Mr. J. Hulle.

A sample from Germany was also examined and found to be exceedingly im¬
pure, but as it was not an original package, and without any name, it was
thought inexpedient to bring it before the notice of the members of the Phar¬
maceutical Conference. It is very gratifying to be able to affirm that sulphate
of quinine, if purchased in bottles or sealed packets, as seat out by the makers,
or obtained through our well-known wholesale houses, is commercially pure and
quite fit for medicinal use.

It must be the chemist’s own fault if he is imposed upon and not supplied
with an article of sufficient purity.

Bristol.

ON COMMERCIAL PODOPJIYLLIN.

BY MR. JAMES SPEARING.

(Read at the Bath Meeting of the British Pharmaceutical Conference , Sept. 1861.)

Podophyllin is a resinous principle existing in the rhizome of the Podophyllum
peltatum (the American mandrake or May-apple), a creeping perennial, growing
wild in the States of North America, and belonging to the Natural Order
Banunciilacece.

It occurs in commerce in the state of powder, varying in colour from light-
yellow to dark-brown, according to the degree of heat employed in the prepara¬
tion. In taste it is nauseously bitter and acrid, and it possesses a peculiar nar¬
cotic odour. Three processes for its production have been published, viz. : — •

A chemist’s HOLIDAY : — JOTTINGS IN FRANCE.

245

I. A process by Messrs. F.D. Hill and Co., of Cincinnati.* “ Exhaust coarsely-
powdered mandrake- root with alcohol by percolation. Place the saturated tinc¬
ture in a still, and draw olF the spirit ; the residue will be a dark fluid of the con¬
sistence of molasses. Warm the thick residual liquor, and slowly pour it into
three times its volume of cold water, which must be constantly agitated during
the process. Allow it to stand twenty-four hours, then collect the precipitate
on a linen filter, and wash several times with water. After this, place it in thin
layers on paper, and dry in a room of a temperature between 65° and 90° E.,
or, if in summer, at the natural atmospheric temperature.”

II. The process of the ‘ British Pharmacopoeia,’ also published by Messrs.
Hill,t differs from the above only in the addition of 5x7th part of hydrochloric
acid to the water by which the podophyllin is precipitated.

III. Consists in shaking together a concentrated tincture of the rhizome and
a saturated solution of alum, and collecting, washing, and drying the precipi¬
tate, as previously described.

To ascertain the comparative value of these processes, a concentrated tincture
of Podophyllum was prepared by percolation, and divided into three equal por¬
tions. Each portion was precipitated in accordance with one of the above me¬
thods, and with the following results : — No. 1 yielded 2*7 per cent, of podo¬
phyllin : No. 2, 4 per cent. ; and No. 3, 24 per cent. The two former were
almost entirely soluble in alcohol (the best solvent of podophyllin J), whilst the
latter contained 7 per cent, insoluble in that menstruum.

By adding hydrochloric acid to the water in which No. 1 was precipitated
(after the podophyllin had been filtered out), silky crystals separated ; whilst
the water from No. 2, treated in a like manner, remained clear. These crystals
are said to be hydrochlorate of berberia,§ to the presence of which the activity
of podophyllin is by some partially ascribed.

From the foregoing it will be inferred that the process of the ‘ British Phar¬
macopoeia ’ gives the most satisfactory result.

In order to estimate the purity of commercial samples, solubility in alcohol
was taken as the standard. Samples obtained from eleven different sources
were thus examined, and showed a degree of insolubility varying from 2 to 8 per
cent. Of these samples, the residues of five, first calcined and then treated with
dilute hydrochloric acid, and tested in the usual way, yielded a trace of alumina.
The residue of two others, treated in the same manner, yielded iron, and one
copper. The remaining three gave no metallic precipitate.

From the preceding, coupled with the fact that from podophyllin prepared
by process No. 8, 7 per cent, of matter insoluble in alcohol was obtained, which,
on further examination, showed a trace of alumina, it is inferred that commer¬
cial podophyllin, though comparatively a pure article, is far from uniform in its
nature, and that process No. 3 is most generally adopted for its preparation,
though some other astringent metallic salt is occasionally substituted for the
alum. It seems desirable that the new Pharmacopoeia process should be more
generally employed, as it certainly appears to give the most satisfactory and de¬
finite preparation.

338, Oxford Street , London.

A CHEMIST’S HOLIDAY : — JOTTINGS IN FRANCE.

BY DANIEL HANBURY, F.L.S.

{Read at the Bath Meeting of the British Pharmaceutical Conference , Sept. 18G4.)
Many of us when boys must have read with delight the charming little tale

* Parrish’s ‘ Practical Pharmacy,’ p. 191. f Ibid.

£ Bentley, ‘Pharmaceutical Journal,’ 2nd series, vol. iii. p. 460.

§ Attfield, ‘Pharmaceutical Journal,’ 2nd series, vol. v. p. 632.

246

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

called Eyes and no Eyes,'* in which! the narration of a country walk is
made the occasion of showing how an observant mind may derive instruction
and pleasure from objects which in the non-observant excite no interest.

As I have neither been able to accept one of the subjects proposed by the
Pharmaceutical Conference for investigation, nor to take up any other, and
am yet unwilling to appear before you empty-handed, I am compelled to the
expedient of producing my essay from the same kind of materials that af¬
forded the narrative of “ Eyes;" and will therefore read you a few memoranda
bearing as far as may be on pharmacy, made after a month’s ramble among
the Alps of Dauphiny.

Leaving London in the latter part of July, in / company with a friend, I
spent two days in Paris, visiting while there the Ecole de Pharmacie, which,
I need hardly remind you, is an establishment of ancient growth, and is much
more extensive than our own school in Bloomsbury Square. Besides museum,
laboratories, etc., it possesses a small botanical garden, which is overlooked
by the residence of the veteran pharmacologist, Professor Guibourt, Lecturer
on the Natural History of Drugs. The professor’s private collection is very
extensive, and occupies several small rooms in the upper part of a house in
an adjoining street, where we had the pleasure of meeting him, as well as
Professor Planchon of the School of Pharmacy at Montpellier. I may re¬
mind you that Paris, Strasburg and Montpellier are the centres of French
pharmaceutical education, these three cities alone possessing Superior Schools
of Pharmacy.

We next visited the Jardin des Plantes, which is not distant from the Ecole
de Pharmacie, and spent some time in inspecting the zoological and botanical
collections in the museums. In the garden itself, I observed in a sheltered
situation against a wall a fine pistachio-tree, with nuts of full size, produced,
I was informed, after artificial impregnation, the male tree growing at some
distance. Conducted by M. Naudin, we also examined some of the rare Cu-
curbitacece, for which the garden is famous, as well as a series of beds in
which curious experiments on the hybridization of plants were being carried
on. A call at the busy establishment of Dr. Miallie, pharmacien to the Em¬
peror, and a brief visit to the large and bustling wholesale house of M. Dor-
vault concluded all that could be called pharmaceutical in my visit to Paris ;
and I shall therefore pass at one jump to the Grande Chartreuse, that famous
monastery near Grenoble, founded by St. Bruno in the eleventh century, and
of which our London Charterhouse was originally a branch. I need not here
tell of the magnificent alpine scenery amid which the monastery is situated,
nor of the austere habits of the monks, nor of the primitive style of bed and
board, with which visitors to the establishment are entertained. But I wish
to relate to you the beneficial effect to the institution of a little pharmaceu¬
tical knowledge.

Previous to the French Pevolution of 1789, the convent had large landed
possessions, all of which were confiscated during that convulsion, and the
monks expelled for a period of over twenty years. However in 1816, the
Grande Chartreuse was restored to its owners, but without the restitution of
its lands, — the only privilege allowed being the right of pasturage and of cut¬
ting wood in the circumjacent forest. But the monks had another resource :
they made some excellent cordials and an elixir of wonderful virtue, both
distilled from the aromatic plants growing on the alpine pastures. They in¬
vented also a tooth-tincture, and a certain preparation of iron, known under
the name of Boule d’acier ; and these have become sources of revenue almost
equal in value to the houses and lands lost by the Pevolution. The liqueurs

* By Dr. Aikin and Mrs. Barbauld.

A chemist’s HOLIDAY JOTTINGS IN FRANCE.

247

or cordials, in particular, are in universal demand, and bring an income, it is
said, of nearly £20,000 a year. The composition of these liqueurs, of which
there are three kinds, the green, the yellow, and the white, is not known.
Balm, wormwood, a small pink, and the buds of a fir, are said to be ingre¬
dients, but there are probably several others,' — among which I could fancy,
judging from the taste of the yellow liqueur, there might be Astrantia and
Meum , both common plants in the meadows round the Chartreuse.

The subalpine woods of this part of Dauphiny produce the Spruce Fir
(Abies excelsa DC.), the source of genuine Burgundy Pitch, which however
is not collected, though it easily might be, as one sees it streaming from the
tree-trunks on all sides. The Silver Fir is also common : it yields, I may
remind you, the rare and fragrant Strasburg Turpentine, once officinal amongst
us, under the name of Terebinthina Argentoratcnsis . This turpentine is ob¬
tained by puncturing small swellings in the bark of young trees, and allowing
th6 single drop of clear turpentine which exudes from the puncture, to run
into some small vessel held below to receive it. The Scotch Fir is also found
in some districts, and what is remarkable, the common mistletoe grows upon
it, in preference it would almost seem, to the apple-trees which arc sometimes
in near proximity.

The common Colchicum, I noticed in many places throwing up its purple
flowers among the green herbage of orchards and meadows ; — and in a few
alpine situations, I also gathered Colchicum aljpinum DC., a species with
flower and conn of much smaller size.

Actcca spicata L., a rare plant in England, is found in the mountain woods
near Bourg cl’Oisans ; and its root which I dug up and dried, is so like that
of the American Actcca racemosa L. that I do not think one could distinguish
them.

Our English Foxglove was nowhere seen in Dauphiny, but the yellow
Digitalis grandi flora All., and the small white-flowered 1). lutea L. were of
frequent occurrence. Henbane, I often noticed, especially near Briancon,
where it was very fine by the roadside.

Lavender, — the genuine plant of our English gardens, is very abundant in
some parts of the country, growing in profusion on the rocky hillsides, but
no use appears to be made of it. Many other beautiful labiates are also
seen, of which Hyssop, with its bright blue flowers is one of the more rare.
The great yellow Gentian was nearly past flowering at the time of my visit,
but it was still conspicuous in many an alpine pasture, as was also the white
Hellebore ( Veratrum album L.), a plant affecting similar situations. Arnica
montana L. was also nearly out of flower, but it must be a splendid ornament
of the mountain meadows in the earlier summer. In many of these meadows,
I may mention that grass seems quite a subordinate constituent, so thickly is
the ground covered with other plants.

Proceeding to Briancon, that little mountain city on the confines of Italy,
we were struck with the appearance of the numerous small trees ot the Bri¬
an con Plum ( Prunus Brigantiaca Fill.), the branches of which were often
thickly clustered with fruit, still far from ripe. The tree is indigenous to
this part of France and is not an object of cultivation. Its fruits,, which are
hardly eatable, are ■ gathered in the autumn for the sake of their kernels,
which yield by expression a fatty oil, considered b}r the peasants a useful me¬
dicine both for man and beast. I bought some ot it, and found it to have an
agreeable flavour and a slight odour of bitter almonds : further than that it
was “ tres-bonne pour la colique ,” I could not gain any very definite idea as

to its virtues. # .

Briancon, however, has another pharmaceutical interest, in the manna
which old writers relate is, or can be, collected from the larches that grow in

24S BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

its vicinity. The larches certainly are there, and very interesting it is to see
them growing truly wild on their own native mountains.

During a visit to Brian^on in June 1857, 1 made particular examination of
the larches on the neighbouring hills, and obtained so little evidence of any¬
thing like saccharine exudation that I was ready to conclude the formation of
such a substance must be of rare and exceptional occurrence. Subsequently
to this however, M. Berthelot of Paris actually made a chemical examination
of Brian^on Manna, and demonstrated it to contain a peculiar variety of
sugar, which he designated Melezitose, a name derived from meleze , the Drench
for larch.

Here again in the country of the larch and in the very classical locality for
the manna, it was necessary of course, to renew the previous fruitless research,
— and my travelling companion felt equally interested in the inquiry. A
day or two before we reached Briancon, we had examined larches at La Grave
a few miles distant, but not a trace of saccharine exudation could we discover.
There was a little white aphis on the leaves of several trees, just as one often
sees upon the larch in England ; and upon examining the insect carefully,
once could perceive a minute globule attached to one part of it. Was this
the manna ? or had it anything to do with it F Here was a globule of some¬
thing, but too small to collect, or even to taste per se : — still in our despera¬
tion we licked the aphis-covered leaves, and fancied they had a faintly sac¬
charine taste. The cones certainly had an exudation, but it was turpentine
to all intents and purposes, — fine clear drops of genuine Venice turpentine ;
— and a botanist of Briancon assured us a day or two after, that this was the
manna. As I could not however believe that M. Berthelot had mistaken
turpentine for sugar, I commenced making further inquiry and fortunately
applied to M. Turin, an intelligent pharmacien, who at once assured me that
Briancon manna was no myth, but a saccharine substance to be actually found
on the foliage of the larch. M. Turin stated that in the height of summer
and in the early part of the day, the larches in the forest (or at least some of
them, — I did not understand the remark to apply to all) were really whitened
with the manna, as if there had been a sprinkling of snow, — a thing remarked
the worthy pharmacien that was “ vraiment belle a voir.” M. Turin further
added that the manna had nothing in common with turpentine, or with the
aphis we had noticed on the leaves. In reply to my eager inquiry, if there
■was still a chance of seeing the manna in situ, and what locality for it was
most accessible, M. Turin directed us to the village of Chantemerle, near
which there was a mountain abounding in larches, and added that on some of
them it was possible we might still find the manna. Though we had engaged
to leave Brianc^on at an earl}" hour, we determined first to make the expedi¬
tion suggested by M. Turin, and accordingly drove to the village of Chante¬
merle, near which we found larches in abundance, but manna was not equally
obvious. A careful search however of the foliage of the trees revealed here
and there a little tear of white sugary matter, encrusting the needle-like
leaves. This was all the ocular evidence of manna we could obtain ; but on
returning to the village, an old peasant whom we accidentally met, assured us
that it was useless to search for the manna except in the cool of the morning,
and that moreover, the season for finding it was almost over. He promised
however to speak to the shepherds on the mountain, and obtain through them
a little of the substance, if any could still be found. The old man kept his
word, and through him I received at Grenoble a fortnight afterwards, a good
specimen of the Larch Manna, a portion of which I have now the pleasure of
exhibiting.

Seeing my interest about the manna, the old peasant asked me if I knew
what he called Genipi ; and on my professing ignorance, he ran home to get

ON THE RANCIDITY OF FATS.

249

some. It turned out to be an Artemisia , which is collected on the mountains,
and held in high estimation as an aromatic bitter.

Another production of the same neighbourhood is a sort of talc, once offi¬
cinal under the name of Craie cle Briangon , but now chiefly used as “ Boot
Powder,” and for taldng out greasy stains.

Hear Brian^on, the common gooseberry occurs very plentifully in a wild
state. Its fruit though not larger than a pea, and rather hard and bristly,
has an excellent flavour, and the plant is doubtless the progenitor of the
gooseberry of our gardens. It is rather curious how many other of our fruits
may also be noticed in this part of France, either wild or semi-wild. The
vine, apple, pear, medlar, quince, raspberry, cherry, and two species of cur¬
rant are all to be seen in greater or less abundance. The currants however
are specifically distinct from our garden llibes. In the alpine meadows the
chive (. Allium ScJicenojprasum L.) is very frequent, and in August its pink
flowers are ornamental among the green grass. In England it is only known
as a potherb, which is also the case with savory ( Satureja montana L.), which
I found on the dry hills of the Val dc Queyras. In this valley I also gathered
savine, which I had previously seen nowhere else. Here however it is very
plentiful, covering the rocks with a scrubby vegetation, and diffusing slightly
its characteristic odour.

Dauphiny abounds in mineral wealth, including that most precious of all
minerals, coal. It also posseses several medicinal springs, that of Uriage, six
miles from Grenoble, being the most frequented. The water is sulphuretted
alkaline, issuing from its source slightly warm. It is both drunk and used
for baths. There is also at Uriage a ferruginous spring, the water of which is
brought to the table d’hote in decanters and drunk with wine by those who
require a mild chalybeate tonic.

These, Gentlemen, are the pharmaceutical memoranda of my pleasant ram¬
ble, which came to a conclusion soon after I left Uriage. I have offered them
to you in default of a grave and learned paper, and hope they may have
afforded, if not amusement or instruction, at least a proof of my interest in
the welfare of the British Pharmaceutical Conference.

ON TIIE 11 AN C ID IT Y OF FATS.

BY THOMAS B. GROVES, F.C.S.

{Read at the Bath Meeting of the British Fharmaceutical Conference , Sept. 1SG4.)

Some experiments relative to the action of certain odorous principles in
preserving the neutrality of fats, commenced in December, 1861, and not yet
reported on, would, I thought, form the basis of a paper on the above inter¬
esting subject.

To the invalid who suffers from applying to an inflamed surface an irritant
instead of emollient substance, as well as to the pharmaceutist who sustains
pecuniary loss from the spoiling of his ointments by rancification, the ques¬
tion is doubtless important.

Rancidity may be defined as the changed condition, assumed sooner or later
b}r all natural fats exposed to air and moisture, such change being charac¬
terized by loss of blandness and neutrality and development of pungency and
acidity.

The cause of change being hidden or at best imperfectly understood, the
change has been termed spontaneous, or classed among those determined by
catalytic influence. Chemically speaking, it consists in the separation of the
neutral fat into its components, fatty acid and glycerine, — the latter substance

250

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

almost invariably accompanied by obscure products of decomposition of an
offensive and noxious character.

Palm oil is, I believe, the only fat tliat has been observed to separate dis¬
tinctly into acid and glycerine.

It will throw much light on the nature of the change if we carefully
watch its progress from the first appearance until the full development of
rancidity.

That is done with most ease in ointments containing colouring matter of a
vegetable origin, such as savine, or mineral, as oxide of mercury ; but in pure
lard it is not difficult.

The best chemical test of rancidity I find to be iodide of potassium, which
when mixed with fat in the least degree affected, quietly assumes an orange
colour, indicative of the presence of free iodine, the tint being directly pro¬
portional to the amount of rancidity. Thus I have found that when added
to fat extremely rancid, the coloration is intense and immediate ; when
added to mixtures of this fat and other perfectly neutral, the coloration is
less and less according to its dilution, and is plainly perceptible when the fat
contains only one-twentieth, but a longer time is required for its development.

Acidity cannot be relied on as the index, for it will be found, that whereas
the highly rancid fat, when boiled with alcohol, yields a solution reddening
decidedly, though not promptly, litmus-paper, a mixed fat, such as the above,
gives a negative result.

When rancidity first shows itself in a pot of lard that has been filled with
the melted fat and not subsequently disturbed, the following phenomena may
be observed. Here and there throughout its contents, but more especially at
the points where the lard touches the sides of the stoneware jar, small patches
of a whiter and more crystalline aspect than the bulk have made their appear¬
ance. If these patches are tried by iodide of potassium, they will be found to
be highly rancid, whilst the surrounding parts retain unimpaired their original
freshness. As the process advances, these patches increase in size and number,
until the whole mass has become infected. How far the action would proceed
if time were given it is uncertain, but ordinary cases of rancidity are caused
by the splitting up of a small portion only of the fat. From the change
taking place in situations to which the air cannot be supposed to penetrate, —
for instance, the interior of a homogeneous mass of fat, — it may be inferred
that air is not necessary to its propagation. Analogy coupled with the ob¬
servation that rancidity first makes its appearance at the sides of the vessel,
where possibly from contraction during cooling a small air-space may have been
left, point to the necessity of air being present at its commencement. In fact,
it is pretty sure that the phenomena are caused by a species of fermentation
involving the joint action of air, water, albuminous matter, and a moderate
degree of heat. Such is the opinion of M. Pelouze, who has written much
on the question, and of whose valuable labours I have freely availed myself.

There can be no question of the presence of water in all natural fats ; albu¬
minous matter in some form may also be safely assumed to be in company
with it. It is often met with in a flocculent form at the bottom of jars of
olive oil, and cannot fail to be present in all fats of animal origin, whilst
MM. Saussure and Pelouze have noted the absorption of oxygen during the
drying of siccative oils, some of which in return evolve hydrogen and car¬
bonic acid. I have myself observed a candle lowered into a jar partly filled
with cod-liver oil, that had remained some time in contact with the air in the
upper part of the vessel, suddenly extinguished. It is doubtless true, on the
supposition of a ferment being the agent that effects the disturbance, that
the removal of any one of the essential conditions would prevent its action.
But can it be done in a practical way ? I believe not. To remove the last trace

ON THE RANCIDITY OF FATS.

251

of humidity would be impossible, except by tedious and expensive methods.
Still a partial drying is better than none, and the experience of housewives is
unanimous on the point as regards the melting of lard, which they say will not
keep unless it has been made to boil. Albumen has been sought to be remoAred
by agitation with sulphuric acid of 40° Beaume, washing with water and subse¬
quently drying. The process was employed some years ago in preparing rape
oil for burning in lighthouses, and was found to hinder its oxidation. I have
not been able to imagine an easy process for freeing oils, etc., of this dangerous
ingredient, and have therefore made no experiments in that direction. M.
Pelouze made many attempts to insulate the body, but failed. Nevertheless
he was able from its effects to identify it as one of the albuminous series.
I shall be able to show, further on, that its activity may be effectually neutra¬
lized by a simple method. The entire exclusion of air is of course prac¬
tically impossible.

The length of time required for the development of these changes makes
experimenting very tedious, and renders one unable to do so much in a given
time as one could wish. I have therefore confined myself within very nar¬
row limits, relating to practical remedies only, and to Lard as the base of ex¬
periment.

Shortly after the use of benzoinated lard had been recommended for the
preparation of zinc ointment, which it is well known to preserve against ranci-
iication, I applied with success the same idea to other ointments of similar
composition, viz. those containing metallic oxides, whose presence had been
found to act unfavourably on the keeping qualities of the fats with which they
were associated. These were calamine cerate and oxide of mercury oint¬
ment. I have found that M. Deschamps, in 1843, recommended the same
proceeding in making oxide of mercury ointment, and also the ointments of
iodide of potassium and acetate of lead. For ointment of tutty and blue
ointment, where a little extra colour would not be objectionable, he directs
the use of “ graisse populinee,” the keeping qualities of which are really ex¬
traordinary. M. Deschamps states that whilst the “graisse benzinec ” will keep
good for one year, the “graisse populinee ” will keep good for an unlimited
time. He suggests its use for greasing machinery even. I intended to make
some of this preparation, but could not get the poplar buds. The French
perfumers, in preparing the base of their pomades, adopt a process somewhat
similar, viz. digestion with benzoin after a preliminary washing, and boiling
with solution of salt and alum. Their method yields a stable fat, but it is
too troublesome to be frequently performed, and succeeds best on the large
scale, — consequently is not well adapted for the pharmaceutist.

For experiment on the nature of the preservative power exercised on fats
by bodies like benzoin, the oxide of mercury ointment was evidently well
adapted, as the progress of rancification is marked by alteration ot colour—
the oxide being reduced pari jpassu with the oxidation of the fat.

It was my impression that the essential oil had more to do in the matter
than any other constituent of the gum, though it had been asserted that ben¬
zoic acid answered equally well. But the acid of commerce contains an abun¬
dance of the odorous principle.

To test the truth of the surmise, and at the same time ascertain what degree
of effect, if any, was produced by various essential oils, I prepared, on Dec.
5th, 1861, a quantity of red precipitate ointment, using ordinary lard and wax
in the prescribed proportions, and a smaller quantity using benzoinated lard.
To small portions of the former I added essential oils, in the proportion of 4
drops to the ounce. The oils I used were fennel, almond, bergamotte, cassia,
turpentine, lavender, neroli, lemon, rose, rosemary, caraway, nutmeg, savine,
inmento, cumin, clove, and sassafras. I also tried creasote, balsam of Peru,

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

Venice turpentine, and powdered guaiacum. These were all put into willow
boxes, and, in order to hasten the reaction, placed in a warm situation, whose
temperature ranged between 70° and 80°.

On the 28th of the following February (85 days), I observed the oint¬
ment made with plain lard to be slightly discoloured. By the 11th of March
(96 days), the change had developed itself in the lavender, neroli, lemon,
rosemary, and caraway, which, with the plain, were most discoloured. Next
came cassia, Venice turpentine, less discoloured ; and then fennel, almond,
and bergamotte, least discoloured. In some cases the interior was more dis¬
coloured than the exterior. April 19th, 1862 (135 days), the most changed
were the plain and bergamotte ; the next best, cassia, lemon, rosemary, la¬
vender, almond, turpentine; the least changed neroli, Venice turpentine,
fennel, and caraway. The rest continued good. On the 2nd of June (179
days), the only kinds remaining undiscoloured were rose, pimento, clove,
creasote, cumin, sassafras, guaiacum, and balsam of Peru, the least affected
of the remainder being benzoin, which now had given way.

By the 10th of September (279 days), rose and cumin had become dis¬
coloured, leaving good only clove, pimento, Peruvian balsam, sassafras,
guaiacum, and creasote, all of which at the present date are apparently as good
as ever.

December 5th of the following year (1862), I put by, under the same cir¬
cumstances, another series of ointments containing 4 drops to the ounce,
and a second series containing only 2 drops to the ounce of the following oils,
etc. : — Clove, sassafras, pimento, balsam of Peru, and creasote, — those, in fact,
that had comported themselves best on the prior occasion.

By May 5th, 1862 (151 days), the plain ointment was spoiled. By August
11th, 1862 (249 days), the benzoinated and No. 2 sassafras. At the present
date (August 29tli, 1864), balsam of Peru No. 2 shows symptoms of giving
way, but all the rest are apparently as good as ever. In order to ascertain
the actual condition of the fats — to try whether or not the test of colour could
be relied on — I recovered them by means of benzole from the No. 2 creasote
and No. 2 pimento, and found them react perfectly neutral with iodide of
potassium, notwithstanding they had been purposely kept under=the most
unfavourable conditions for upwards of twenty months.

The action of creasote, the great antiseptic, is not difficult to understand ;
but whether the essential oils shared its power to prevent the putrefaction of
albumen remained to be proved. To do so, I prepared a filtered solution of
egg albumen, and to 2-ounce portions of it, placed in 3-ounce bottles, I added
2 drops of each of the essential oils I had used with the ointments, dissolved
in I drachm of rectified spirit. One portion, mixed with spirit only, was
placed with them for comparison. They all were set aside in the situation
previously occupied by the ointments. The unscented albumen became
putrid in 28 days, the other specimens are still good. I expect them to ob¬
serve the same order in this experiment as in those with the ointments. I
may add, that all these essential oils precipitate albumen, some more, some
less.

Having succeeded so well with the ointment of oxide of mercury, I com¬
menced, January 22nd of this year, to try similar experiments on pure lard.

Twelve pounds of fresh flare were completely deprived of flesh and membrane,
bruised well, washed under a stream of water, and placed in a porcelain
vessel over a water-bath. As soon as one-third was liquefied, that portion
was strained and set aside. The temperature had not exceeded 140°. This
lard I shall refer to as No. 1.

The rest was kept on the bath one hour after total liquefaction, then
strained, its temperature being 190° ; half of it was set aside=No. 2.

ON THE RANCIDITY OF FATS.

253

The remainder was gradually heated to 220° and kept at that temperature
for five minutes=No. 3. It was much firmer than either of the preceding,
and maintained that distinction after being stirred.

Of each of these lards I set aside, in willow boxes, three specimens, viz.
lard well stirred, lard mixed with oil of pimento in the proportion of two drops
to the ounce, lard mixed with oxide of mercury one drachm to the ounce, —
and placed them where the temperature ranged between 70° and 80°.

On the 21st of April (ninety days) I first observed a change in the lards
mixed with oxide of mercury, — No. 1, strained at 140°, being the least, and
No. 3, strained at 220°, the most altered. The scented and plain lards, tested
with iodide of potassium, all produced slight coloration after half an hour, but
the scented lards less than the plain. No. 3 appeared to better advantage than
the less heated specimens. After thirty hours’ exposal on the slab to light and
air, a most extraordinary change was observed. Nos. 1 and 2 of the plain
lards had assumed an orange colour, No. 3 a similar tint, but only half as dark,
whilst the scented lards had lost rather than acquired colour, — in fact pro¬
duced an ointment at that time perfectly saleable. The contrast was most
striking, and continued so for two months ; by which time all the specimens
were of an orange colour, but the scented lards only externally , — probably
affected by the fumes of the laboratory.

These same lards were again examined July 7. Those mixed with oxide of
mercury -were all hopelessly bad. The rest were tested with iodide of potas¬
sium and after eight hours’ exposure presented the following appearances : —
Nos. 1, 2, and 3 of the plain were of a lemon colour, the tint of No. 1 being
less than that of No. 2, of No. 2 less than No. 3. The scented lards still main¬
tained their superiority, Nos. 1 and 3 being quite useable, No. 2 not so.

August 26, I again examined them, with the same results.

I therefore conclude that oil of pimento, which of those that had main¬
tained the neutrality of oxide of mercury ointment appears the best adapted
for the purpose, is a useful, agreeable, and easily applied remedy for prevent¬
ing or very much retarding rancification in fats and fatty mixtures.

I think I am also justified in adding this corollary — that it is advisable
when preparing ointments with a view to their preservation, to use ingredients
retaining unaltered the odorous principles with which nature has for obvious
purposes endowed them ; that is to say, I would use yellow wax instead of
white wax, yellow olive oil instead of bleached olive oil. In fact, experiment
has shown the superiority of these bodies not meretriciously tampered with,
over the some bodies to which a false appearance of excellence had been given
by exposure to bleaching agents, no matter how simple and apparently harm¬
less their nature.

The experiments on the effect of temperature I have repeated more than
once. They go to prove that it is not advisable to push the heat bcj’ond that
of the water-bath, nor maintain it too long at that temperature. I say this
feelingly, as the undecisiveness of my first experiment and a certain amount
of belief in the old-wives’ tale about boiling lard, induced me to try the super¬
heating process on a large scale, — and most unfortunate was the result.

I consider the British Pharmacopoeia process, where the flare is melted by
water-bath, the fat strained from the membrane as soon as possible, and then
dried by water-bath, to be an excellent one. I would only suggest the ad¬
visability of adding to it oil of pimento or balsam of Peru, in the proportion
of 2 drops to the ounce, before placing it in stock. Such addition does not in
any way interfere with its medicinal use, and would, as I have shown, much
conduce to its preservation.

Weymouth.

254

ON TIIE PROCESSES EOR PREPARING SOME OE THE
TINCTURES OF THE PHARMACOPEIAS.

BY ME. W. D. SAVAGE.

{Bead at the Bath Meeting of the British Pharmaceutical Conference , Sept. 18G4.)

Anxious to do something, however little, to promote the objects of the
Pharmaceutical Conference, — I accepted for consideration the resinous tinc¬
tures, but I soon found the subject would be so limited, and of so little gene¬
ral interest, that I deviated from my first intention, and endeavoured by some
mechanical experiments to estimate the relative proportions of extractive
matter in some of the more generally used tinctures possessing active pro¬
perties, and, so far as I could to ascertain the respective merits of the different
processes of manipulation. The tinctures were carefully prepared by my son
from the same ingredients, at the same temperature, and with the same spirit ;
so that the results may be estimated with more exactitude. In some cases a
second specimen was obtained from other makers. The quantity operated
upon in each case was only 5) (by weight) ; I have, therefore, for convenience
of comparing the product with the pharmacopoeia proportions, multiplied it for
5], and as the relative proportions are given in the subjoined table of the sub¬
stances in the L. P. and P.P., it will at one view show the advantages or
otherwise of the different modes of preparation. In order to render the com¬
parison a fair one and as analogous as possible, I adopted the following course
of action : — As a source of heat I used one of Griffin’s earthenware spirit-lamp
cylinders (6 inches high and 4 inches in diameter) ; on the top of this was
placed a circular tin basin inches diameter and little more than an inch
deep, filled with sand. On this I put four watch-glasses each containing 5j
of the same tincture made by the four different processes. (I found in prac¬
tice that it required 2 oz. of methylated spirit, and about three hours for the
evaporation of one batch, but in some cases, where the result seemed unsatis¬
factory, a second and even a third trial was necessary.) The watch-glasses
having been previously numbered with a diamond, and their respective weights
accurately ascertained, it was easy to ascertain the weight of residual extract,
and this was done before any of the extracts absorbed moisture. After I had
carried out my plan, I found from references made by Dr. Attfielcl to Dr.
Purton’s experiments, recorded in the 5th vol. of the Pharmaceutical Journal,
that the same course of testing the quantity of extractive matter in tinctures
had been carried on by him, but on a much more extended scale, for the
purpose of showing the advantage of suspending the ingredients in the men¬
struum instead of the usual plan of simple infusion. By the way, if Burton’s
plan is really so effective as it seems to be, and metal vessels (as Mr. Haselden
says) not objectionable, Loysell’s percolator would be an excellent means for
making tinctures, and, I should think, an improvement on the mode adopted
by Dr. Burton.

In making comparisons, in the subjoined table, it will be necessary to bear
in mind the relative quantities of solids given in the London and British
Pharmacopoeias. The quantifies are placed in juxtaposition for convenience
of reference. It seems to me quite evident, that the time allowed for macera¬
tion, usually 48 hours, in the British Pharmacopoeia, is not sufficient, and as a
rule not less than 14 days ought to have been recommended ; this with per¬
colation would have yielded the best results, for although I have given 21
days, I found in most cases that 14 days was quite as effective when the mate-
rials were properly shaken during the process.

The tinctures were all shaken up at least three times a day, and each one
filtered before it was evaporated.

SOME OF THE TINCTURES OF THE PHARMACOPEIAS. — RESULTS OF EXPERI¬
MENTS SHOWING INFLUENCE OF PROCESS ON PRODUCT.

Weight of in-

Residue of evaporation of 1 oz.

gredientsinloz.

of tincture.

of tincture.

B. P.

B. P.

L. P.

L. P.

-IShours’

21 days’

B. P.

L. P.

21 days’

7 days’

macera-

macera-

Remarks.

tnacera-

macera-

tion

tion

, tion.

tion.

with

with

grains.

grains.

percola-

percola-

Gr.

Gr.

tion.

tion.

Gr.

Gr.

1

Tinct. Aurant.

42

10

15

10

21

2

ditto

55

• •

•

• •

22

Procured from a respec-

3

Calumboe . .

54-08

30

8

8

8

10

table chemist.

4

Catechu

Catechu .

54-08

42

Cinnam. .

21-87

30

70-55

72

40

34

42

48

5

Chiratse . .

54-08

54-08

8

8

G

10

6

Cinchon. Co. .

43-75

48

22

A specimen procured

Pale Bark .

from Mr. G.

Orange P. .
Serpent. .
Saffron

21-87

10-93

3

30

9

Q

O

Ditto from Mr. N., per¬
colation only 20 grs.

Cochineal .

1-5

1-5

81-05

97-5

3*0

30

22

24

7

8

Cinnamomi .

Gentianse Co.

54-08

42

7

5

84

10

Gent. . .

32-81

30

Orange

10-4

15

Cardam. .

5-47

7'5

• •

• •

20

# #

Sample from Mr. G-.

54-08

52-5

24

20

22

22

9

Hyoscyami .

54-68

00

15

17

10

15

10

Myrrh . . .

54-08

30

14

13

1G

10

In making the tincture

add the myrrh to the
spirit, and not as is
usual the spirit to the
myrrh.

11

Opii ....

38-G

42-3

22

• •

.

• *

Boiled in water and ma-

cer. sp. ten.

12

Opii ....

28 grs. (Mr. N.) pcrco-

lation only.

13

Opii ....

22

• •

Mr. G.

14

Rhei Co.

Rhei . .

43-75

30

Cardamom.

5-47

Coriand. .

5-47

Saffron

5-47

4-5

Liquorice .

90

Ginger . .

4-5

00-10

48

22

22

20

24

15

Rhei Co. . .

22 grs. (Mr. N.) perco-

17

Scillse . . .

54-08

00

55

40

42

00 !*

lation only.

083-32

042-98

239

212

212^

203

This result must be from a portion of the water being retained and the difference
betwixt the fluid ounce of the Pharmacopoeia and the ounce by weight.

256

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

Tinct. Aurant. — The 21 days’ maceration with percolation yielded no less
than 5 grs. more than any of the other processes, and the colour and aroma
were decidedly preferable ; and the same result was obtained with an additional
gr. i. from a specimen tincture obtained from a respectable chemist.

Tinct . Calumb. — Whilst the B. P. has 54| grs. to 36 grs. L. P., the result is
the same, except with the 21 days’ maceration, where the yield is one-fiftli
more.

Tinct. Catechu is also a remarkable illustration of the advantage of addi¬
tional maceration.

Tinct. Cinchon. Co. yields a larger amount of extractive matter, but only in
proportion to the quantity of solids given, being so much greater in the L. P.
over the B. P. I had tivo samples of this tincture given me by friends, one of
them by percolation only, seems an exception to the rule, for it yields 2 grs.
more than by 21 days’ maceration and percolation ; this may arise from a
difference in the kind of bark used.

Tinct. Ilyoscyami. — The results here by the L. P. process are very different
from the preceding ones, but it is readily accounted for, as the, lamina only of
the second year’s herb, with the petiole and midrib removed, was used, and
an excellent tincture the result.

Tinct. Myrrh. — In mixing the myrrh with the spirit, it was found most
desirable to add the myrrh to the spirit, and then it was easily shaken up,
but if the spirit be added to the myrrh, the mass coheres at the bottom of the
vessel and is with difficulty separated.

I think it unnecessary to allude to any other of the tinctures, except Tine-
tura Opii. It will be seen that a remarkable difference is shown, by a spe¬
cimen (No. 12) procured from a friend who made it by percolation only, and
Nos. 11 and 13. It can only be accounted for by a difference in the quality
of the opium used. No. 11 was made with the gum, not with the powder,
and although the yield of extractive matter was less than No. 12, the colour
and peculiar flavour were quite as strong. I thought it desirable to procure
some other preparations, besides those made by my son, as a test to confirm
or otherwise those previously experimented upon. I regret that other en¬
gagements prevented me from trying the whole of the tinctures of the B. P.,
but I trust sufficient has been adduced to excite attention and further interest
in the subject by those better able and with more time at their disposal, for
carrying out the results efficiently.

Brighton.

ON THE CULTIVATION OP MEDICINAL PLANTS AT MITCHAM.

BY THOMAS T. P. BRUCE WARREN, PREPARATEUR IN TIIE LABORATORY

OF MR. WILLIAM IIOOPER,

7, Pall Mall Bast, 55, Grosvenor Street, and Mitcham.

( Bead at the Bath Meeting of the British Pharmaceutical Conference , Sept. 1861.)

The medicinal plants principally cultivated at Mitcham are — Lavender, Pep¬
permint, Chamomiles, lloses, Liquorice, and Henbane. Large quantities of
Poppies, Bosemary, Squirting Cucumber, Belladonna, and Pennyroyal are also
cultivated, and smaller quantities of Spearmint, Marshmallow, Ilorehound, Fox¬
glove, Stramonium, etc.

The amount of ground laid out for the cultivation of medicinal plants varies
every year ; the total acreage under cultivation at present is 736 acres, and
consists of —

ON THE CULTIVATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS AT MITCHAM. 257

Chamomiles (Anthemis nobilis duplex) . 55 acres.

Roses ( Rosa Gallica et Rosa Damascena) .... 119 ,,

Peppermint ( Mentha Piperita nigra) . 219 ,,

Lavender {Lavandula v era) . 172 ,,

Henbane ( Hyoscyamus niger) . 30 ,,

Liquorice {Glycyrrhiza glabra) . 32 ,,

Sundries . 109 ,,

Total . 73 G acres.

The sundries consist of—

Stramonium ( Datura Stramonium ); Ilorehound ( Marrubium mdgare)\
Savine {Juniper us Sabina) ; Pennyroyal ( Mentha Pulegium) ; Mallow {Altlicea
officinalis) ; Spearmint ( Mentha viridis) ; Rosemary {Rosmarinus officinalis) ;
Squirting Cucumber ( Elaterium Momordica) ; Belladonna {Atropa Bella¬
donna ); Foxglove {Digitalis purpurea) ; Poppies {Pap aver somniferuni) ;
Rue {Ruta graveolens); Celandine ( Chelidonium majus) ; Elecampane {Inula
Selenium ); Balm {Melissa officinalis ); Wormwood {Artemisia Absinthium );
Hyssop {Syssopus officinalis) ; Tansy {Tanacetum vulgar e)\ and many others
of less importance.

The greater portion of the Lavender and Peppermint is distilled for the oil?.

Formerly, a considerable quantity of Chamomiles, Rosemary, Pennyroyal,
Rue, and Spearmint, was cultivated for distillation, but they are now merely
dried.

The yield of oil per acre varies with the season and the soil on which the
plants are raised ; scarcely ever does it happen that two acres turn out alike ;
hence different growers obtain different amounts of oil.

The average yield of oil from Lavender is from 10 lb. to 11 lb. or 12 lb. per
acre ; one grower informed me that it averaged from 12 lb. to 24 lb. per acre.

I have been assured by a distiller that even more than 24 lb. of oil were
obtained from Lavender some years ago, and that the plants remained good for
four or five years ; but the maximum yield of even the best summers of late
years is about 12 lb. per acre.

The Lavender plants are now renewed after three years ; and it is a singular fact,
due, no doubt, in part to a want of skill in planting and slipping the plants, that
the yield of oil, even from the third year’s growth, is scarcely sufficient to repay
for the labour and expense of distilling, — the yield of oil from plants of the
second year’s growth being greater in every case than either that of the first or
third year’s.

The yield of oil per acre, from Peppermint, likewise varies with the season ;
the yield obtained by different growers is from 81b. to 121b., 101b., 81b. to
121b , 101b., 81b.

The effects produced by the qualities of the soil are more striking in the case
of Peppermint than in any other plant. Two crops of Peppermint standing
side by side indicate, when distilled, considerable difference in the yield of oil ;
and the smaller quantity is not unfrequently obtained from that crop which had
the most promising appearance ; and it has been remarked by many growers,
both at Carshalton and Mitcham, that Peppermint plants raised at Mitcham,
and laid out at Carshalton,* yield a very different product when distilled, both
in the aroma of the oil and the quantity obtained. I may observe, that equal
care is taken both in tillage and cultivation, and that the superiority of the
Mitcham produce is due to some peculiarity of the soil alone.

I examined a sample of Chamomile flowers, which the grower informed me
he cultivated entirely for distillation, and which, as dried flowers, he had a

VOL. VI.

* Carshalton is the parish adjoining Mitcham.

U

258

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

difficulty to dispose of. I could see no difference, further than the flowers were
fuller and more expanded. It is not improbable that the oil receptacles might
have an abnormal development by manuring and particular care. I do not
believe that it is a distinct variety. The yield of oil per acre from this kind
is 8 lb.

The yield of Chamomile flowers per acre is about 4 cwt.

Pennyroyal yields about 12 lb. of oil per acre ; and so extremely variable is
this plant in its yield of oil, that one grower informs me that he obtained only
five ounces from a quarter of an acre ; of course he ceased to cultivate Penny¬
royal for distillation.

The Provence Rose is extensively cultivated for the production of rose-water ;
large quantities are also dried for the London markets. The Damask Rose is
cultivated by a few growers for drying, and is never distilled.

During a favourable season 300 bushels of Roses are produced per acre.

If all the Lavender and Peppermint cultivated were distilled, the amount
of oil supplied by Mitcham will be about 21901b. 01. Menthse Pip., and about
2060 lb. 01. Lavand. ; but as a considerable quantity of Lavender is “bunched”
and dried, the amount of oil supplied must be much less.

Between 30,000 and 40,000 bushels of Roses are annually produced in
Mitcham, and abolit eleven tons of Chamomile flowers.

Great care is taken in gathering and drying these flowers. The Roses are
collected before sunrise.

They are dried in ovens heated by air, and are maintained at a constant
temperature of 100° F. by a regulating arrangement.

After the Chamomiles are dried they are “picked.” This operation consists
in separating the darker flowers.

The “bunched” plants are dried in open sheds, secluded from the action of
direct sunlight.

The stills are of very large capacity, holding from 1000 to 2000 gallons. A
charge occupies from six to eight hours. The distillation is conducted at the
lowest possible temperature ; and, as soon as the contents of the retort have
reached the boiling-point, the fire is withdrawn.

The finest portion of the oil comes over during the first period of distillation,
and the receiver is exchanged. Only two qualities of oil are generally collected
and the receivers are exchanged after three hours’ run.

There is a peculiar fragrance and delicacy in the oil first obtained, which is
decidedly wanting in the product which comes over towards the end.

I find that a much less proportion of camphor exists in the Mitcham oils
than in oils generally. This might be due to their freshness, and to the
peculiar alchemistical notions of the distiller of conducting everything in the
dark. No doubt, exclusion from the actinic rays is as desirable for the preserva¬
tion of essential oils as other products of the vegetable kingdom.

The oils generally are of very light specific gravity, and their refractive
power is very great.

In operating with such large quantities of water, involving as it must some
considerable loss of oil, a plan was tried, some time ago, to economize this un¬
necessary consumption of the oil, by using the impregnated water for suc¬
cessive charges of the retort, but the expense of pumping and storing away this
water was greater than the loss arising from the solution of the oil.

The extracts obtained from Belladonna, Foxglove, Stramonium, Henbane,
Poppies, and Elaterium, cultivated at Mitcham, ar t in their action and appear¬
ance very good.

In the laboratory of Mr. William Hooper these cultivated plants have been
very extensively consumed ; and there can be no doubt but that the uniformity
of these extracts, as regards their medicinal activity, is due in part to cultivation ;

ON CONCENTRATED INFUSIONS.

259

but it must not be overlooked that the process by which these extracts are
obtained is calculated to preserve the activity of the plant, — for extractive matter,
if oxidized, ceases to be soluble.

The soil of Mitcham is generally a good holding one, that is, retains moisture
well, and is naturally rich. It varies in depth even on the same estate, being
in some places only a few inches, whilst in others it is several feet.

Most growers supply large quantities of manure to their land, but evidently
do not supply the elements abstracted by the growing crops, as the yield is con¬
tinually diminishing. They do not lay out for two successive seasons the
same plants on the same ground. This is axiomally admitted by them to be as
desirable as the rotation of agricultural crops. Some growers plant potatoes, etc.,
after peppermint ; and, after renewing the soil with manure, again plant pepper¬
mint. This plan is considered highly beneficial to the production of good crops.

The uncertainty of the seasons in England, and the introduction of foreign
produce, have considerably reduced the annual production of Mitcham. A large
farm, consisting of more than 1000 acres, which was a few years ago laid out
with Lavender, Peppermint, lloses, Chamomiles, Caraways, and Henbane, is
now employed entirely for the production of cereal crops ; and most growers,
rather than meet with the disappointment of a failure, lay out a large propor¬
tion of their land with culinary vegetables.

The flowers obtained during a very dry season such as the past, yield a larger
proportion of oil than the flowers obtained during an ordinary summer ; but,
from the combined effects of the frosts during the latter part of May, less oil will
be obtained this year than for years past. The yield of Oil of Lavender will be
from 4 lb. to 5 lb. per acre.

I have intentionally omitted to include in this paper the analyses of the soils,
as I consider them more intimately connected with the phenomena of cultivation
when considered in reference to physiological effects, and which I intend to lay
before the conference in a paper on “The Effects of Soil and Cultivation on
the Development of the Active Principles of Plants.”

ON THE PREPARATION OE SMALL QUANTITIES OF
CONCENTRATED INFUSIONS.

BY MR. T. GRUNDY.

(Read at the Bath Meeting of the British Pharmaceutical Conference , Sept. 18GI.)

The subject of concentrated infusions has been so often treated, that there
is but little new to be said about them. I have, however, used a process for
making them which has given me satisfactory results ; and as it is applicable
to a pint of infusion, I think it will answer the question proposed to the Con¬
ference. It is, of course, needless to point out that no concentration can
exactly represent the infusions of the Pharmacopoeia, on account of the ne¬
cessary employment of spirit, to keep the product. Personally, I hold the
opinion that a concentrated infusion, when ^oell made, is superior to a fresh
infusion, and answers the purpose of a chemist better ; but the authorities on
the other side are numerous and important.

The principle on which I proceed is that of hot percolation. I have had a
percolator made of tin, being a double tin drum, with an inlet pipe at the
bottom, and a small jet at the top ; the bottom pipe is then connected with a
little tin boiler placed over the gas. Steam is generated in the boiler and
passes into the casing of the percolator, blowing off at the little jet at the
top. The bottom of the percolator is made of wire gauze, on which a piece

200

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

of filtering-paper and some sand is put. I also employ a sieve of about
twenty meshes to the inch, through which the ingredients are passed.

In the present Pharmacopoeia there are twenty-seven infusions : twenty-
three are prepared with hot water, three with cold, and two with water at
120°. The process which I adopt is this, for illustration of which I will
take Inf. Buchu, it being a substance of strong flavour, and one which is
therefore more difficult to concentrate. Take half a pound of bucliu, or
bucco. If the leaves are not perfectly crisp, warming them in a tin pan over
steam will render them so in ten minutes. Bruise in a mortar, and pass all
through the sieve. Then put in a jug, and add just sufficient boiling water,
to damp the powder. In half an hour transfer to the percolator, pack, and set
the boiler at work. In a few minutes’ time, or as soon as the mass is warm,
pour boiling water on the top of the ingredients, and percolate till the liquor
obtained amounts to half a pint. Bemove this and add thereto, when cold,
three ounces of rectified spirit. Continue percolation till another half-pint is
obtained ; evaporate this in a very shallow pan at a temperature of about
100° to five ounces, and when cold add to the other. Continue to percolate
another half-pint, and evaporate this to two ounces, which will make up the
bulk of twenty ounces required. The resulting product, after standing a
week, may be filtered off, and will be found on dilution in the proportion of
one part to seven of water to give an infusion equal in flavour to that of the
Pharmacopoeia, and superior to it in clearness and brilliancy. This process
will do for the groat majority of the infusions.

Inf. Aurantii is best made with the peel cut small and not passed through
the sieve. Inf. ltosse Co. is best made with water, and when finished to bulk
90 minims of strong sulphuric acid added, with constant stirring, to each
pint. Inf. Lini is, from its thickness, insusceptible of concentration. The
two infusions at 120° must be worked by the aid of a thermometer ; fortunately
they are but seldom required. There remain only the three cold infusions ;
of these, Calumbo and Quassia are most easily made by the above process,
minus the heat.

We now come to Inf. (xentianar. The quantity ordered in the Pharmacopoeia
will, in practice, yield about nine ounces, and as two ounces of proof spirit are
contained therein, this will practically give in an eight-ounce mixture, taken in
six doses, nearly two drachms of rectified spirit for a dose. Such a prepara¬
tion can hardly be called an infusion, it is simply a weak tincture. It does not
bear concentrating lower than double its strength. When containing nearly
twenty-five per cent, of spirit it will keep well. I think the simplest process
is to use double the quantity of ingredient, and let it stand double the time.
The chief point in the percolation is the management of the sand, by using
more or less of which the rate of the percolation can be regulated.

In evaporating, I prefer a very flat pan at a comparatively low tempera¬
ture ; the volatile part of the plant does not rise so readily with the watery
vapour. I have had a large flat double-tin pan made, which is supplied with
steam in the same way as the percolator.

Cholic Farm Road , London.

NOTE ON EOTENTILLA TORMENTILLA.

BY MR. JOHN ADAMS.

( Read at the Rath "Meeting of the British Pharmaceutical Conference , Sept. 1864.)

JPotentilla Tormentilla is a plant belonging to the Order Rosacea ?, I)e Cand.,
and grows abundantly in woods and on commons. It is sometimes called
Sept foil, from the Greek EnrafvWov, which means Seven-leaf, because it

ON THE CALABAR BEAN.

261

usually lias seven long narrow leaves at a joint. The flowers grow on the
tops of slender stalks and are of a yellow colour. The root is of a blackish
colour outside and reddish within, thick and knotty. It flowers from Juno
to the latter end of September. The part of the plant used in medicine is the
root, and it is usually considered to possess the valuable properties of being
very astringent, febrifuge, and not stimulant, — properties which certainly en¬
title it to a more extensive use in consequence of producing its astringent
effects without causing excitement. It was much esteemed by most of the
older writers on botany and materia medica, who pronounce it an excel¬
lent medicine, not only in cases of diarrhoea, but also dysentery and liscmo-
ptysis ; and it is still used in some districts, with very good effect, by the
people who make tea (infusion) of it. The tincture is used with success in
diarrhoea mixtures. Its use however in modern pharmacy has been very
limited, one preparation only having been ordered in the pharmacopoeias up
to the time of the British Pharmacopoeia, from which it is altogether excluded.
I am of opinion that in the next edition of the Pharm. Brit, it would be
useful to retain the decoction as heretofore, and also to add two more prepa¬
rations of it, the “ infusion ” and the “ tincture,” prepared according to the
following formula}

Tinctura Tormentillce .

P> Bad. Torment. Contus. . . . 5'iv.

Proof Spirit . Oij.

Macerate for twenty-eight days and filter.

Infusum Tormentillce.

Bad. Torment. Contus. . . . 5yj.

Aq. Bullient . Oj.

Macerate for two hours in a vessel lightly covered, and strain.

ON THE CALABAB BEAN.

BY J. B. EDWARDS, PII.D., F.C.S.,

LECTURER OX TOXICOLOG-Y, ETC, AT THE LIVERPOOL SCHOOL OP MEHICIXE.'

( Head at the Bath Meeting of the British Pharmaceutical Conference , Sept. 1864.)

When the Calabar Bean is decorticated, it yields 30 per cent of spermoderm
and 70 per cent, of white kernel. Exhausted by about three times its weight
of hot rectified spirit, it yields 5 to 6 per cent, of alcoholic extract, which,
upon evaporation, separates into two liquids, miscible with chloroform, but
soluble only with ether.

The alcoholic dry extract yields, with water, an emulsion of a white cha¬
racter, which becomes pink by exposure to air and light. In the proportion
of 5 grains of extract to 1 fluid drachm of water, equal to 120 grains of ker¬
nel, 1 minim represents 2 grains of kernel. This quantity, applied to the
pupil, produces a contraction which is maintained for live days.

The tincture is prepared by percolation, thus : —

Kernel, in powder . . . ^j.

Spirit of Wine . . . . %j.

Macerate 48 hours, then percolate with 1 ounce of spirit, or sufficient to
produce 2 ounces of tincture. The dose is from 5 to 15 minims, 5 minims
being equal in activity to 3 grains of the kernel. That which I have prepared

is of a much lighter colour than that described by Dr. Frazer. It is said to

be valuable in erysipelas, delirium tremens, fibricula, acute bronchitis, and
rheumatic fever.

262

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

The tincture is probably the most valuable pharmaceutical preparation, as
an interna) remedy, while the aqueous emulsion is the form adapted for ex¬
ternal application by the oculist.

The structure of the bean is very interesting under the microscope. The
cells of the spermoderm form interesting sections, whilst the kernel consists
of loose cellular tissue, containing very large starch granules.

Both acids and alkalies develope peculiar colouring principles. One appears
to be a red colouring matter, developed by caustic potash ; in an aqueous so¬
lution it may be removed by chloroform, and collected therein as a brilliant
scarlet opaque solution.

A pink colour is also developed by sulphuric, nitric, and hydrochloric
acids, with, however, a coagulation of some albuminous principle. Caustic
soda simply bleaches the extract, whilst caustic ammonia developes a yellow
colouring matter which, upon exposure to air, gradually changes from yellow
to a grass-green, and finally a stable indigo-blue colour. It is not improbable
that the latter reaction may be an important fact in the commercial history of
the bean. The physiological properties of the bean being perfectly antago¬
nistic to those of strychnia, it is somewhat remarkable that the chemical reac¬
tions of the extract bear a remarkable resemblance to strychnia with the
“ colour tests.” The chief distinction lies in the crystalline character of strych¬
nia, and the fact that it is not changed in colour by sulphuric acid. When che¬
micals yielding nascent oxygen, or ozonized salts are added to the acid mix¬
ture, the reactions consist of a play of blue, purple, and red colours, which
might be mistaken, when observed in minute quantities, for those of strych¬
nia. [These reactions were exhibited to the meeting.] I am now acting
upon a large quantity of the beans (50 to 60 pounds), and hope, in a future
communication, to be able to give further information than is at present
known with respect to the character and composition of the alkaloidal prin¬
ciple and the colouring matters which may be obtained from these remarkable
beans.

ON THE MORPHIA SALTS OF COMMERCE.

BY W. E. HEATIIFIELD, F.R.G.S.

{Read at the Rath Meeting of the British Pharmaceutical Conference , Sept. 1864.)

Amongst the many vegetable products from which are obtained the alka¬
loidal bodies, there are none, as at present known, of so complex a character
as opium ; none which yield so largely their crystalline formations, and none
which afford so many substances, each presenting a different feature and a
different habit.

Of these substances, amounting to about eleven, six have been carefully
analysed, and the verifications of the results by Professor Anderson, of Glas¬
gow, together with the experimental performances upon some of them by
Mr. How, have contributed much to render this part of the subject complete.
The subjoined list indicates the six bodies to which I refer, and the composi¬
tion of each : — -

Morphia . C34H19N06 + 2 aq.

Codeia . C36H21N06 „

Thebain . C38H21N06 „

Papaverin .... C40H21NO8 „

Narcotin . C46H25N014 „

Narcein . C46H29N018 3,

And it is to be observed that the two first-named, i. e. morphia and codeia,
differ from each other exactly by C2H2, and it suggested itself to Mr. How
(whose experiments were tried in the year 1853, as detailed in the ‘ Journal

ON THE MORPHIA SALTS OF COMMERCE.

263

of the Chemical Society/ vol. vi. p. 125, May, 1854), that morphia might he
converted into codeia by the decomposition of an agent ready to part with
the elements in question, and so produce the proposed effect.

But easy as the transition of morphia into codeia appears, on a comparison
of their respective rational formulae, the object was not attained by Mr. How,
who came to the conclusion, that by any means at present within our reach,
no great stimulus is afforded to us to prosecute inquiries for the production
of this or other of the natural alkaloids. It is true that Mr. How obtained,
by means of iodide of ethyl acting on morphia, a salt isomeric with hyclrio-
date of codeia, but beyond isomerism it was in no way identical with it, for
the base of the new salt was widely different in its physical and chemical pro¬
perties from codeia. Yet it has been thought by some eminent manufac¬
turers of morphia and codeia, that there is a tendency on the part of the
former to change into codeia under the influence of certain agencies, and it
would be an interesting feature if this point could be established.

In following out some experiments, having in view the state of hydration,
and the freedom from codeia of the morphia salts of commerce, I endea¬
voured, after examining samples from various sources, to confine myself more
especially to those of different manufacturers, and I propose to report upon
three specimens, each being of different make. Of each specimen 100 grains
(of hydrochlorate of morphia) were dried at a temperature of 212°.

No. 1. 100 grains. Weight after drying, 95 grains : loss, 5 grains.

No. 2. 100 grains. „ „ 92 grains : loss, 8 grains.

No. 3. 100 grains. „ „ 90*2 grains: loss, 9'8 grains.

The characteristics of solubility were as follows : — •

Ho. 1, immediately on contact with water, became dark in colour, and
united to form a clot, taking some minutes to dissolve, and then forming a
solution somewhat coloured.

Ho. 2, on contact with water, became very slightly coloured, formed but
little clot, and dissolved in less time considerably than the former, producing
a solution slightly tinted.

Ho. 3, not at all darkened on contact with water, remained pulverent, and
separate, and dissolved with rapidity, forming a perfectly colourless solution.

On precipitating a solutioh of 100 grains of hydrochlorate of morphia
from each of the three specimens, the results were as follows : —

No. 1. Precipitate, coloured yellow, and pulverent (dried at 212°) 79’7.

No. 2. Pearly white, crystalline . 76'7.

No. 3. Less white, less crystalline . 74'3.

These precipitates were entirely soluble in a solution of caustic potash; and
were scarcely acted upon by anhydrous ether.

100 grains of acetate of morphia from each of three specimens were sub¬
jected to a temperature of 212°, and lost as follows : —

No. 1. 100 grains. Weight after drying, 95 grains : loss, 5 grains.

No. 2. 100 grains. „ „ 90 grains : loss, 10 grains.

No. 3. 100 grains. „ „ 87*4 grains : loss, 12-6.

Ho. 1, on applying the heat of a water bath, became dark- coloured, fused
into a coloured mass, and finally lost its structure.

Ho. 2, on applying a similar heat, became partially fused and dark-coloured,
but scarcely lost its structure.

Ho. 3 retained its pulverent form throughout the process.

On an examination being made of the precipitates by ammonia from the
hydrochlorate of morphia, they proved to be morphia in a high degree of
purity, perfectly soluble in caustic potash, scarcely acted upon by ether, and

264

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

almost entirely free from codeia, as was also tlie mother-liquor from which
they had been precipitated.

On a review of these experiments, it will be observed that the three sam¬
ples of hydrochloratc of morphia contained varying proportions of water, and
varying quantities of the alkaloid in like proportion, — that which was the
least soluble, No. 1, having the largest proportion of the alkaloid, that which
was most so, containing the largest proportion of water, as in No. 3 ; the dif¬
ference between No. 1 and No. 3 being equal to nearly five per cent, of water,
and nearly live and a half per cent, of alkaloid. The codeia appeared in
each specimen to have been carefully separated. The range of moisture in
the acetate was a little wider than in the hydrochlorate, the loss in No. 1 be¬
ing live per cent., whilst that in No. 3 was about twelve and a half per cent.

I regret that I have not been able to carry out this investigation to the
extent that I had proposed and wished, but should I be again permitted to
furnish a paper to the Conference, I hope to devote more attention, and to
direct my observations more usefully.

ON COMMERCIAL PHOSPHORIC ACID.

BY R. PARKINSON, PH.D.

( Read at the Bath Meeting of the British Pharmaceutical Conference , Sept. 1864.)

What is the quality of the diluted phosphoric acid met with in commerce,
and what the best and safest method of obtaining it of constant strength ? is
the question to which I have undertaken to devote some attention. The
quality I take to mean firstly strength, inasmuch as this is an article not
generally likely to be much adulterated, except with water, and secondly the
presence of foreign substances in it, among which meta- and pyrophosplioric
acids may be included. From my provincial position and general close confine¬
ment to home, I have been unable to make a properly representative collec¬
tion. I have however through the kindness of friends obtained and examined
about thirty samples, twelve or thirteen of which were collected for me from
wholesale and dispensing houses in London and neighbourhood, by Dr.
Attfielcl, and the remainder are from towns in Yorkshire, Lancashire, Cheshire,
and one from Cumberland. I have arranged the results in the form of a
table, giving the percentage of acid, the specific gravity, and other remarks
where necessary ; and I have placed at the head of the list, for standards of
comparison, the percentage and specific gravity of the acids of the British
and London Pharmacopoeias respectively. It will be seen that only three of
the specimens come up to the B. P. standard, two more are considerably above
P. L., then again three may be regarded as sufficiently near P. L., and the
remaining twenty are of various shades of declension. I have observed in
some cases a discrepancy between the specific gravity and the percentage
amount, for which I cannot account. I have re-examined some of the more
glaring ones, but could arrive at no other result, and had not time to go
through them all again. The specific gravities were all taken consecutively
and at a different time from the percentages, which were estimated by the
volumetric method with nitrate of uranium, originated by Mr. Sutton. In
those samples, which are made from glacial phosphoric acid, and which con¬
tain phosphate of ammonia, the percentages will not represent the free acid,
but the total amount both free and combined. I have been unable to devise
a satisfactory method for readily ascertaining the amount of free acid. The
ordinary plans of acidimetry will not do, as may be known, when it is con¬
sidered that the chemically neutral phosphates have an alkaline reaction.

ON COMMERCIAL PHOSPHORIC ACID.

265

The method ordered in the B. P., i.e. noting the increase of weight in some
oxide of lead, after digestion with the acid, will of course be open to the
same objection as the uranium process, because the phosphate of ammonia
will be decomposed by the oxide of lead and the whole of the acid thus ac¬
counted for. I have not made any use of the B. P. process, as it occupies

RESULTS OF EXAMINATION OF SAMPLES OF DILUTE PHOSPHORIC ACID.

No.

Per cent,
of P05.

Specific

gravity.

Remarks.

B.P. . . .

10-0

1-080

B. L. . .

8-7

1-064

1 . . .

10.4

1-074

1

•

2 . . .

10-0

1-064

> Up to B. P.

3 . . .

100

1-073

4 . . .

5 . . .

93

8-9

1-065

1073

Above P. L.

6 . . .

8-8

1-062

7 . . .

8-8

1-061

- About P. L.

8 . . .

8-6

1-062

9 . . .

8-4

1-049

10 . . .

8-3

1-055

Contains ammonia.

11 . . .

83

1-057

12 . r .

80

1051

13 . . .

SO

1-051

14 . . .

8-0

P047

15 . . .

7-7

1*046

16 . . .

7-4

1*055

. Contains ammonia.

17 . . .

7-4

1051

P

18 . . .

7-0

1*056

Pm Contains ammonia.

19 . . .

7-0

1-044

r u

d)

20 . . .

6-9

1-043

21 . . .

6-9

1046

p

22 . . .

6-9

1*043

23 . . .

6-8

1-052

21 . . .

5-9

1*041

Contains ammonia.

25 . . .

5-9

1-037

26 . . .

5-8

1*035

Contains ammonia.

27 . . .

5-8

1*036

•

28 . . .

56

1-061

Contains ammonia and

sulphuric acid.

too much time, and is not, I believe, practically more accurate than that with
uranium. The most satisfactory way seemed to be to supersaturate with
lime of known value to a certain volume, allow the precipitated phosphate of
lime to subside, and estimate the excess of free lime in part of the clear liquid.
This however takes considerable time. I may mention that while experiment¬
ing this part of the subject in various ways, and working with the colouring-
matter of violets as an indicator and caustic potash as the neutralizing agent,
I was struck with the fact, which seemed tolerably constant, that the red
of the violets (in the acid liquid) was changed to blue when one-third of the
amount of alkali had been added that was necessary to produce the green,
which showed that the alkali was in excess. This did not always occur with
chemical exactitude, but taken together with the tribasic character of the
phosphates it seemed interesting and to merit further examination. Litmus
did not show this at all, but turned a bluish-purple about when the violets

266

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

turned blue, and so remained till a considerable excess of alkali bad been
added, no sharp line of demarcation being anywhere visible.

I have examined most of the specimens for free nitric acid, finding however
only traces in any of them, also for phosphorous acid, which was absent from
all I tried, as were also meta- and pyrophosphoric acids. In Ho. 28 I noticed
a wide difference between the specific gravity and the percentage of acid.
The acidimetric estimation also showed the presence of considerably more
acid than the uranium accounted for as phosphoric. I therefore examined
it further, and found a considerable quantity of sulphuric acid. I then exa¬
mined some of the others, but did not meet with it again.

I have said that the samples made with glacial phosphoric acid contain
ammonia ; this I believe to be so universally the case, that the presence or
absence of ammonia shows the method of manufacture. The glacial acid is
made commercially by heating phosphate of ammonia, when theoretically the
ammonia should be all volatilized ; practically however it is not so. The
amount retained will probably vary with nearly every sample ; I therefore
examined only one, to get some idea of what might be the case. It was
a sample of German, procured for me by Mr. [Reynolds, and which I found to
contain 5‘5 per cent, of ammonia ; if we consider this to have been present
as tribasic phosphate, it is equal to 16'7 per cent. ; if however it be as mono¬
basic or metaphosphate of ammonia, if such a salt exists, there is 44T per
cent, of it. It is this fact that constitutes the principal objection to the use of
the glacial acid, at least of the present commercial article, as the source of the
diluted acid of the Pharmacopoeia. It will be known to many that in the last
edition of the U. S. P., in addition to a similar process to that in our own, it
is said that the diluted acid may also be prepared by dissolving ^j Acid. Phosph.
Glacial, in £iij water, adding forty grains of nitric acid, boiling to syrup, then
diluting to ^xiiss. Under the head of Phosphoric Acid Glacial in Materia
Medica, it is however among other tests expressly mentioned that no ammo¬
nia is evolved from it when potash is added in excess.

To the second division of the question, as to the best and safest mode of
obtaining dilute phosphoric acid of a constant strength, I regret that I have
been unable to find a satisfactory solution. Under present circumstances,
I think the 33. P. process — objectionable as it certainly is, more however, as
I believe, on the score of tediousness than of danger — is the best for use on the
small scale, and by those comparatively unaccustomed to the manipulation
of chemical apparatus, both as to the process itself and also as needing no
explanation of the product beyond making up to a prescribed quantity, after
of course fulfilling the directions given, — and therefore probably the best for
insertion in such a work. I am sorry however that I have not had oppor¬
tunity of trying further the substitution of amorphous for ordinary phosphorus,
as suggested by Mr. Groves (Pharm. Journ. vol. xvii. p. 510), as it seems
likely to be an improvement, and now that red phosphorus is a commercial
article, might be readily carried out. I had not however seen his suggestion
till too late for any experimenting on it. If it should be thought worth while
to continue the question to me, I will endeavour to go further into it during
the next year.

Whilst I thus think that of the 33. P. to be the most convenient process, I
believe that the simple combustion of phosphorus, with proper arrangements
for supply of air and collection of the acid, will be every way better on the
large scale. I made my own acid in this way on a small scale with a bell
glass some years ago, and was able to make eight or ten times the quantity
in the time as by the pharmacopoeia process. A very good figure of apparatus
for the purpose is given in Miller’s ‘ Chemistry,’ it may of course be modi¬
fied according to circumstances. I have seen somewhere, in some German

ON COMMERCIAL PHOSPHORIC ACID.

267

work I believe, a similar sketch of apparatus, but using a largo carboy and
an aspirator. The product of this operation, when dissolved in water, is a
mixture of meta- and pyropliosphoric acids, and, if sufficient air has not been
admitted, of phosphorous acid also ; it is therefore necessary to boil it with a
little nitric acid, as in the pharmacopoeia process. On the large scale, how¬
ever, this might easily be made into a pure glacial acid, and if such an article
were commercially attainable, I am quite of opinion that plain directions for
its dilution, etc., as given in the U. S. P., would be the best pharmacopoeia
process, placing the glacial acid as they do in the list of materia medica.

If not trespassing too much on your time, I will shortly mention one or
tw o processes I have tried and the results arrived at with regard to them
Neustadt (Chem. News, vol. iv. p. 13) publishes a method for obtaining phos¬
phoric acid pure on the large scale from bone-ash, converting it first into a
soda salt, then phosphate of baryta. The quantity of the latter from one
part of bone-ash he directs to be mixed with one part of sulphuric acid diluted
with three parts of water and stirred occasionally for two or three days, until
no sulphuric acid is found in the liquor. This reads very well, but, like some
other nice things, at least in my hands, does not work as it reads. I com¬
menced with phosphate of soda, wffiich is easily obtained pure in commerce,
and made the phosphate of baryta from it. This I digested with its equiva¬
lent of sulphuric acid, diluted as directed ; considerable heat was evolved,
showing that action was taking place, after three days, however, with fre¬
quent shaking, sulphuric acid was still present in the liquid. I left it another
week, shaking occasionally, and still there was sulphuric acid. I then boiled
it for three or four hours, and still there was sulphuric acid. I then filtered
off and washed the precipitated sulphate of baryta, etc., and added more phos¬
phate of baryta to the filtrate ; then I certainly had no sulphuric acid, but,
what was worse, phosphate of baryta was dissolved in the free phosphoric
acid. To this I cautiously added dilute sulphuric acid while hot, until no
further precipitate was produced. I had then certainly pure phosphoric acid,
but, as it seemed to me, at too much trouble and risk of danger from the pre¬
sence of the poisonous baryta compound (or, on the other hand, from excess
of sulphuric acid) for it to be a good pharmacopoeia process.

I then tried decomposing phosphate of lead, suspended in water, by means
of sulphuretted hydrogen. Phosphate of lead is easily prepared from the
commercial phosphate of soda, and for some time I thought this would prove
a satisfactory and easy process. Repeated experiments showed, however,
that small particles of the phosphate were apt to escape decomposition unless
the recently precipitated salt were used and it was rubbed up perfectly smooth
with the water, and also an excess of sulphuretted hydrogen ensured for
some time (which is an objection of itself) ; and in this case, as in that of the
baryta process, the acid, unless immediately filtered off, contained varying
quantities of dissolved lead salt, the mere possibility of which unfits it as a
process for inexperienced hands. If properly carried out, however, I believe
this to be a good and easy method.

With regard to the use of the glacial acid as the source of the dilute phos¬
phoric acid, it is stated in the ‘ Lancet ’ (1864, vol. i. p. 361) that such an acid
will not do for Syr. Ferri Phosph. The objection to it for this purpose
entirely, as I believe, consists in the presence in it of meta- and pyrophos-
phoric acids, which, as Maisch has shown (Pharm. Journ. vol. iii. p. 278),
remain under certain cir<?umstances much longer undecomposed than had
previously been imagined. Boiling with a small quantity of nitric acid, as
ordered in the U. S. P., effectually removes them, and the acid is then (if
made from pure glacial) pure and fit for any of the purposes to which it
may be applied.

268 BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

I thought this fact might have a bearing on some of the awkward circum¬
stances that have occurred in the dispensing of prescriptions containing
phosphoric acid and iron salts, one of which is mentioned by Mr. Deane
(Pharm. Journ. vol. iv. p. 508), and one which came to my own knowledge
where a prescription ordering, Tinct. Eerri Mur. 5ss, Acid Phosph. Dil. ^ss,
Aqua ad ^xij, was made turbid at one place and clear at another. The case
mentioned by Mr. Deane is however, as he found, independent of any pre¬
sence of metaphosphoric acid, strength and mode of mixing being the causes
of the difference of appearance in the mixtures in question. The other case
is so dependent. The acid which produced the turbid mixture contained the
monohydrate. In experimenting on this, I found sesquichloride of iron to
be equally as delicate a test for this hydrate as nitrate of silver. It gives
with it a yellowish- white precipitate, insoluble in free acid. I was induced,
on noticing the above, to see how long glacial phosphoric acid, when simply
dissolved in cold water, would retain any monohydrate. Maisch (Pharm.
Journ. vol. iii. p. 278), as already mentioned, shows that the conversion is not
so rapid as was supposed, but found that at their American summer tem¬
perature it was complete in two or three weeks. In the beginning of De¬
cember, I made some dilute acid, L. P. strength, from glacial, by solution
in cold water. This gave a white precipitate with nitrate of silver, also
with sesquichloride of iron, as noted above. I tried this in the same way,
at intervals, to the end of March, nearly four months, — the turbidity of the
iron mixture certainly somewhat decreasing, but unmistakably present. I
then, from other engagements, did not try it again till the middle of July,
then it gave a clear mixture with iron and also no precipitate with nitrate of
silver.

Bradford , Yorkshire.

ON THE ASSAY OP THE ALKALOIDS IN PHARMACEUTICAL

EXTRACTS.

BY THOMAS B. GROVES, F.C.S.

( Read at the Bath Meeting of the British Pharmaceutical Conference , Sept. 1864.)

The proneness to change, characteristic of all watery extracts, added to the
frequent mal-preparation and sophistication of those devoted to medicinal
uses, point to the desirability of inventing a method by which their degree
of activity may be readily ascertained ; and, although I have strong doubts
of the possibility of arriving at exact results by a ready process, I hope my
experiments in that direction may not be deemed wanting in interest or other¬
wise undeserving attention.

The subject naturally divides itself into two parts — the preliminary pro-
cesses for getting the active part of the extract into a state adapted for esti-
timation ; tec estimation itself.

I am co npelled, as it were, to put the cart before the horse, by taking up
the latter peint first, in order to decide on the kind and degree of preparation
necessary icr a near approach to accuracy.

The ease and nicety of well-devised volumetric methods are so well appre¬
ciated by all, that it would be superfluous to insist on the desirableness of
aPplyin£b if possible, some such method to the estimation of the alkaloids.
Professor Mayer, of New York, has recentl}r made that attempt, having
published his results in the 1862 volume of the Proceedings of the American
Pharmaceutical Association. The same subject was also very ably and fully
treated in the same year by M. Valser, whose thesis, presented to the autho¬
rities of the superior school of pharmacy of Paris in order to obtain the title

ON THE ASSAY OF ALKALOIDS IN EXTRACTS.

269

of pharmacien of the first class, was entitled “ Study of the Search for, and
Distinctive Characters and Estimation of, the Natural Organic Alkaloids.”

Both of the experimenters settled on the same reagent, iodohydrargyrate
of potassium, M. Valser first reviewing the other reagents previously sug¬
gested for the purpose — solution of iodine, chloride of gold, and phospliomo-
lybdic acid, — all of which are passed over as inferior to the one chosen. In
point of sensibility the iodohydrargyrate leaves nothing to be desired. It
lias been proved that by it the presence of txwooo part of strychnia and -^ott
of brucia can be readily detected. But in order to effect this, soluble iodides
must not be present, for they exert a solvent action on the most intractable of
the alkaline iodoliydrargy rates.

It is curious to observe that M. Valser, throughout his paper, imagines
that the compounds he treats of are new, thus repeating three years later the
mistake I had been guilty of in a paper inserted in the 1859 volume of the
‘Journal of the Chemical Society.’ However, he corroborates generally the
formula I had assigned them ; whereas the experiments of Mr. Mayer seemed
to point to different conclusions. To his results I will now direct attention,
it being evidently of first importance to decide on the constitution of the
compounds on which the estimation is practically based. His manner of
proceeding was to determine “ the equivalent quantity of a tenth normal
solution of iodohydrargyrate of potassium, by adding it gradually from a
burette to a measured quantity of a solution of the alkaloid in 100 parts of
dilute acid, and determining the end of the reaction by testing on a watch-
glass.” The iodohydrargyrate was made by dissolving in water tL- equivalent
of chloride of mercury and At equivalent of iodide of potassium, making up
the volume to one litre. He thus found that the number of equivalents of
mercury required for the completion of the reaction varied from 1 to 6, accord¬
ing to the alkaloid. As instances, I will cite aconitia, 1 eq. ; atropia, 2 eq. ;
morphia, 11 eq. ; nicotia, 4 eq. ; quinine, 3 eq., etc. He remarked, also, that
the mercury consumed in some of these reactions remained partly in solu¬
tion ; but I cannot see the reason why any mercury should necessarily re¬
main in solution, unless an excess of the iodohydrargyrate had been added, or
the resulting alkaline compound were to some extent soluble. Whether we
have compounds of one equivalent of hydriodate of alkaloid and two or more
equivalents of iodide of mercury, or simply one and one, an equation can be
framed to meet the case, leaving no uncombined mercury in solution.

In testing these results with the viewof ascertaining the cause of error, I, after
a few preliminary experiments, adopted test solutions containing respectively
one equivalent of alkaloid in 100,000 grain measures, and one equivalent of
mercury with three equivalents of iodide of potassium in 50,000 grain mea¬
sures. These extremely dilute solutions are rendered advisable by the bulki¬
ness of the precipitates, and the necessity for frequent testing by watch-glass ;
besides which they represent more accurately the conditions under which the
practical testing of the extracts would probably have to be conducted. It
will be seen that the mercurial being of twice the strength of the alkaloidal
solution, equal measures would, on the supposition of the correctness of the
formula AlkIH,2HgI, be required to complete the reaction.

Strychnia was the first alkaloid I thus estimated, 100 grain measures of
which were apparently neutralized by 110 grain measures of the precipitant.
The experiment was repeated with the same result, which was not affected
by the presence of a greater or less amount of acid.

Quinine was next tried, and the end of the reaction scarcely reached after
the addition of 230 grain measures of iodohydrargyrate.

Cinchonine gave still more abnormal results, the liquid affording a faint
reaction after 380 grain measures had been added. This (equal to more than

270

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

seven equivalents of mercury) being evidently wrong, the filtered liquid was
tested with a solution of cinchonine, and the marked reaction that followed
unmasked the fallacy. I found, in fact, that a solution of alkaloid undergo¬
ing estimation by iodokydrargyrate, gives at the end of the reaction, an am¬
biguous response to reagents, — a decided precipitation being caused by either
alkaloid or iodokydrargyrate. This state of things continues for a greater
or less time, according to the nature of the alkaloid. Thus 100 grain mea¬
sures of quinine and 130 of iodokydrargyrate gave a filtrate reacting still
with iodokydrargyrate, but not with quinine ; but with 140 grain measures
it reacted decidedly with both reagents. This was at 9 p.m. At 9.30 p.m.
the same liquid reacted decidedly with quinine, but scarcely perceptibly
with iodokydrargyrate. The same results were observed after twenty-four
hours’ additional delay. Supposing 135 grain measures to be the correct
number, the result tends to confirm my original opinion of the abnormal cha¬
racter of the quinine compound, suggestive of an incorrectness in its received
formula. I may say, that I have recently repeated the analysis of this salt
in the old way, and with the same results as previously. M. Valser’s figures
were not abnormal beyond this, that they pointed to the old equivalent of
quinine, — 162, being the correct one. Strychnia possesses the same pecu¬
liarity as regards ambiguous reacting, but retains it only for a short time.
Thus 100 grain measures, added to 100 grain measures of iodokydrargyrate,
gave a filtrate that reacted strongly with both reagents. After the lapse
of two hours, it had entirely lost its reaction with the alkaloid, and retained
that with the iodokydrargyrate in a very small degree only. These pheno¬
mena were quite independent of acidity and neutrality.

With morphia the results were more singular. 100 grain measures of this
base were estimated in the usual way. After 70 grain measures of iodoky¬
drargyrate had been added, the filtrate proved neutral to both reagents,
though hydrosulphate of ammonia indicated the presence of mercury in solo
tion. No alteration was observed after the lapse of twenty-four hours. The
70 were then increased to 100, still no precipitation by ether reagent; but
when a solution of strychnia was added, an immediate and abundant precipi¬
tate was the result. A series of experiments showed the cause of this to be
the ready solubility of iodokydrargyrate of morphia in the iodide of potassium,
of which the reagent contains an excess. It is also soluble in hot water, —
sufficiently so in either case to precipitate the more sparingly soluble strychnia
compound.

Nicotina again presents some peculiarities. 100 grain measures, represent¬
ing of an equivalent, were treated with 95 grain measures of iodokydrar¬
gyrate. The filtrate was clouded decidedly by a further addition, so also
when the amount was increased to 100. At 200 grain measures (— 4 equiv.
of mercury) the reaction was not stopped, but a distinct cloud obtained on
adding the iodokydrargyrate guttatim. When added in larger quantity, the
effect was to redissolve the precipitate. At all stages of the reaction, cin-
chonia or strychnia, being less soluble, produced a precipitate in the filtrate.

Conia does not behave so similarly to nicotina as would be anticipated
from their near resemblance. The reaction stops promptly after the addi¬
tion of 100 grain measures, —2 eq. of mercury, the filtrate not being clouded
by an excess of iodokydrargyrate, and only slightly by more alkaloid.

I conclude, then, that Professor Mayer’s volumetric assays do not in¬
validate the formula Aik, HI, 2 Hgl, independently arrived at by M. Yalser
and myself, and that the simple volumetric estimation of the alkaloids can¬
not safely be attempted, except in the case of some few, such as strychnia
and conia, whose reactions are in a great measure devoid of the ambiguities I
have pointed out.

ON THE ASSAY OF ALKALOIDS IN EXTRACTS.

271

It is a question, however, whether or not the rectification of equivalents
may not be extended, after M. Valser’s method, to other alkaloids less known
than those of the cinchona series. Certainly no compounds can well exceed
the iodohydrargyrates in adaptibility for that purpose.

Professor Mayer has, in a more recent paper in continuation of the subject,
recommended the use of an excess of iodohydrargyrate, and the application of
Mohr’s method for the estimation of that excess ; intending thus to arrive at
the amount actually combined with the alkaloid.

Mohr’s volumetric method for estimating iodine and chlorine consists in
adding to the liquor to be tested, an alkaline carbonate to remove free mineral
acid if present, and then a little chromate of potash. A volumetric solution of
nitrate of silver, dropped in until the red colour of chromate of silver remains
permanent, indicates the amount of chlorine and iodine present. It requires
a little practice to detect the passage from yellow to the first tint of orange,
but, that difficulty surmounted, the method is easy, and gives pretty accurate
results.

In applying it to the assay of the alkaloids, Mr. Mayer directs that, after
treatment with excess of iodohydrargyrate, “ the beaker be placed on white
paper, and carbonate of soda and a few drops of a solution of chromate of
potash added, and the tenth solution of silver dropped in until the red colour
of chromate of silver remains permanent after stirring. The number of cubic
centimetres of silver, divided by 4, and subtracted from the number of cubic
centimetres of iodohydrargyrate, leaves the quantity of the latter that has
been consumed for precipitation. The last cubic centimetre of silver is not
counted.” Of the application of this method several examples are given
using pure solutions of sulphate of atropia, and the results have every appear
ance of nicety and exactness. But they must have been mere coincidences
if the ‘professor followed his own directions , as the chlorine and excess of iodine
belonging to that portion of the iodohydrargyrate that had combined
with the alkaloid have been entirely overlooked. Even with the formula
(AtrHI,HgI), adopted by Mr. Mayer, notwithstanding the results of his vo¬
lumetric assay, the chlorine would have to be accounted for, and one equiva¬
lent of iodine. But on this supposition the numbers will not come right.
In fact, I cannot see how the results are arrived at with the numbers given.
I quote one of the examples. 10 cubic centimetres of solution of sulphate of
atropia are taken — assumed to be equal to 2’95 cubic centimetres of iodohy¬
drargyrate. But 4 cubic centimetres are used, being T05 in excess. This
should have required 4'20 cubic centimetres of silver. But no ; 12'2 cubic cen¬
timetres are found, equal to 3’05 of iodohydrargyrate, which, being accepted as
excess, leaves but '95 cubic centimetres combined with the alkaloid, instead of
the 2’95 cubic centimetres required by the theory. Mr. Mayer, however, gives
the result as 3'05 cubic centimetres. This is exactly one-fourth of the 12 2
cubic centimetres, but surely the result could not have been so arrived at.

The really serious objection to the process is that the iodohydrargyrates
with few exceptions, are attacked by the nitrate of silver. The more soluble,
morphia for instance, are completely decomposed by it, so that no indication
at all of an alkaloid is obtained. Mr. Mayer has now perceived the necessity
of meeting both this and the disturbance caused by solubility, for in his sub¬
sequent paper on the “ Assay of Opium” he points out that the morphia li¬
quors must be concentrated, and the excess of test liquor estimated away
from the precipitate. But when strong solutions are used, the precipitate is
either clotty or gelatinous, and so not to be washed without much water, thus
reproducing the difficulty sought to be avoided. In the “ Assay of Opium,”
the residuary chlorine and iodine is not overlooked, but the assumption of an
incorrect formula for the morphia salt, entirely vitiates the figures.

272

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

Witli strychnia, the most insoluble of the iodohydrargyrates, I have not
been more successful. When carbonate of baryta or of lime are used, the
indication is below the mark ; when carbonate of potass in slight excess, the
same result ; when in considerable excess, or when slightly acidulated with
acetic acid, the iodohydrargyrate is wholly decomposed, as in the case of
morphia. Between these extremes may be ranged the remaining iodohydrar¬
gyrates, whose destructibility by nitrate of silver will be in direct proportion
to their solubility. I have found that it matters nothing, whether the alka¬
loid has been dissolved in sulphuric or in nitric acid.

I am therefore of opinion that the process cannot be applied with anything
like, accuracy, and anything short of that would be worse than useless. Could
it be applied, the following formula would separate the total of silver into that
required by the excess of precipitant, and that by the iodine and chlorine
belonging to the combined portion —

— — XS
5

where (a) is the silver solution, ( b ) the iodohydrargyrate, and ( x ) the excess.

I am of course sorry to be obliged to differ so completely from the con¬
clusions of Professor Mayer’s paper, “ On the Assay of Alkaloids, Pure and
in Preparations,” but I certainly cannot admit either his formulae or mode
of conducting the assay. Something may of course be said as to the degree
of dilution, but I believe the solutions I used are as strong as can safely be
employed for volumetric purposes, more especially when one considers the
clottiness of the precipitates produced in strong solutions, and the consequent
danger of the fluid not being brought completely into contact with tho pre¬
cipitant.

It occurred to me that the iodohydrargyrates being all soluble in the liquids
that dissolve their respective alkaloids, it would only be necessary to add to
the liquid containing them in suspension the proper ethereal solvent, shake
well and decant, to get the iodohydrargyrate in a condition to be weighed.
The error occasioned by solubility would thus have been overcome. The al¬
kaloid moreover having been increased three or four times, or even more in
weight, might have been safely subjected to the balance in cases when the
pure alkaloid, owing to its minuteness, could not have been so estimated.
But as both ether and acetic ether (especially the latter) dissolve iodide of
mercury in proportions that vary in accordance with circumstances not at all
times controllable, I could not bring the method to bear.

I will now proceed to the other branch of the subject — the preliminar}’-
processes for getting the active principles into a state adapted for estimation.
The degree of purification necessary for volumetric estimation by iodohydrar¬
gyrate of potass, a process which, though not strictly accurate nor generally
practicable, may have admirers, depends entirely on the nature of the extract
containing the alkaloids we are in search of. It seems that the only bodies
besides the alkaloids it is capable of precipitating, are those of the albuminous
series when in acid solution, and certain extractive matters. These must in
all cases be got rid of, as well as sulphides. Chlorides also, if the residuary
iodine and chlorine are to be estimated, must be eliminated as well as every
other substance incompatible with nitrate of silver.

It is doubtless best in all cases to effect as complete an isolation as possi¬
ble, and for this purpose no general process can answer better than that of
Stas. It is not necessary minutely to describe it. It is well known to con¬
sist in treating the substance with alcohol at about 150° F., and an organic
acid (oxalic or tartaric), evaporating the tincture to dryness and exhausting
the extract with the least possible quantity of water. This fluid which, if the
operation has been carefully conducted, contains all the alkaloids present in

ON THE ASSAY OF ALKALOIDS IN EXTRACTS.

273

a soluble form, is poured into a long test-tube, to it is added an excess of bi¬
carbonate of potass, and the whole shaken with four or five times its volume
of pure ether. The recovered ether washed with acidulated water yields
to it the alkaloids it had abstracted. The weak point of the process is this,
that morphia is exceedingly insoluble in ether, in fact, unless when recently
precipitated and in the hydrated state, it is practically insoluble in that fluid.
M. Yalser has fortunately hit on a solvent that deprives the process of all
ambiguity. He treats the liquor that has been washed with ether with a
second washing with acetic ether. In this fluid morphia is readily soluble,
and rises with it to the surface, whence it is obtainable in a pure state. It
would also be preferable to use chloroform when strychnia is present. In
fact the process is not mechanical, but demands in each case some peculiarity
of treatment that must be left to the skill of the operator.

I think it can hardly be expected of a pharmaceutist that he shall, for the
purpose of verifying his extracts, go through the details of this long and ex¬
pensive process ; for it requires a liberal consumption of alcohol and ether,
as well as the expenditure of considerable time, to arrive at correct results.
Nevertheless, I am unable to recommend a better or shorter, applicable in all
cases. I will, however, shortly relate some experiments in that direction,
leaving others to improve what I have not been able to perfect.

Dr. Attfield’s paper on the solution of alkaloids in oils, wherein he recom¬
mended the alkaloid to be first united with oleic acid, suggested to me at the
time the possibility of applying that acid to the elimination of the active
principles of extracts. Oleic acid dissolves all alkaloids, is remarkably dis¬
criminative in its solvent power, is very cheap, and neither liable to loss from
evaporation nor demanding thgt care in use exacted by such volatile solvents
as alcohol and ether.

In experimenting on its applicability, I have added known quantities of
alkaloid to extract of cabbage, which I had ascertained by previous trials to
contain no body capable of being mistaken for the alkaloid. But I will first
describe some blank experiments on pure solutions of alkaloid. My plan of
proceeding was to take 100 grain measures of the alkaloid (hi the case I am
describing, strychnia— tuVo equivalent or ‘334 grain), exactly neutralize the
free acid it contained, then acid 10 grain measures of volumetric ammonia,
and about ^ ounce of oleic acid. The mixture when shaken formed an emul¬
sion which was heated for a few minutes by water-bath with occasional agi¬
tation. The vessel was kept tightly closed to prevent loss of ammonia. Re¬
moved from the bath and cooled, it was treated with 10 grain measures of
volumetric oxalic acid. This combined with and exactly neutralized the am¬
monia, and so destroyed the emulsion. The fluids were encouraged to sepa¬
rate by a second immersion in the bath. The oily stratum removed by pipette
was washed with dilute hydrochloric acid, and the washings estimated volu-
metrically by the iodohydrargyrate. I recovered in this way fb of what I
had inserted, and obtained the same result when quinine was substituted for
strychnia. On comparing these figures with those obtained by the use of
ether, I found them identical, but the time consumed by one was more than
double that of the other, viz. oleic acid, one hour, ether, twenty-five minutes.
On the other hand, the cost of one was nil, the other involved a certain un¬
avoidable loss of ether. With aqueous solutions of extracts this comparison
would be more favourable to the oleic acid, as it rises from such mixtures
more readily than does ether, which gives much trouble by forming ether-
bubbles, that are to be broken up by long standing, or addition of alcohol,
which involves a loss of ether.

With morphia the process did not succeed. The acid removed only the
suspended alkaloid, leaving untouched that portion in watery solution. This

VOL. vi. x

274

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

might have been anticipated, as in consequence of the acid’s almost complete
insolubility in water, it cannot get within reach of a body so dissolved. The
same results would doubtless be obtained with all the more soluble alkaloids.

When oleic acid is added to extract of cabbage, diffused through water,
and then treated as before described, it rises to the surface, accompanied by
the chlorophyll, albumen, etc,, from which it cannot easily be separated.

I therefore proceeded thus : — I weighed 500 grains of extract, and diffused
it through hot Water, slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, then added
100 grains of strychnia solution, and made up the measure of the whole to 8
ounces. This was thrown on a plaited filter, which soon allowed half the fluid
to pass. As the extract was not completely soluble, a little less than this was
taken, exactly neutralized with ammonia, and then treated with 10 grain mea¬
sures of volumetric ammonia and about half an ounce of oleic acid. The rest
of the process was conducted as before described. I recovered in every case
80 per cent, and no more, notwithstanding the greatest care in manipulation.
Quinine treated in the same way, yielded the same proportion. When ether
was used as the solvent, precisely the same results were obtained, though the
time occupied was certainly not shorter. On the whole, I am inclined to
think the oleic acid process deserves attention.

I tried also to eliminate the alkaloid by animal charcoal. Mr. Cobb pub¬
lished a paper on this subject, in the 10th vol. Pharm. Journ., and Messrs.
Graham and Hofmann used the process for detecting the presence of strychnia
added by them to bitter ale. However I was less fortunate than they, and
could not make the process answer. I am inclined to think the hind of char¬
coal had some influence, and that probably there are varieties of that sub¬
stance that do not hold on so tightly to the alkaloids as the specimen I used.
The alkaloid is separated from the liquid and united with (or destroyed by P)
the charcoal with the greatest ease, and could it be as easily recovered by a
change of solvent or of circumstances, no process of elimination could com¬
pare with it. Strychnia once absorbed, I could get no indication of, after
boiling with rectified spirit, as Graham directs, with alcohol of various densi¬
ties acidulated and not acidulated, with chloroform or acetic ether. With
cinchonine I was not entirely unsuccessful, but recovered only 25 per cent.
The question of the charcoals therefore deserves to be gone into, with a
view of ascertaining whether or not they differ in kind as well as degree of
efficiency.

The only other likely method that has occurred to me, is that by dialysis,
a subject in the able hands of Dr. Attfield.

On the whole, I am disposed to think that the attempt to ascertain by ana¬
lysis the remedial effect of an extract is never likely to be practically fol¬
lowed ; it is far too troublesome, and besides, I think no method can be de¬
vised that will give an accurate result. It is difficult, as I have found, to re¬
cover the whole of the alkaloid when dissolved in pure water. I do not believe
it possible without infinite pains to recover it from a confused mass of princi¬
ples combined into an extract. A portion of the alkaloid may, in most cases,
be expected to be combined with some form of tannin, or united with resi¬
nous or fatty substances, and although the menstrua of the chemist would
probably fail to extract them, the stomach of a patient would not. Then
again, no natural extract owes its virtues solely to the alkaloid it contains ;
neutral principles, the glucosides, resins, oils, and extractive, one and all play
their part, and oftentimes not an unimportant one.

Again, the mere amount of alkaloid is insufficient, — its kind would also
have to be ascertained. It is likely that no alkaloid is unaccompanied by its
fellow of similar though unequal medical value. In every such case the mer¬
curial compound, supposing iodohydrargyrate to have been used in the esti-

THE PURITY OF OPIUM AND OTHER POWDERS.

275

mation, must be decomposed and a second estimate undertaken. It would
probably be left to guess-work, for in the small way it would be impossible to
bring each to the balance. Where then is accuracy F Gone. It may not be
a bad test of the general goodness of an extract, to ascertain if it contains any
alkaloid at all, for most of those bodies are readily alterable by bad manipula¬
tion. Such a course has been recommended by M. Lepage, of Gisors. But that
could only be safely relied on when the source of the extract is known. How
easy to add to a bad extract a few grains of alkaloid, no matter what, for the
purpose of deception. In answer to a demand for extracts containing alka¬
loids, such a trade trick is not beyond the bounds of probability.

In order to isolate the alkaloid from the compound for the purpose of iden¬
tification, I find it better to remove the iodine than the mercury. The op¬
posite course has been recommended, but hydriodates of the alkaloids are
generally very intractable, so I decompose them with acetate of lead or nitrate
of silver. In applying the latter, it is not necessary, provided the iodobydrar-
gyrate be recently precipitated, to dissolve it in alcohol. By merely acidu¬
lating the liquid with acetic acid in which it is suspended, and adding enough
nitrate of silver (the limit may be ascertained by chromate of potass) to ab¬
sorb all the chlorine and iodine, the alkaloid is obtained in aqueous solution
in company with nitrate of mercury. This plan succeeds with the strychnia
compound, which, being very sparingly soluble in boiling alcohol, is otherwise
difficult of attack. Then by adding carbonate of potass and ether, or other
solvent, the alkaloid is obtained in a state of purity. By the other method
(removing the mercury by sulphide of ammonium, etc.) the yield is contami¬
nated with, or consists entirely of hydriodate. I was for a long time deceived
by the hydriodate of aconitina refusing to be decomposed by ammonia, and
until I accidentally observed its reaction with lead, set it down for a resi-
noid.

Although beyond the proper limits of my paper, already I fear inordinately
long, I cannot conclude without confessing that although I do not believe in
volumetric or any other chemical testing of the strength of extracts, I am
fully alive to the necessity of ascertaining their degree of 'potency. I am con¬
fident that many of the extracts in the market are comparatively valueless,
and one remembers the dictum of Mr. Donovan respecting all the preparations
of henbane.

Then, I say, try the physiological test. Systematize the assay of the
poisonous extracts on the bodies of the lower animals, not cats or dogs, — they
are too robust and suffer much, — but mice and birds, the “ small deer ” of the
“ varmint ” class, who are easily obtained, very sensitive to poisons, and who
finally must by this time have accepted killing by poison as a strictly natural
death.

Weymouth. _ _

REPORT ON THE PURITY OF COMMERCIAL POWDER OF
OPIUM, IPECACUANHA, AND JALAP.

BY MR. F. M. RIMMINGTON.

( Read at the Bath Meeting of the British Pharmaceutical Conference , Sept. 18G4.)

The samples were procured from different towns, and from different chemists
in each town-, and the mode of analysis adopted, though chiefly microsco¬
pical, includes the estimation of the ash. I have done this, not from a
conviction that any slight variation in the amount of ash would be proof of
sophistication, but from a belief that it might afford a sort of presumptive
evidence, and also yield some fact of interest in such a series of analyses.
The estimation of extractive matter, or active principle, has been altogether

276

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

omitted, as tending only to indicate quality, which is not the question at
issue.

Of the powders examined, it will he seen that ipecacuanha is least adul¬
terated. This apparent freedom may arise from the difficulty of detecting
a small amount of any earthy matter that may he clandestinely introduced.
iNo. 5 is such an instance.

POWDERED OPIUM.

Vo. Name of town.

Per cent.

Adulterated or otherwise. of ash.

1.... Norwich .

..Contains starch, wheat .

6-5

2.... Norwich .

..Contains a little starch .

5-5

3.... Norwich .

..Genuine .

5-5

4.... Norwich .

..Contains much starch .

5*5

5. ...Nottingham .

..Contains a little starch .

G-0

6.... Nottingham .

..Contains some starch .

6-5

7.... Nottingham .

..Contains starch .

G-0

8.... Bradford .

..Genuine .

5*0 (authenticated)

Average

5-8.

The author regards the starch as having its origin in the opium as imported,
having found it in macerating opium for tincture.

POWDERED IPECACUANHA.

No. Name of town.

Adulterated or otherwise.

Per ceut.
of ash.

1 .

..The root coarsely powdered

... 2-5

2.... Bradford .

...Genuine .

... 3-0

3.... Lancaster .

...Genuine .

.... 2-5

4.... Norwich .

..Genuine .

... 2-5

5.... Nottingham .

..Genuine? .

... 7-0

6.... Nottingham .

..Genuine .

... 3-7

7.... Nottingham .

..Genuine .

8.... Nottingham .

..Genuine .

... 3-0

0.... Norwich .

..Genuine .

.... 3-0

10.... Lancaster .

..Genuine .

... 2-5

11.... Lancaster .

..Genuine .

.... 2-5

(including meditullium)

Average 2-87 (omitting No. 5).

The samples were not tested for antimony.

POWDERED JALAP.

No.

1..

2..

3..

4..

5..

6..

7..

8..

0..

Name of town.

Adulterated or otherwise.

Per cent,
of ash.

Lancaster .

..Genuine .

.... 6-0

Lancaster .

..Genuine .

.... 5-0

Nottingham .

..Genuine .

.... 5-5

Nottingham .

...Contains much woody fibre

... 3-5

Nottingham .

..Genuine .

.... 6-0

Norwich .

..Contains much woody fibre

... 4-0

Lancaster .

..Genuine . .

.... 6-0

Bradford .

...Genuine, fine . .

Norwich . .

...Genuine .

.... 5-5

(authenticated)

Average 5-64 (omitting Nos. 4, G).

Bradford.

ON THE PREPARATION OF AN IMPROVED WINE OF IRON.

BY HARRY NAPIER DRAPER, F.C.S., AND MR. JAMES WHITLA.

(Read at the Rath Meeting of the British Pharmaceutical Conference , Sept. 1864.)

If an apology be needed for bringing before the Pharmaceutical Conference
a note upon a subject which has been already accepted by one of its members,
we would request that ours be found in the pharmaceutical interest of the
subject itself, while at the same time we think it probable that the direction
of our experiments may be different to that marked out by the gentleman
who has especially undertaken the research. We wish, however, to occupy
as little as possible the time of the Conference, and will state our results as
concisely as possible.

We have endeavoured to effect in a simple and practical manner an im¬
provement upon the formula of the British Pharmacopoeia for iron wine.
The present formula is as follows : —

Take of tartarated iron 160 grains.

,, sherry 1 pint.

Dissolve.

It has been pointed out by Mr. Squire that tartarated iron does not readily
dissolve in sherry which is already saturated with bitartrate of potash, and
that indeed, used in the above proportion, it will not all dissolve. We have
not found this to be accurately the case. The potassio-tartrato readily dis¬
solves in the wine, but part of it is almost at the same instant decomposed,
forming a brown precipitate, which renders the solution turbid. This de¬
composition is apparently due to the action of the bitartrate of potash con¬
tained in the wine, and the separation of an acid tartrate of iron. If solu¬
tion of potash be added to neutralization, the precipitate is at once redis¬
solved and the solution becomes clear. In a mixture of spirit and water of
the same alcoholic strength as the wine, the tartrate dissolves without any
trace of this decomposition.

If after solution of the tartrate the wine be filtered, it will remain trans¬
parent for some time, but sooner or later it again invariably deposits, becom¬
ing turbid and unsightly.

In making these experiments, it was soon observed that the action of solar
light affected in a very marked degree the permanence of the preparation.
Kept completely in the dark, the wine could be preserved for some time with¬
out precipitation ; but if exposed to direct sunlight a deposit occurred in a
few hours. In diffuse daylight the same change takes place more slowly.
This is evidently due to the well-known deoxidizing action of solar light
upon organic salts of iron, and is not, even as regards the potassio-tartrate,
an original observation, the fact having been pointed out more than twenty
years since by Sir John Herschel (vide Hunt’s ‘Manual of Photography,’
third edition, p. 54). By exposure to light an insoluble prototartrate is
formed, and if the solar action be prolonged, nearly the whole of the iron
may be withdrawn from the solution.

In attempting to produce a permanent iron wine several salts of iron were
tried, but that which afforded the best results was the ammonio-citrate. A
solution of this salt in sherry in the proportion of one grain to each fluid
drachm is, in the first instance, perfectly transparent. If it be exposed to
the light a precipitate is produced as in the case of the potassio-tartrate, but
it is considerably less in quantity, and requires for its formation much more
prolonged insolation. On the other hand, if excluded from light, the wine
thus prepared will retain its transparency for an indefinite period.

A preparation, however, which required complete protection from light

278

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

coulcl scarcely be said to be permanent, and our next aim was to discover
some means of overcoming this objection. As the precipitate had been as¬
certained to consist of a ferrous salt, insoluble in the wine, it was evident
that the addition of some substance which should prevent its precipitation
by keeping it in solution would effect this purpose. After trial of several
agents, we arrived at the conclusion that neutral citrate of ammonia was that
best adapted to the requirements of the case. Many tentative experiments
resulted in our being able to fix the proportion of this salt necessary to keep
the solution transparent without imparting any disagreeable taste. The fol¬
lowing formula affords a preparation which, in our opinion, leaves little to be
desired.

Take of ammonio-citrate of iron 160 grains.

,, crystalline citrate of ammonia 60 grains.

,, sherry 1 pint.

Dissolve.

The wine thus prepared will of course contain in each fluid drachm one
grain of ammonio-citrate of iron and three-eighths of a grain of citrate of
ammonia. It is perfectly transparent, has no disagreeable taste whatever,
and may be exposed to diffuse daylight without incurring the least liability
to deposition, or indeed undergoing any apparent change, except that it
becomes somewhat darker in colour after a time. This change in colour is
of course produced by the reduction of the iron salt, — the alkaline citrate
not preventing the deoxidation, but simply keeping the protosalt in solu¬
tion. While, however, the alteration in tint cannot be considered of any prac¬
tical importance, it may be quite prevented by keeping the wine in opaque
vessels.

The direct action of sunlight produces in this wine a precipitate after a
considerable time, but this is a crucial test to which the preparation is not
likely to be often subjected. However, were it necessary to guard against
even this cause of alteration, the increase of the proportion of citrate of am¬
monia would effectually do so, but it would be at the cost of rendering the
wine somewhat unpalatable. Kept in an ordinary tincture bottle, and under
the same conditions of light and temperature to which such preparations are
usually exposed, a specimen prepared more than two months since remains
without any sign of present or approaching alteration.

Dublin.

ON COMMERCIAL WINE OF IRON, WITH SUGGESTIONS.

BY FRANCIS SUTTON, F.C.S.

(Read at the Bath Meeting of the British Pharmaceutical Conference , Sept. 1864.)

That the preparation of this somewhat popular form of medicine has hither¬
to been variable and unsatisfactory is a fact which needs no other proof than
may be obtained from an inspection of the various official formulas given
during the last thirty or forty years, or a cursory examination of samples of
the wine obtained from different but thoroughly respectable makers. These
remarks apply to the steel wine made previous to the introduction of the
British Pharmacopoeia.

For the purpose of ascertaining- the variation to which the preparation was
liable, even in the hands of the leading Pharmaceutical Chemists in London,
the writer obtained samples from seven of the most prominent establishments
in the month of J anuary in the present year.

Five of these specimens were perfectly clear, two were slightly opaque in
appearance, — no two samples were precisely alike in colour.

ON COMMERCIAL WINE OF IRON.

279

They were first examined by evaporation to dryness in a platinum crucible
over a water-bath, the residue in each case being submitted to a temperature
of 300° F. in an oven, to remove, if possible, all moisture. All the sam¬
ples were operated upon at the same time, and therefore the results were
comparatively reliable. After remaining in the oven five hours the capsules
were removed, cooled under a bell-glass, and weighed. This was done with
a view to find the quantity of sugar, etc., present in the sherry from which
the respective specimens were made.

The next step was to burn off these residues till all carbon was destroyed,
dissolve the oxide of iron remaining in the smallest possible quantity of dilute
hydrochloric acid, reduce the peroxide to protoxide by zinc, then estimate
the quantity of metallic iron present by a standard solution of permanganate
of potash.

The weight of saccharine residue in each sample, together with the amount
of metallic iron present, is shown in the following table : —

Saccharine residue Metallic iron

per ounce of wine. per ounce of wine.

Sample No. 1 . 23*84 grains . 031 grain.

No. 2 . 24*50

No. 3 . 14*22

No. 4 . 20*91

No. 5 . 51*27

No. 6 . 17*10

No. 7 . 28*24

5?

0*35

0*70

0*51

1*76

1*08

0*43

»

55

5}

Leaving out of the question sample No. 5, which was found to be made
with tartarized iron, there is apparently a very close connection between the
quantity of sugar present in the original wine and the amount of iron dis¬
solved. The results obtained seem to point to the conclusion, that where the
amount of sugar in the sherry is largest the amount of iron dissolved is,
generally speaking, less than wdien a small proportion of sugar is present. It
is of course a well-known fact that the presence of sugar retards the peroxi¬
dation of the proto-compounds of iron ; but the probability is that in these
cases the wines used were not of genuine composition,— deficient in natural
acidity, and manufactured by boiling down the commoner kinds of must,
adding sugar and brandy to bring up the taste and strength.

The sample No. 6 was made, I fully believe, from iron filings or wire, and
not from any soluble salt of iron. This special sample was of bright appear¬
ance and possessed the fine aroma of first-class sherry, and as may be seen by
the above analysis, contained more than three times as much iron as the
average of Nos. 1, 2, 5, and 7, which all contained larger quantities of sac-
-eharine residue.

Considered in the light of ferruginous medicines, these latter samples are
nearly worthless, and yet these were all doubtless made in good faith and
strictly according to the directions of the London Pharmacopoeia.

My experience as to the manufacture of steel wine from metallic iron leads
to the conclusion that it is necessary to choose a light, sound sherry (ascer¬
tained to be free from excess of sugar by evaporating a specimen to chyness),
and using clean iron filings in preference to wire, allowing at the same time
at least three or four months’ digestion, instead of one month.

With respect to the preparation ordered in the new British Pharmaco¬
poeia, there can be no doubt that it has the advantage over the old method
in securing a more uniform amount of dissolved iron. The quantity it should
theoretically contain is 1*45 grain per ounce, but from an examination of
several samples prepared strictly according to the British Pharmacopoeia, I
find the average amount of dissolved iron to be IT grain. The difference

280

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

between eacb sample was very slight, the remainder of the iron being preci¬
pitated as a basic tartrate of the protoxide of iron, possessing a greenish-grey
colour. The deposition of this substance is apparent immediately on adding
the potassio-tartrate of iron to the wine, and apparently goes on slowly de¬
positing through some time. This circumstance has given rise to the dissatis¬
faction expressed by many that the preparation is unsightly, and though fil¬
tered perfectly clear at first, will in a short time become muddy.

I regret that other occupations have prevented a strict examination of this
deposit, but from the few experiments I have been able to make, I conclude
it to be, as before stated, a tartrate of the protoxide. It is almost, if not en¬
tirely insoluble in water, and becomes brown on exposure to the air.

I believe the best method of rendering the steel wine prepared from the
new formula uniform in appearance and satisfactory in every respect is to
use a sound and strong sherry, and to digest it with the tartrate for a month
at least, keeping the vessel in which it is contained at a medium temperature
and somewhat loosely closed, so that a moderate accession of air may take
place. By this means the, at first, insoluble deposit will slowly saturate the
acids of the wine and become converted into the more soluble organic com¬
pounds of the peroxide of iron. Steel wine so prepared and kept has yielded
me a thoroughly satisfactory preparation, when poured off from the deposit
or filtered through good filtering-paper.

Norwich.

REPORT ON THE QUANTITY OE ALKALOID CONTAINED IN
VARIOUS SPECIMENS OE CITRATE OE IRON AND QUININE.

BY MR. J. C. BRAITH WAITE.

(Read at the Bath Meeting of the British Pharmaceutical Conference , Sept. 18GI.)

Having been engaged some time ago upon an examination of two or three
specimens of this valuable medicine, prepared by makers of repute, I was
surprised to find that the proportion of citrate of quinine contained in them
was considerably less than the quantity stated on the label to be present ;
and being aware that my old pupil and friend Mr. T. B. Groves had under¬
taken to investigate this matter, I very recently communicated the results of
my experience to him, and in reply received a suggestion that I should take
this subject off his hands. This I consented to do, to the best of my ability,
in the short time intervening before the meeting of the Conference.

I have since examined fifteen different samples of this medicine prepared
by various makers, some of whom acknowledge their productions by the pre¬
sence of their names on the labels, whilst others do not seem desirous of ac¬
quiring commercial repute by such a practice. In nearly every case, how¬
ever, it is stated on the label that the article contains twenty-five per cent, of
citrate of quinine.

The test that I have employed in this investigation is only a slight modifi¬
cation of that given in the British Pharmacopoeia, which states that, u Fifty
grains dissolved in a fluid ounce of water, and treated with a slight excess of
ammonia, give a white precipitate which, when collected on a filter and
dried, weighs eight grains j” and “ the precipitate is entirely soluble in pure
ether.”

On the first appearance of the above Pharmacopoeia, I prepared some of
this citrate by the process therein given, and obtained from it by the above
test between fourteen and fifteen per cent, of quinine.

As quinine is slightly soluble in excess of ammonia, and also in water, I
endeavoured during the process to avoid using more of either than was abso-

ON ALKALOID IN CITRATE OF IRON AND QUININE.

2S1

lutely necessary, and to accomplish, this object I employed a graduated wasli-
bottle which emitted a very fine jet of water, by which means I was enabled
to use the same quantity of water in each case, and no more than was ab¬
solutely required. In drying the precipitate, I found it advantageous to
do so by simple exposure to the air at the ordinary temperature in the first
place, and afterwards to complete the operation by means of the hot-air ap¬
paratus, otherwise the alkaloid was apt to fuse and penetrate through to the
balanced filter.

At the commencement of my investigations I examined a specimen of
citrate of quinine prepared by myself, so as to determine the quantity of al¬
kaloid obtainable from it ; this I found to be about sixteen parts in twenty-
five, or sixty-four per cent., a quantity corresponding to the statement in the
British Pharmacopoeia.

The following are the results of my examination of different specimens of
citrate of iron and quinine, arranged progressively from that containing the
least amount of citrate of quinine to those most abounding in it.

N o. 1 was obtained from the bottle of a ship’s medicine chest and was of
a yellowish-brown colour, having a slight olive tinge. When exposed to the
air at a temperature of 60°, it did not absorb moisture. It readily dissolved
in water, yielding a clear orange-brown solution, which had an acid reaction
on test paper and possessed a most nauseous chalybeate taste and but little
bitterness. On the addition of ammonia the quantity of precipitate obtained
was exceedingly small, and adhered so closely to the filter that it could not
be separated from it.

From three analyses of twenty-five grains each I obtained 0"35, 0‘39, 039,
mean 0376, equal to T504 per cent, of quinine, or 2'35 per cent, of citrate of
quinine.

This was almost entirely soluble in ether, yielding a pale-yellowish solu¬
tion.

Ho. 2 consisted of bright golden-coloured scales with an olive tinge. Ex¬
posed to the air at a temperature of 60° it absorbed moisture, and ran into a
dark- coloured, gum-like-looking mass. It dissolved very readily in water,
yielding a yellow solution, which had an acid reaction upon test paper and was
not quite clear. It possessed an exceedingly nauseous taste, being at first
sweetish, then slightly bitter and very chalybeate. When ammonia was
added, the quantity of precipitate thrown down was exceedingly small and
adhered closely to the filter.

From three analyses of twenty- five grains each I obtained 04, 037, 037,
mean 038, equal to T52 per cent, of quinine, or 2" 375 per cent, of citrate of
quinine.

This was almost entirely soluble in ether, yielding a pale-coloured solu¬
tion. No name appears on the label, but the preparation is certified to con¬
tain 25 per cent, of nitrate of quinine.

No. 3 had a fine bright, golden-yellow colour. When exposed to the air at
a temperature of 00° the scales adhered together, but did not become very
damp. Dissolved very readily in water yielding a clear yellow solution, which
hed an acid reaction on test paper. Its taste was sweetish at first, and then
more bitter and less chalybeate than either of the preceding ones. When
treated with ammonia the quantity of precipitate was small, and on drying
adhered so closely to the paper that it could not be separated.

From three analyses of twenty-five grains each I obtained 0-9, 095, and
0-95, mean 0-933, equal to 3-732 per cent, of quinine, or 5-831 per cent, of
citrate of quinine.

This, when treated with ether, yielded a solution of the same colour as the
preceding, and left only a small portion insoluble. No name appears on the

282

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

label, but the preparation is certified to contain 25 per cent, of citrate of
quinine.

No. 4 lias a pale golden colour with a slight greenish tinge. When ex¬
posed to the air at a temperature of 60° it lost lustre, and the scales slightly
adhered to each other. It dissolved readily in water, yielding a fine clear
yellow solution, which had an acid reaction on test paper, and possessed a
taste very similar to the preceding but slightly more bitter. When precipi¬
tated by ammonia the quantity thrown down was small, and on drying ad¬
hered so closely to the papei' that it could not be separated.

From three analyses of twenty-five grains each I obtained 1'02, 1‘05, and
1'02, mean l-03, equal to 4T2 per cent, of quinine, or 6'437 per cent, of ci¬
trate of quinine.

This, when treated with ether, yielded a pale-coloured solution resembling
the preceding, and left a small quantity of insoluble matter. No name ap¬
pears on the label, but the preparation is certified to contain 25 per cent, of
citrate of quinine.

No. 5 has a pale golden colour with a slight greenish tinge, much resem¬
bling No. 4. When exposed to the air at a temperature of 60° it absorbed
moisture (but less readily than Nos. 2 or 6) and lost its lustre. It dissolved
very readily in water, yielding a clear yellow solution which had an acid re¬
action on test.paper and possessed a bitter and slightly chalybeate taste.
The precipitate thrown down by ammonia, when dried, was of rather a light-
brown colour and of a resinous aspect.

From three analyses of twenty-five grains each I obtained 1T8, 1T9, and
1*2, mean 1T9, equal to 4*76 per cent, of quinine, or 7'437 per cent, of ci¬
trate of quinine.

This when digested with ether yielded a brownish-yellow solution, and only a
small trace of insoluble matter. No name appears on the label, but the pre¬
paration is certified to contain 25 per cent, of citrate of quinine.

No. 6 consisted of rather small golden-coloured scales, having a slight
greenish tinge. Exposed to the air at a temperature of 60° it lost lustre,
and became very damp. It dissolved readily in water, yielding a clear yellow
solution which had an acid reaction upon test paper, and possessed a more
bitter and rather less chalybeate taste than the preceding. The precipitate
produced by ammonia had a whitish earthy appearance. From three analyses
of twenty-five grains each I obtained 1'48, 1’52, and T5, mean 1'5, equal to
6 per cent, of quinine, or 9 '375 per cent, of citrate of quinine.

This when treated with ether yielded a pale-coloured solution, and left only
a small quantity of insoluble matter. Certified on the label to contain 25 per
cent, of citrate of quinine.

No. 7 had a purer golden-yellow colour than either of the other specimens
examined. When exposed to the air at a temperature of 60° it did not appear
to attract any moisture. It dissolved very readily in water, yielding a clear
yellow solution, which had an acid reaction on test paper and was not very
bitter to the taste. The precipitate thrown down by ammonia was of a very
white colour when moist, and light-coloured and sand-like when dry. Expect
that this will be found to contain cinchonia, but time will not permit me to
complete the examination for this paper. From three analyses of twenty-five
grains each I obtained 1*83, 1'86, and 1*84, mean F843, equal to 7'372 per
cent, of quinine, or 11'518 per cent, of citrate of quinine.

This, when treated with ether, yielded a pale-yellow solution, which has
commenced to deposit crystals (quinidine I anticipate) and left a pretty good
bulk of the precipitate undissolved. Name on the bottle, and the preparation
certified to contain 25 per cent, of citrate of quinine.

No. 8 had a golden-yellow colour. When exposed to the air at a tempera-

ON ALKALOID IN CITRATE OF IRON AND QUININE.

283

ture of 60° it did not appear to attract any moisture. It dissolved readily in
water, yielding a yellow solution wliicli was not quite clear and liad an acid
reaction upon test paper. It was slightly sweetish to the taste at first, and
afterwards bitter. The precipitate thrown down by ammonia was brown
when dry, and difficult to remove from the paper. From three analyses of
twenty-five grains each I obtained 2*32, 2*32, and 233, mean 2323, equal to
9‘292 per cent, of quinine, or, 14‘518 per cent, of citrate of quinine.

This, when treated with ether, yielded a brownish-yellow solution, and left
only a small quantity of insoluble matter. Ho name appears on the label,
but the preparation is certified to contain 25 per cent, of citrate of quinine.

Ho. 9 occurred in rather small scales of a golden-yellow colour. Exposed
to the air at a temperature of 60°, the scales adhered slightly to each other.
It was readily dissolved in wate.r, yielding a solution of a yellow colour, but
not quite clear, and having an acid reaction on test paper. It was more bitter
than the preceding, but not chalybeate to the taste. The precipitate by am¬
monia had a dark resinous appearance when dried. From three analyses of
twenty-five grains each I obtained 2-8, 2-8, and 2*83, mean 2*81, equal to
1T24 per cent, of quinine, or, 17'56 per cent, of citrate of quinine.

This, when treated with ether, yielded a darkish-coloured solution, and left
but a small quantity of insoluble matter. The maker’s name appears on the
bottle, and the preparation is certified to contain 25 per cent, of citrate of
quinine.

Ho. 10 occurred in small scales of a brownish -yellow colour. Exposed to
the air at a temperature of 60°, it underwent no change. It dissolved readily
in water, yielding a clear orange-yellow solution which, had an acid reaction
on test paper. It was not chatybeate to the taste but more bitter than the
preceding. The precipitate by ammonia, when dry, was dark and resinous.
From three analyses of twenty-five grains each I obtained 3’07, 3'06, and 3‘07,
mean 3'066, equal to 12-26 per cent, of quinine, or, 19T62 per cent, of citrate
of quinine.

This, when treated with ether, yielded a solution precisely like that of Ho.
'9 as regards colour, and left but little insoluble matter. The label bears the
manufacturer’s name, and certifies the preparation to contain 25 per cent, of
citrate of quinine.

Ho. 11 had bright golden- coloured scales, with a tinge of olive-green, and
rather darker in colour than specimen Ho. 2. Exposed to the air at a
temperature of 60°, it underwent no change. It dissolved readily in wTater,
yielding a clear yellow solution, which had an acid reaction on test paper, and
a bitter but not chalybeate taste. The precipitate thrown down by ammonia,
when dried, was of a light colour and resinous appearance. From three ana¬
lyses of twenty-five grains each I obtained 3'22, 3'24, and 325, mean 3"236,
equal to 12'94 per cent, of quinine, or, 2022 per cent, of citrate of quinine.

This, when treated with ether, yielded a solution a trifle darker in colour
than the preceding, and left but a very small quantity of insoluble matter.
Stated on the label to contain 25 per cent, of citrate of quinine.

Ho. 12 was of a bright golden-' vellow colour and in nice scales. Exposed
to the air at a temperature of 60°, it became somewhat damp and lost its lustre.
It dissolved readily in water, yielding a yellow solution which was not quite
clear, and had an acid reaction on test paper. Its taste was bitter but not
chalybeate. The precipitate thrown down by ammonia was dark in colour,
and difficult to remove from the filter when dry. From three analyses of
twenty-five grains each I obtained 3-7, 3'65, and 3‘69, mean 3'68, equal to
14-72 per cent, of quinine, or 23 per cent, of citrate of quinine.

This, when treated with ether, yielded a darkish-brown solution as in the
preceding, and left only a small amount of insoluble matter. The name ap-

284

DEATH FllOM E It GOT OE EYE.

pears on the label, ancl the preparation is certified to contain 25 per cent, of
citrate of quinine.

No. 13 was of a dark-olive colour with a golden tinge. It was unaltered
by exposure to the air at a temperature of 60°. It dissolved in water with
considerable difficulty, yielding a dull yellow solution which was not clear,
and had an acid reaction on test paper. It possessed a bitter and nauseous
chalybeate taste. The precipitate thrown down by ammonia was dark in
colour and resinous. From three analyses of twenty-five grains each I ob¬
tained 3*72, 3*7, and 3*67, mean 3*696, equal to 14*784 per cent, of quinine, or
23 ‘09 per cent, of citrate of quinine.

This, when treated with ether, yielded a brownish-coloured solution, and
left a small quantity of insoluble matter. Prepared according to the British
Pharmacopoeia formula.

No 14 had a golden green colour and somewhat dull appearance. Was
unaltered by exposure to the air at a temperature of 60°. It dissolved in
water with difficulty, but more readily than the preceding, yielding a rather
turbid solution, which on standing deposited a greyish sediment, and had an
acid reaction on test paper, and an intensely bitter taste. It yielded a copious
precipitate on the addition of ammonia. From three analyses of twenty-five
grains each, and from one of fifty grains, I obtained 3*72, 3*7, and 3*73, from
fifty grains 7'45, mean 3*72, equal to 14*88 per cent, of quinine, or 23*25 per
cent, of citrate of quinine.

This, when treated with ether, yielded a brownish solution, and left but
little insoluble matter. The name appears on the label, and the preparation
is certified to contain 25 per cent, of citrate of quinine.

No. 15 occurred in very bright, fine golden scales, which remain unaltered
by exposure to the air at a temperature of 60°. Dissolved readily in water,
yielding a perfectly clear yellow solution, which had an acid reaction upon
test paper, and a very bitter but not chalybeate taste. From three analyses
of twenty-five grains each I obtained 3*96, 3*92, and 3*94, mean 3*96, equal to
15*84 per cent, of quinine, or 24*75 per cent, of citrate of quinine.

This, when digested in ether, yielded a brownish-coloured solution, and left
a small quantity of insoluble matter.

I regret that time does not permit me to report on the presence or absence
of the other cinchona alkaloids. Quinidine will, I think, be found to be
present in more than one specimen, and I imagine from the quantity of white
precipitate left insoluble in ether in No. 7, that the presence of cinchonine is
highly probable in that sample. I must, however, defer a further notice to
another time.

54, Kentish Town Road , London , K. IV.

DEATH FROM ERGOT OF RYF.

On Thursday, Oct. 6th, the Borough coroner resumed his inquiry, at the Town Hall,
Brighton, as to the death of Susan Kingman. The facts of the case, as elicited at the
inquest, are as follows : — The deceased had been cohabiting with a Mr. Leapman, and
becoming enceinte had endeavoured to procure abortion by taking large quantities of
ergot of rye. Mr. Leapman, when he discovered what she was doing, desired her to
discontinue the medicine and made her promise that she would, but as soon as his back
was turned she repeated the doses. In consequence of this her health was brought to so
low an ebb that on Sunday, the 25th of September, medical assistance was called in ; but
notwithstanding the greatest care on the part of Dr. Stephens, she died on the following
Tuesday. So peculiar were the symptoms of her ailing, that Dr. Stephens refused to give
Mr. Leapman a certificate that Miss Kingman died from natural causes. The same day
Mr. Leapman left Brighton, and no one knew where he was gone, although it was ru-

DEATH FROM ERGOT OF RYE.

285

moured that he had left the country. From information supplied by a servant in de¬
ceased’s employ it appears that the medicine had been obtained from Mr. Garrett, che¬
mist, Western Road, in large quantities, and in a lesser quantity of Mr. Johnson, North
Street ; and on examination these gentlemen said that they supplied it in accordance
with a prescription given to them by deceased, and signed J. D. R. In the possession of
Miss Kingman was a letter addressed to “ My dear Susan,” saying “ how glad I should
he to see you in town, and would meet you at any place by mutual appointment. If
you could spare me a little money in stamps, it would be of infinite service ;to me just
now, as I have been at a heavy expense in moving my family to London. — Yours very
sincerely, J. D. R#*#r. Direct to me : Dr. Rym — , Chief Office, St. Martin’s-le-Grand,
London.” The prescription was consequently supposed to have been written by Dr.Rymer,
who formerly resided at The Dicker, near Chiddingly ; and as it was stated that deceased
died of irritant poison, and that ergot of rye, taken in large doses, would have produced
the symptoms manifested, but would not act as an abortive, the inquiry was adjourned,
in order that the attendance of Dr. Rymer and Mr. Leapman might be secured and fur¬
ther evidence obtained, but the attempt to serve a summons either on Dr. Rymer or Mr.
Leapman failed.

At the adjourned inquiry, Mr. Thomas Stowell, an M.D. of the University of New
York, and an M.R.C.S. of London, stated that he had on one occasion attended Miss
Kingman, when he prescribed for her a decoction of Linum catharticum and compound
rhubarb pills ; but that if the prescription (the one dispensed by Mr. Garrett, chemist)
had been brought to him, he should not have supplied the medicine, as he considered the
ergot of rye dangerous. Mr. John Kemp, chemist, North Street, gave evidence as to the
“custom of the trade ” in dispensing such prescriptions. Lie had been in business four¬
teen or fifteen years, and if such a prescription as the one produced had been brought
to him by a strange female he should have dispensed it. The prescription was as fol¬
lows : — “Ik Tinct. Secal. Cornut. ~ij, 01. Menth. Pulegii 5ij, misce. Take one teaspoon¬
ful in water three times a day. — J. D. R.”

Coroner — And supposing she was to come again and again, extending over a period
of six weeks, would you supply her ? — -It might cause some little remark, but it is a me¬
dicine that is given in chronic diseases.

Coroner — What amount would you consider it negligent to supply ? — Well, you see,
it might be dispensed by different assistants, and therefore it is doubtful if we should
have known it ; if it had come to my knowledge that any one had applied for it to be
made up six times in as many weeks, I should have considered it improper. A proper
interval would be five or six days.

May I ask if in your experience a prescription of that kind, containing ergot of rye,
has been given for chronic diseases ? — Ergot and infusion of ergot are given in such cases.

Dr. Stephens — And would you supply it in such quantities for such a disease ? — Yes.

Mr. Johnson — Would you not suppose that a lady calling on you repeatedly for bot¬
tles, had seen her medical attendant in the intervals ? — Yes.

A Juror — Do you know the nature of it — do you know that it would produce death?
— -Yes, if taken in large quantities. No medical man would direct it to be taken week
after week. If a female presented the prescription four or five times, I should ask her
if she was taking it by direction of her medical man ; and if she said, “ No, he told me
to take it, and I have taken it ever since,” I should not dispense it.

A Juror — Do you know that ergot of rye is calculated to produce abortion ? — Yes.

And yet you say you would supply it three or four times ? — Yes, under circumstances
such as I have named.

Sarah Harriet Sayers stated that she was in the service of Miss Kingman for six
months ; she had fetched medicine from Mr. Garrett’s, and on one occasion Dr. Rymer
came to see her mistress. The medicin^ she took made her very ill, and once she heard
Mr. Leapman say, “ If you take that medicine any more, I will never speak to youag ain.”

Dr. Roberts, who was in court, here expressed his desire to give evidence — I reside at
Burgess Hill. I have had great practice. Mr. Garrett was an assistant with me about
two years, about fourteen years ago, when I carried on my profession at Sydenham. He
was in the habit of largely dispensing the medicine ergot of rye in its different forms,
and he was fully aware of its effects. He has known it to be given for three weeks to¬
gether in as large or larger doses than have been mentioned ; always in womb affections.
He was then a most competent dispenser, and I had the most unlimited confidence
him. I disagree largely with Mr. Kemp with regard to Secale producing death.

236

DEATH FROM ERGOT OF RYE.

Coroner — Do I understand you to say that ergot of rye, taken week after week for
nine weeks, would not produce death ? — No, undoubtedly not. I should not look for
death from it. Death would be from indirect causes.

A Juror — Do you mean that a person taking two or three bottles it would not produce
death ? — Yes.

Coroner — Have you read Dr. Taylor’s work on poison? — Yes, and others as well. I
do not think this would cause death. I entirely disagree with Dr. Stephens’s evidence
on the post mortem examination.

Then you come here, I suppose, to contradict his statement ? — No, Sir, I come here
out of friendship to Mr. Garrett. •

A Juror — I know one of the first professional men in Brighton who prescribes ergot
for consumption and chronic diseases.

Witness — I have known it to be given in half-ounce doses.

Dr. Stephens — Would the subject not vomit sucha.dose? — That would depend on
circumstances. Some might vomit it, whilst others would not.

Coroner — Do you agree with Dr. Taylor when he says that small doses taken continu¬
ally would cause death ? — It would depend on what “ continually ” means, — whether it
was six weeks or six months.

The coroner, after referring to the opinion volunteered by Dr. Roberts, said he thought
it overbalanced by that of Dr. Stephens, and the recognized authority on these points,
Dr. Taylor, and that death was caused by the destruction of the organs of digestion, and
other organs, by the use of ergot of rye. If the jury were of opinion that the deceased
took this drug for the purpose of procuring abortion, she was guilty of self-murder. So
were those, if they did it knowingly, who supplied the material. Of Dr. Rymer’s pre¬
scription they had only a copy, and there was no legal proof that the prescription pro¬
duced was that he gave to deceased. Ergot of rye might be given to remove certain
irregularities, and it might have been that Dr. Rymer gave deceased the prescription for
this purpose, and that she had since made improper use of it. However, there was no¬
thing in the case now which criminally implicated Dr. Rymer, although, no doubt, in
the minds of the jury there was a strong suspicion, which Dr. Rymer certainly ought to
remove for the sake of his own reputation. So much, then, as regards Dr. Rymer. Mr.
Johnson only supplied the deceased with one bottle, and that was from the original pre¬
scription ; therefore Mr. Johnson came out of the case with clean hands. So far as re¬
garded Mr. Garrett, the case was more difficult to deal with. There was a conflict of
evidence on this point. The girl Betsy Piercy said she several times fetched medicine
from Mr. Garrett’s, and on one occasion she said she had to ask him for the pills. She
further said that she was in the employ of the deceased nine weeks, and that a fortnight
after she went there she went to Mr. Garrett’s and asked for “Mrs. Kingman’s me¬
dicine,” so that would show that deceased had taken the medicine seven weeks before
she died. Then they had the evidence of the girl who was in deceased’s employ before
Betsy Piercy, and she said that a month before she left she went and fetched the medi¬
cine from Mr. Garrett’s, so that they had it in evidence that deceased had taken this
medicine for eleven weeks. Then, according to Mr. Garrett’s own statement, he supplied
her with four bottles before the 20th of August, and one since, making altogether five
bottles. Now, the question they had here to consider was — did Mr. Garrett know that
she required this for the purpose of procuring abortion ? If they thought he was merely
supplying the medicine under the direction of a medical man, they could not find him
guilty of carelessness ; but if, on the other hand, they thought that the practice of sup¬
plying such drugs was improper, they might express their opinion to that effect, although
it would form no portion of their verdict.

The jury returned a verdict of felo cle se, appending to it that they thought greater
precaution should be used by chemists in dispensing such deleterious medicines.

Referring to the above case, a “Dispensing Chemist,” in a letter to the ‘Brighton
Herald,’ October 8, observes : — “ There are but few chemists who, in the course of their
career, have not dispensed similar prescriptions. In my own knowledge, a prescription
containing 1 ergot of rye ’ has been continually dispensed for a lady for three years, and
in another case a lady took, three times a day, for several weeks, a dose of ergot half as
strong again as that ordered in the prescription dispensed by Mr. Garrett for Miss
Kingman.

“ The jury forgot the fact that the chemist cannot know all the circumstances connected

MEDICAL AND PHARMACEUTICAL RESPONSIBILITY.

287

with any prescription that may be brought to hitn for dispensing ; his duty begins and
ends with the prescription, and although, thanks to an advanced intelligence in the
ranks of our profession, there are few that are unacquainted with the doses and proper¬
ties of the medicines we dispense, it is not our province to check the medical man in
his written orders ; the thousand little cares and anxieties that are entailed on us in
carefully carrying out our duties are sufficient sources of responsibility without adding
another that strictly belongs to the doctor. Should we refuse to prepare medicines
duly (so far as we can judge) authorized by a medical man, we should only be adding
to our already numerous responsibilities.”

The ‘ Medical Times and Gazette.’ in commenting on the case, gives the evidence of
Mr. Stowell, who was described at the adjourned inquest as “an M.D. of the Univer¬
sity of New York, and an M.R.C.S. of London,” as that of a chemist and triumphantly
observes, — “We desire to hear the pharmaceutical opinion of this case officially, and
meanwhile say, Take your line and keep to it. If you are to prescribe, please to study
medicine, so that there may be no chance of giving Linum catharticum to pregnant
women.”

MEDIGAL AND PHARMACEUTICAL RESPONSIBILITY.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARAIACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — The serious responsibility of medical general practitioners and pnar-
maceutists, revealed by the result of the case against Messrs. Clay and Abra¬
ham, is sufficient to point out the expediency of carefully scrutinizing charges
of error that may from time to time be made against dispensers of medicine,
and of distinctly recording cases where fraud is either proved or suspected
on the part of those who make the accusation.

With this view, not finding any record of the case in the ‘ Lancet ’ or the
* Pharmaceutical Journal,’ I beg to forward you the outline of what was
proved at an inquest held at Einchley, by the late Mr. Wakley, in the
beginning of the year 1855, as follows : —

On the 16th of December, 1854, the driver of the Einchley mail went into
the open surgery of Dr. Niell, of Aldersgate Street, and asked for four doses
of Epsom salts. There were two assistants in the surgery, one of them a stu¬
dent at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. Eincling that no salts were put up and
that the driver was pressed for time, they jointly occupied themselves in
weighing and wrapping the salts, sealing the packages with the surgery wax.

Shortly afterwards they were accused of having supplied oxalic acid in¬
stead of Epsom salts, as a person at Einchley who had sent the driver of the
mail for the salts died from having taken the contents of one of the packages,
and the three remaining packages were proved to contain oxalic acid. After
repeated adjournments of the inquest, it was established that the packages
left by the deceased had been resealed by wax unlike that kept in the surgery,
that lie had just previously bought half a pound of oxalic acid (which he was
in the habit of possessing for trade purposes), and that his life was insured ;
moreover, in the folds of the wrappers of the three packets so left containing
the oxalic acid, were found the crystals of Epsom salts. The jury returned a
verdict of Suicide.

The facts here narrated can be easily proved by reference to the testimony
of those who appeared at the inquest.

The foregoing case is important, because if it again occurred in a surgery
or a chemist’s shop to-morrow, the cunning which threw the onus of disproving
a mistake upon those supplying the medicine might be repeated, and unless
good fortune enabled a practitioner to show the fraud, his assistant would
probably be tried for manslaughter and he himself possibly ruined by a
monstrous fine.

It seems to me the more necessary that the Einchley case should be brought

288

MEDICAL AND PHARMACEUTICAL RESPONSIBILITY.

before your readers, on account of a passage I find in Professor Taylor’s “ Re¬
port on Poisoning,” printed in the last issue of your Journal, as follows : —

“ Several cases have come to my knowledge in which oxalic acid has been
retailed in place of Epsom salts. In one of them, which occurred in London
some years since, a man was sent to the shop of a respectable druggist for
four ounce packets of Epsom salts. He was served with four packets, labelled,
as usual, e Purified Epsom Salts.’ In the evening, the gentleman who had
sent for the salts took the contents of one of these packets ; he was seized
with the usual symptoms of poisoning by oxalic acid, and died in a few hours.
I examined the contents of the stomach and found oxalic acid therein, and I
also found that the three unopened packets contained oxalic acid, labelled as
above described.”

INTow if these remarks in Dr. Taylor’s report refer to the Finchley case,
they require to be supplemented by a notice of the fact that a verdict of
‘ suicide ’ was returned by the jury who investigated it.

With Professor Taylor’s suggestions that none but educated persons should
be allowed to vend poisons I for one heartily concur, so far as restriction is
possible (I confess I see a difficulty in forbidding a colourman to supply white
lead to a painter or the like), and I firmly believe that an improved Phar¬
macy Act, placing all existing dispensers of medicine now in business (who
are not qualified medical men) upon a register, and compelling their succes¬
sors to pass the examination of the Pharmaceutical Society, would be the best
obtainable security for the public. It would be advisable, no doubt, to provide
that, for the purposes of legislation, a schedule of articles to be deemed poisons
should be drawn, and the sale of these and the dispensing of prescriptions re¬
stricted to apothecaries and bond fide chemists and druggists at present in
business, as wTell as to those who may be duly examined hereafter.

It may be as well also to call attention to the following quotations from
Professor Taylor’s report : —

“ A characteristic feature of all fatal errors in dispensing or vending medi¬
cines is the positive denial, as a rule, that any mistake has been made.”

“ This strong denial of a mistake from inattention or carelessness in face
of facts which prove that a mistake must have been made, has, in more than
one instance, led to unfounded charges of murder against innocent persons
who have had the care of children.”

“There is also another source of mischief which may arise from these mis¬
takes. As a dispenser acting bond fide is never aware when a mistake has
been made, and almost always denies it in the strongest language, it follows
that those who have been in attendance up to the last hour are exposed to a
false accusation of administering poison. If poison is found in the body or
in the medicine, this is considered of itself a sufficient proof of the charge ;
and even in the absence of motive or moral circumstances will not always
suffice to show the charge is groundless. The proof of the mistake, if denied,
will in general rest upon presumption. A false charge of murder arising out
of careless dispensing is easily made and hard to be disproved, as there can
rarely be immediate access to the bottles or drawers of a shop to establish
the fact upon undeniable evidence.”

Surely the learned professor is here rather hard upon general medical prac¬
titioners and pharmaceutists.

Does not Mrs. Gamp, redolent of snuff and gin, often find her way in a half-
fuddled state to the surgery of a general practitioner or the shop of the chemist?
Is it so very certain that when engaged in unfurling her umbrella she never puts
down the parcel that has been given her and takes up another ? Is it so very
clear that she is more unlikely to make a mistake than a practised dispenser ?
If so, is she less likely to make a “positive denial” than he? That “false

MEDICAL AND PHARMACEUTICAL RESPONSIBILITY. 289

charges ” arc “easily made and hard to be disproved” is unfortunately too
true. .But surely the compounder of medicines may cite this on his side also.
If he is to have the risk of imprisonment, and his employer (be he a general
practitioner or be he a druggist) the chance of having to pay heavy damages,
lie will probably be found to claim the right of other Englishmen and ask
to be deemed innocent of offence until proved to be guilty,

I am, Sir, yours obediently,

30, BucJdersbury , October , 1864. B. B. Orridge.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — Amongst all the suggestions for the regulation of the sale of poisons,
nothing is said about a registration fee to be charged by chemists who are at
the trouble of entering in their poison-book all sales of arsenic, etc. The pro¬
cess involves both time and trouble, and the remuneration most frequently
ranges from one penny to threepence.

A legalized fee of one shilling would not be excessive, and would, I think,
meet with little opposition from the followers of our craft. All registrars are
rewarded either by salary or fee, and why should druggists be made an excep¬
tion to the rule ?

Yours respectfully,

Doncaster , October 30, 1864. E. H. W.

TO THE EDITORS OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Gentlemen, — In your Leader on “ Pharmaceutical [Responsibility,” in the
Pharmaceutical Journal for the present month, you say, “ There will still be
the reflection that an accidental error may entail upon the most careful a
ruinous penalty,” and ask, “Are there any means by which this painful re¬
flection may be dispelled or relieved? ” I do not know what plans may sug¬
gest themselves to others, but it has occurred to me that one of the simplest
would be at once to form a Mutual Insurance Society, the object of which
should be to provide a fund available for defraying the penalty incurred,
should any of the insured be so unfortunate as to incur one through inad¬
vertently supplying a wrong medicine, as in the case of Messrs. Clay and
Abraham.

One of the first things a careful man will do after commencing business will
be to insure his stock and furniture in a good fire-office ; he then feels that
though a fire would be a terrible calamity, causing a great interruption of
business, still he would not be entirely ruined as he might have been had he
not insured.

As the law now stands, every druggist in the kingdom is exposed to a far
greater danger than that of fire. No man is able to say he shall not make a
mistake. I believe the fear of so doing is a constant source of the greatest
anxiety to many men. A mistake may be fatal, the penalty may be great,
and the druggist who after years of perseverance may have gained the confi¬
dence and respect of his neighbours, and who is occupying a respectable posi¬
tion, may in a few days be reduced to absolute beggary. Many a druggist
would be utterly unable to pay damages of a thousand or fifteen hundred
pounds if awarded, and would have to part with everything he possessed to
make up the sum, and what then would be his position ? his name would have
been published throughout the country, and few would be willing to trust
him. He may have dispensed thousands of prescriptions correctly, given un-

VOL. VI. Y

290

MEDICAL AND PHARMACEUTICAL RESPONSIBILITY.

remitting attention to Iris business, but in the case of a fatal mistake all this
would be forgotten by the public generally.

The druggist who has assistants or apprentices is in a still more dangerous
position than the man who manages his business alone, as he is evidently liable
to a heavy penalty should a mistake be made by any of them. I do not know
how far the Council of the Pharmaceutical Society can move in this matter,
but I should be glad to see them taking some active steps. I think it would
be necessary to demand an entrance fee so as to raise a fund which should be
at once available, but that afterwards a very small annual subscription will be
necessary, as I sincerely hope that no subscriber will ever have the misfortune
to seek help from the fund ; for as it is better to pay to a fire office for a life¬
time and not have a fire, so will it be greatly to the advantage of a druggist
never to have a mistake in his establishment.

I merely throw out the suggestion, leaving it for others to mature plans, or
propose some scheme which shall more effectually relieve those engaged in
dispensing prescriptions from one great source of anxiety,

I am, yours respectfully,

Bewdley , Sept. 7, 1864 Eobert Newman.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — In relation to the late case at Liverpool, I beg to offer one suggestion
that seems to me the only one, if rightly acted on and adopted, that can meet the
difficulties into which Lord Campbell may possibly place any of us. It is this,
that all the members of our Society, and I would add all dispensing chemists,
at once agree to insure against accidents which, with the greatest care, may yet
occur to any of us.

I care not what machinery is adopted, provided a bond fide result is obtained.
A very small sum per annum would, I trust, be quite adequate for our purpose.
An actuary may assist us in ascertaining the amount probably required from
each subscriber.

Permit me, whilst writing on this subject, to earnestly press on my brother
dispensers how much more may be done in the way of prevention of accidents in
our business avocations. My own practice for very many years has been, first,
so to dispose of the situation of my bottles as to render a mistake more difficult.
In the next place, I always place the word “poison” on bottles of that nature.
And, lastly, I have for a long time selected one drawer labelled u poison” for the
more active poisons, such as strychnine, morphia, etc. Arsenic and corrosive
sublimate I place entirely on an upper shelf, where it is some trouble to get at.

And now, Sir, I must ask, are these gentlemen at Liverpool to bear the brunt
of this misfortune in the payment of nearly £2000 in addition to what they
have suffered already ? I do trust that for once the whole of their brethren,
and all the chemists in the kingdom, will unite to defray the damages and costs
of this civil action, without losing sight of that insurance fund which I hope to
see immediately begun. I need hardly say I shall gladly subscribe to both.

I am, Sir, yours respectfully,

Exmouth, 8th September, 1864. Samuel Thornton.

DISPENSING DEPAETMENT.

TO THE EDITORS OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Gentlemen,— -In the Journal for the present month you have inserted a
casual remark made by myself at the Pharmaceutical Conference at Bath on
the above subject.

THE CASE OP ATTEMPTED CRIMINAL ABORTION AT BRIGHTON. 291

In chemists’ shops in the country, where the “oil and colour” and other
trades are carried on, I can quite understand why a “ dispensing department ”
should be maintained separate from the dirt and confusion of the connected
business.

A “ dispensing department ” seems to me always to imply that other busi¬
ness is carried on in the establishment besides dispensing. Now, as regards
the retail of a strictly pharmaceutical chemist, I have yet got to learn why
the pennyworth of “ Epsom Salts,” or of “ Pil. Rufi,” or of “ Red Precipitate
Poison,” etc., should not emanate from the “dispensing department” as well
as the most elaborate prescription ; and where the dark part of the back of
the shop is labelled “ dispensing department,” I would propose altering the
title to “ Patent Medicine Department ,” as a dark place well suits the “ arcana
foetida /’ and although “ patent ” may literally mean “open” yet, in this
case, the name appears to Re applied on the old principle, Ducus a non
lucendo.

As this is a practical subject, perhaps these few remarks may not be inap¬
propriate. A scientific paper could scarcely be expected from an old Member,
who, instead of passing an examination, has simply the honour of having his
name inserted among the “ founders ” of the Society in the Journal for 1841,
and who still retains his name on the list.

I am, Gentlemen, your obedient servant,

Joseph Leay.

Chilcompton, Bath, October 6, 1864.

THE CASE OF ATTEMPTED CRIMINAL ABORTION AT

BRIGHTON.

TO THE EDITOR OP THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — I would call your serious attention to a garbled report in the ( Medical
Times and Gazette ’ of the recent case of criminal abortion in this town. The
above Journal states, “ The practitioner who gave it alleged that it was for a
bronchial affection.” Now he made no such allegation with respect to the
prescription, but stated in a letter (evoked by one sent to him by the police
here, to be left at the General Post Office, London, his whereabouts not being
known) that he attended the woman two years ago for a bronchial affection.
Now this is merely an evasive answer ; for “the practitioner,” a Dr. Rymer
(which name the ‘ Medical Times and Gazette ’ does not mention)-, called on
Mr. Garrett, according to his evidence, and authorized him to prepare the
prescription.

This Dr. Rymer was not to be found at the time of the inquest, for obvious
reasons.

The ‘ Medical Times and Gazette ’ also suppresses the fact that a letter was
found on the woman, evidently from Dr. Rymer, begging for a few postage-
stamps and asking for an assignation in town. This I consider the most sus¬
picious part of the evidence.

The ‘ Medical Times and Gazette ’ has made another slip in calling Mr.
Stowell a chemist, for he never was such, but is a M.R.C.S. ; and therefore the
censures they lavish on the chemists and counter-prescribing, and Mr. Stow-
ell’s “ criminality ” in administering Linnm catharticum to the woman, really
apply to thejnedical profession, ancl not to the chemists. It is amusing to see
the worthy journalist blindly scourging his patrons.

I enclose a circular which this worthy (Dr. Stowell) has issued after passing
the colleges. It commences thus : — “ I apprise my patients and others that I
have retired from the duties at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, which for three

292

TEST FOR METHYLIC ALCOHOL.

years and a half have engaged my attention, and taken me from home practice,
etc. I am, etc., Thos. Stowell, Member of the Royal College of Surgeons,
England.”

In quoting “ Thos. S to well's ” evidence, the ‘Medical Times and Gazette’
states that he showed superior knowledge and said, “ we have better remedies
to produce the desired effect ” (or to that purpose). Now although Mr.
Stowell is a M.R.C.S., the we here means the “ Eclectics,” for Mr. Stowell
practises as such.

Trusting that you will insert the above remarks in your next issue, and that
your readers will excuse any slight errors, as I have not the papers before me,

I remain, yours obediently,

C. Berry, Chemist.

Brighton , 41, Elm Grove, Oct. 18.

TEST FOR METIITLIC ALCOHOL.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — My attention has been called to the abstract of a paper by Mr. John
Tuck, on “A Test for Methylic Alcohol in the presence of Jd thy lie Alcohol ,”
which appeared in your report of the proceedings of the Pharmaceutical Con¬
ference held at Bath. As the paper referred to seems to have contained some
singular omissions, I trust you will give me the opportunity of correcting
them, since they affect me personally to some extent.

I was not a little surprised to find that the process of Mr/Tuck for de¬
tecting “ Methylic Alcohol”* is essentially, and in fact, the same as that which
I proposed and fully published early last year, for the detection of “ wood
spirit ;”f but Mr. Tuck appears to be utterly oblivious of my previous inves¬
tigation, or has perhaps forgotten to mention the source of his inspiration,
llow the former could have been the case I am at a loss to conceive, as my
paper was fully published during the year in the * Pharmaceutical Journal ’
and ‘Chemical News,’ in addition to other notices in many British and foreign
scientific periodicals.

In but one unimportant point does Mr. Tuck’s method differ from mine, and
that difference consists in the employment of an alkaline solution of double
iodide of potassium and mercury, instead of dilute solution of bichloride of mer¬
cury, with subsequent addition of caustic potash as proposed by me. The differ¬
ence, then, exists only in name but not in fact, as the result is the same in both
cases. Mr. Tuck has even gone further, and explicitly stated that the reac¬
tion of wood spirit with the mercurial salt “ he has found ” to be due to the
presence of acetone , — a fact likewise dwelt on in my paper. So far as I can
glean from your abstract, the same want of originality holds throughout the
details of Mr. Tuck’s method. I believe therefore that I am warranted in
claiming Mr. Tuck’s discovery (?) of a test for wood spirit as my own.

Before concluding, permit me to observe, in reference to the remarks of Mr.
Reynolds, of Leeds, on my test for methylated spirits, that without claiming
absolute immunity from error for it, yet if used as described in my paper its
indications will be found much more reliable than Mr. Reynolds supposed,
since I only rely on its evidence when three facts have been established, viz.
1st, the re-solution of the oxide of mercury by excess of potash in the pre¬
sence of the suspected spirit ; 2nd, the production of a yellowish-white pre¬
cipitate on long-continued boiling of the alkaline solution ; and, 3rd, the for¬
mation of a similar precipitate on supersaturating the excess of potash with

* Tlie author states that the react ion is clue to acetone ! !

f The term “wood spirit” is used throughout my paper in its ordinary generic sense.

MEDICAL TITLES.

293

acetic acid. My experience in the practical application of the test rests on
the experimental examination of a number of pure medicinal tinctures, against
the same samples purposely adulterated with methylated spirit. Working on
this basis, I at the time examined many tinctures then in the market, and
obtained such indications as to lead me to conclude that “methylated spirits”
had been used in the preparation of certain samples, while others were pure.
Apologizing for so far trespassing on your space,

I am, Sir, yours, etc.,

Dublin , Oct. 15, 1864. Emerson J. Reynolds.

MEDICAL TITLES.

Several cases have lately been brought before the magistrates, of alleged infringements
of the Medical Act, of which the following are examples: — At the Thames Police Court,
Mr. Fentiman, a chemist, druggist, and medicine vender, of No. 2, Upper East Smith-
field, near the Royal Mint, appeared to answer a summons taken out by Dr. Wills, a
registered medical practitioner, of No. 22, Upper East Smithfield, which charged the
defendant with falsely pretending to be a surgeon.

Mr. Butler Rigby, a barrister, instructed by Mr. Robertson, solicitor, opened the case
for the prosecution, and said this was a case under an Act to Regulate the Qualifications
of Practitioners in Medicine and Surgery. Dr. Wills had purchased a practice at a con¬
siderable expense, and was a properly qualified practitioner. The name of Dr. Wills
was in the ‘ Medical Register.’ The complainant’s practice had been greatly interfered
with by the defendant, whose bills were given away opposite to and near the com¬
plainant’s surgery, and jiad even been put into the hands of his patients. The defendant,
who was not a regularly qualified medical practitioner, called himself a surgeon in his
shop bills and advertisements, which would be produced. He had only in addition to
put in the ‘ Medical Register’ for the present year, in which the defendant’s name did
not appear, and the case was made out.

The Register was put in and received as evidence, and Mr. Henry Carver, a com¬
mission agent, said he went to Mr. Fentiman’s shop on the 15th and purchased two-
pennyworth of sweet nitre and threepenny worth of rhubarb. The defendant gave him
a printed bill in which ho was described as “ Mr. Fentiman, surgeon, dentist, and che¬
mist, No. 2, Upper East Smithfield, next the Royal Mint, Tower Hill.”

The defendant, in reply to the charge, said if he had done wrong he was very sorry for
it. He was not aware it was wrong to call himself a surgeon, for he had carried on the
practice of the healing art for twenty years.

Mr. Paget said there was a decision of the Court of Common Pleas in a case of this
kind in 1860. That case seemed to run on all-fours with this, or nearly so. The Court
of Common Pleas on the facts decided that there were no grounds to sustain a conviction.
A man called himself a surgeon, and he was not registered. It was the same here. He
did not think he should be justified in convicting, and must dismiss the case.

Mr. Rigby asked the magistrate to adjourn the case, which was one of great import¬
ance. It was accordingly adjourned for a week, and was still further deferred, the
defendant promising not to use the title of surgeon.

Marlborough Street. — Mr. Francis Bearnard, surgeon- chiropodist to the Royal
Family, 59, Regent Street, again appeared to answer a summons for using the word
“ surgeon” on his door, in contravention of the provisions of the new Medical Act.

Mr. W. Tilley, of Beaconsfield, Bucks, representing the Medical Council of Education
and Registration, appeared in support of the summons ; and Mr. Lewis, jun., of Ely
Place, appeared for Mr. Bearnard.

On the previous occasion it was proved on one side, and admitted on the other, that
the words “ surgeon-chiropodist” were on the defendant’s door-plate ; that the defendant
was not a surgeon in England, nor was he registered as one of the medical profession.

Mr. Tvrwhitt said yesterday, — I have considered this case, and it appears to me that
“surgeon,” though prefixed to “ chiropodist,” cannot be treated as mere surplusage,
but must have a meaning. That meaning must be measured, not in the narrow sense
in which knowing Londoners, experienced in vain pretension, and in the steps of medical

294

THE LATE MR. THOMAS HERRING.

rank, might take it, but by the general acceptation which the great body of mankind,
passing the defendant’s door-plate, would ascribe to the words used there. I think, on
the whole, that these words would convey to them that a surgeon, duly qualified and
registered as such, practised at the house in question as a chiropodist. Taken to be
such a surgeon, he would command more confidence with those who sought his aid as
a chiropodist ; and not only that, but he might naturally be consulted by them in
surgical matters beyond the mere treatment of corns. We must allow something for
the craving after small titles which is so widely spread at present. The corn-cutter
is restless until he writes “ chiropodist,” and next, from fear of so much Greek not
being understood, dubs himself surgeon at all hazards. On the whole, if the defendant
will remove from his door-plate and cards the word “ surgeon,” I might consider as to
mitigating the penalty, which is £20, and in that hope would adjourn my decision
till this day week. But if the defendant requests me to grant a case “for the opinion
of a superior court, I will do so. In that case it will be needless to adjourn the case,
and I dine him £20.

Mr. Lewis, jun., said since the last hearing Mr. Bearnard had been to the Medical
Council, and the secretary had informed him that they were not initiating the com¬
plaint.

Mr. Tyrwhitt said he had nothing to do with the Medical Council.

Mr. Lewis, jun., said, if Mr. Bearnard took a case to a superior court, he had a right
to know whether Mr. Tilley was a responsible person. Mr. Bearnard had been called
upon by several medical men, who had expressed their distaste at the proceedings.

After some consultation between Mr. Lewris and Mr. Bearnard, Mr. Lewis said, with
all deference to the judgment just delivered, his client would take a case, and Mr. Bear¬
nard would at once enter into the requisite sureties. Subsequently the magistrate
said he felt that there was so much doubt about the matter that he should not enforce
the penalty, and he would not advise Mr. Bearnard to alter his plate.

A summons wras also taken out against Mr. M. C. Rogers, dentist, of New Burlington
Street, “ for falsely pretending to be a surgeon but ft was proved that Mr. Kogers
had passed the hospitals in Paris as a qualified surgeon, but he practised only, as a
dentist. It appeared that the Medical Council had ignored these proceedings against
Mr. Rogers, stating that they were not taken by their advice nor at their expense.

OBITUARY.— THOMAS HERRING.

We have to record the death of one of the oldest members of the drug trade, an
original promoter, and one of the most active and zealous supporters of the Pharmaceu¬
tical Society. Mr. Thomas Herring was born in Norwich on the 1st of January, 1785.
He was apprenticed to Mr. George Sothern, of that city, in 1801, and at the end of his
apprenticeship in 180G he came to London and obtained an engagement with Messrs.
Kirk, Hear on, and Co., in Bishopsgate Street, with whom he remained until the begin¬
ning of 1808. In this year he married Anne Rogers, the only child of Nathaniel Rogers,
a wealthy dyer. About the middle of 1808 he commenced his career in business on his
own account, having purchased the freehold of premises No. 8, Barbican, and invited his
brother, Thrower Buckle Herring (at that time living with a bombazine manufacturer
at Norwich), to join him. The new firm soon met with considerable success, and in
1815 they moved to more extensive premises at 40, Aldersgate Street, where the busi¬
ness has been carried on ever since. All the arrangements were provided here for a first-
class wholesale drug business. There was ample room at that period for improvement
in the preparation of medicines, and especially of those sold by wholesale druggists.
The whole class of powders were usually prepared in an imperfect manner, and were
often adulterated to an enormous extent. Medicinal extracts were also very imperfectly
made, and in fact pharmacy was altogether in a low state. There were, no doubt
honourable exceptions to the then existing general condition of the drug trade, but
these were mostly in the retail department. Dispensing chemists who were anxious to
perform their duty conscientiously made their own preparations, even to the powdering
of many drugs, which of course was done with the pestle and mortar. Herring’s house
was soon brought prominently into notice by the introduction of a new class of powders,
for the production of which they had fitted up very powerful and efficient drug-grinding

BOOKS RECEIVED,

295

apparatus. It was a new thing at that time for a wholesale druggist to have a drug-
mill on the premises capable of producing all the vegetable and other powders on a
large scale. Such work had been invariably done by a class of men called “ drug-
grinders,” who were not particularly noted for the production of good and genuine pow¬
ders. Herring’s vegetable powders, such as rhubarb, jalap, bark, ipecacuanha, etc., while
they were guaranteed to be genuine, were very different in appearance from any pow¬
ders previously supplied for use in medicine. They were fine, soft, impalpable, bright-
looking powders, such as could not be produced with the pestle and mortar. This class
of powders has subsequently replaced entirely the comparatively coarse and dull-looking
powders previously used. To Thomas Herring was certainly due the introduction of a
great and important reform in this department of pharmacy. Nor was this the only
class of preparations for the improvement of which active measures were adopted at
40, Aldersgate Street. The reform which had commenced there, and was first made appa¬
rent- in the vegetable powders, soon extended to other houses and other preparations,
and the improvements thus progressively developed continued for many years. When,
at a later date, pharmaceutical reformers united their efforts for the establishment of the
Pharmaceutical Society, a great change had already been effected in the state of the
drug trade, but this was accomplished by the exertions of isolated individuals ; it re¬
mained for more extensive and important reforms to be brought about through the com¬
bination of the leading houses, both wholesale and retail, which took place in 1841.
Among the active and zealous promoters of this Association was Thomas Herring. He
was elected a member of the first Council of the Pharmaceutical Society, and con¬
tinued to serve the Society in that capacity up to the time of his death.

He was a regular attendant at the meetings, and took a warm interest in the pro¬
ceedings. In 1851 he was elected President of the Society ; about this time he gave
evidence before a Committee of the House of Commons in favour of Mr. Bell’s Pharmacy
Bill, showing the great abuses which had existed in the drug trade and the benefits
which had resulted from the operations of the Pharmaceutical Society. The zeal he
manifested in the cause to which he had devoted himself never flagged to the last, and
the influence he exercised in the wholesale department of the trade was often felt to
be of much value.

As a man of business, Mr. Thomas Herring was exceedingly active and possessed
considerable energy. For twenty-one years after the commencement of his career he
continued to make his weekly business visits among the chemists and druggists of
London, making what he called his town or London round on foot, and this, which was
performed in the course of every week, involved the walking of upwards of 112 miles.
For forty-one years he never omitted his annual Dublin and Belfast journey. On the
23rd of last August, being the day after his return from his forty-first visit to Ireland,
he was attacked with diarrhoea, which ended in his dissolution on the 27th of Septem¬
ber, when he had nearly completed his eightieth year. He was buried in the family
vault at Weybridge church.

BOOKS RECEIVED.

Elements oe Mateeia Medica, containing- the Chemistry and Natural
Histoey oe Dettgs, theie Effects, Doses, and Adelteeations ; with Ob-

SEEVATIONS ON ALL THE NEW REMEDIES EECENTLY INTEODECED INTO PEAC-

tice, and on the Peepaeations oe the Beitish Pharmacopoeia. By Dr.
Willam Feazer, Lecturer on Materia Medica to the Carmichael School of Medi¬
cine, etc., etc. Second Edition. London : John Churchill and Sons, New Bur¬
lington Street. Dublin : Fannin and Co. 1864.

Elements of Chemistry, Theoretical and Practical. By William Allen Miller,
M.D., LL.D., etc. Part II. Inorganic Chemistry. Third edition, with additions.
London: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, and Green. 8vo, pp. 947. (From the
Publishers.)

Skin Diseases : their Description, Pathology, Diagnosis, and Treatment. With
a copious Formulary. By Tilbury Fox, M.D. Lond., etc. London : Robert Hard-
wicke, 192, Piccadilly. 8vo, pp. 315. 1864.

296

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

Persons having seceded from the Society may be restored to their former status on
payment of arrears of subscription and the registration fee for the current year.

Those who were Associates before the 1st of July, 1842, are privileged (as Founders
of the Society) to become Members without examination.

Wanted. — Copies of the ‘Pharmaceutical Journal’ for May, June, July, and
August, 1852 : full publishing price given. Address Mr. Bremriclge, 17, Bloomsbury
Square, W.C.

J. J. (Wolverhampton). — The usual dose of phosphate of ammonia is from 5 to 10
grains. It is often combined with carbonate of lithia in cases of gout.

Chmicus (Aberdare). — (1.) Apply by letter to the Secretai’y of the College. (2.)
Registered Apprentices of the Society are supplied with the ‘ Pharmaceutical Journal ’
free. (3.) The July number commences a volume.

J. M. (Crediton). — Gray’s ‘Supplement to the Pharmacopoeia,’ by Redwood, last
edition, price 225. It may be obtained through any bookseller.

Y. A. — “ Kreuznacher bittern” is the salt obtained by evaporating the Kreuznacher
water.

Photo (Leicester). — Negative Collodion : Purified Ether, sp.gr. *720, 5 drachms ;
Purified Alcohol, sp. gr. *820, 3 drachms ; Soluble Pyroxy line, 3 to 6 grains ; Soluble
Iodide of Ammonium, 3 to 4 grains. ( Uardtvich .)

W. J. JD. (Portsea). — (1) Ho alteration has taken place in the law relating to the
sale of spirit of wine. It is still illegal to sell it, excepting for medical use ; but this
restriction is not rigidly enforced when the excise authorities see there is no attempt
on the part of the chemist to evade the law by indiscriminate sale. See vol. iv. pp.
480, 493, and 577, and vol. vi. pp. 99, 101, and 145. (2) There can be no objection

to the supply of spirit of wine, as in the case referred to, where it is mixed with other
ingredients forming a solution for photographic purposes.

Juvenis (Wigan). — Hooper’s ‘Medical Dictionary’ (Longmans), price 305.

Intending Student (Havant). — ‘ Selecta e Praescriptis,’ Fownes’s ‘Manual of Chemis¬
try,’ Bentley’s ‘ Manual of Botany.’ Apply also for the ‘ Regulations, etc., of the Board
of Examiners,’ to the Secretary of the Pharmaceutical Society.

Tyrnn (Mexbro’). — Fresenius’s ‘ Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis.’

A. B. (Dover). — The article sold as “ Glycerine Cream” is generally made by the
addition of glycerine to “ cold cream.”

J. B. B. — Tinctura Ferri Perchloridi , when made according to the British Phar¬
macopoeia, becomes opaque after standing a short time.

A Student.— Dr. Garrod’s ‘ Essentials of Materia Medica and Therapeutics’ (second
edition).

A Correspondent (Liverpool) suggests that in the proposed Bill the clause which
would prevent the Registration of a Chemist’s Assistant until he was twenty-one
years of age, should be replaced by one requiring him to prove that he had been occu¬
pied in the trade for a certain number of years, say five, six, or seven.

J. M. B. — The sale of the article referred to does not require a Licence.

The Liverpool Chemists' Association , The Leeds Chemists' Association , Mr. C.
Jones, Mr. Miller, Mr. Mumbray , Mr. Willmott, Mr. Hadjield , Mr. FJcin are thanked
for their communications. We regret that in consequence of the great press of matter
we are obliged to defer the publication of several important papers until next month.

Erratum.— Omission, page 143, line 9 from the bottom, after Orridge^read Sandford.

Instructions from Members and Associates respecting the transmission of the
Journal before the 25th of the month, to Elias Bremridge, Secretary, 17,
Bloomsbury Square, W.C.

Advertisements (not later than the 23rd) to Messrs. Churchill, New Bur¬
lington Street. Other communications to the Editors, 17, Bloomsbury Square.

THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL

SECOND SERIES.

YOL. VI. — No. VI. — DECEMBER 1st, 1864.

SEPARATE EXAMINATIONS FOR CHEMISTS ALREADY IN
BUSINESS ON THEIR OWN ACCOUNT.

When, in August last, the resolution of the Council of the Pharmaceutical
Society to hold separate examinations for chemists in business on their own
account (who had been so for five years, or were not less than thirty years of
age) came forth, we took occasion to consider fairly the question in all its
bearings ; — first, as to such chemists themselves ; secondly, as to its effect on
the character and standing of the Society ; and lastly, as to our duty to the
Legislature and the public, to which we were pledged by our acceptance of the
Pharmacy Act of 1852. Fully alive to the temptation which might beset the
Council when members were to be added to the Society, we yet ventured to
believe that our tried men would not be found wanting ; that they would feel
the examinations were “ f/ie very foundation of the Society , and the maintenance of
their integrity the tenure by which its privileges are held .”

Three months ago this could be but a matter of faith, and we now return
to the subject because we have proof before us that our confidence was well
founded. The assurance given was, that the subjects of examination should be
the same as in the ordinary Major and Minor, but treated practically rather
than theoretically. To make this distinction might be easy enough to an examiner
with his candidate before him, but it did not seem so easy to reduce the differ¬
ence to a written synopsis ; that was a task requiring great care and time for
consideration, and the examiners wisely declined to issue any hastily arranged
instructions to those who wished to avail themselves of the new privilege. Such
a synopsis is, however, now in existence, has been handed to every candidate,
and put into the hands of the Local Secretaries for general diffusion throughout
the country.

This, then, is the general outline of the proceedings : —

PRESCRIPTIONS.

1. Reading.

2. Translating literally.

3. Methods of Dispensing the Prescription.

4. Detection of Unusual Doses.

3 LATER I A MEDICA.

1. Recognition of Drugs.

2. Names of Plants or Animals yielding them.

3. Habitats and whence imported.

4. Preparations into which they enter.

5. Indications of the Commercial Characters and Qualities of Drugs.

VOL. VI. z

298

THE PROPOSED HEW PHARMACY BILL.

PHARMACY.

1. Eecognition of Preparations.

2. Description of their Composition and proportions of Active Ingredients.

3. Description of Pharmacopoeia Processes.

CHEMISTRY.

1. Eecognition of Chemical Substances used in Medicine.

2. Processes for their Preparation.

3. Chemical Composition and Decomposition.

4. Detection of such Impurities as are ordinarily met with.

5. Antidotes for Poisons.

6. Nature and Method of taking Specific Gravities.

BOTANY.

1. Eecognition of Important Indigenous Medicinal Plants from Fresh or Dried

Specimens.

2. Distinctive Characters of Eoots, Stems, Leaves, Flowers, Fruits, Seeds, and

their Parts.

3. Functions of Eoots, Stems, and Leaves.

Now here lies the answer to our enemies who chuckled over the notion that
we were, in extremis , offering a farce examination to all comers ; the assurance
to our friends, vrho trembled under the idea that we were sacrificing principle
to expedience to gain popularity in times of commotion (an honest fear which
we must respect in them) ; and a proof to the public that men holding our di¬
ploma are worthy to be trusted. And for the chemists who would take advantage
of this means of obtaining Parliamentary recognition and registration, — what
for them? Why, an assurance that the Society demands no greater qualification
than every one of them ought to possess, and can give evidence of possessing,
after two or three months’ reading, in conjunction with the opportunities af¬
forded by the daily exercise of their own business ; and a much more self-ennobling
appreciation of their diploma than they would have if it wrnre granted to them
on mere certificate o f fitness , as was necessarily the case in the first formation
of the Society.

An earnest of success may be found in the number who presented themselves
for examination in October. Seventeen went up, and fourteen were successful
in passing the ordeal. More than seventeen made application, — indeed, more
than could well be examined in one day.

It is not intended to have examinations of this kind monthly, but the
number seemed to demand the appointment of a second day, and in justice an
early one was fixed. There will be no further repetition until the 25th January,
and this we conceive will be an advantage to those who wish to present them¬
selves ; with the synopsis in hand they will know exactly what will be re¬
quired of them, and knowing too that it will be honestly carried out, they
will, we trust, be so prepared that not even three out of seventeen will be un -
successful.

THE PROPOSED NEW PHARMACY BILL.

On Tuesday, the 22nd of November, as the newspapers have already an¬
nounced, a deputation of the Council of the Pharmaceutical Society, consist¬
ing of Mr. Sandford (President), Mr. Hills (Vice-President), Mr. Daniel
Bell Hanbury (Treasurer), Mr. Squire, Mr. Morson, Mr. Waugh, Mr. Orridge,
Dr. Edwards, Mr. Flux (Solicitor), and Mr. Bremridge (Secretary), had an
interview with the Right Hon. Sir George Grey, at the Home Office, on the
subject of a proposed Bill for regulating the qualification of Chemists and

THE PROPOSED NEW PHARMACY BILL.

299

Druggists. Tlie object of this interview was to explain to the Secretary of
State the provisions of the Bill which has been prepared by the Council of
the Pharmaceutical Society, and as far as possible to enlist the interests of
the Government in its favour. It is necessary in such a case to show that
the proposed measure will be likely to effect what is required for the public
good. The “ Bill for Regulating the Qualifications of Chemists and Drug¬
gists,” assumes that it is expedient for the safety of the public that persons
carrying on the business of a chemist and druggist by retail, in the keeping
of open shop for the compounding of the prescriptions of duly qualified
medical practitioners, should possess a competent practical knowledge of
such business, and, before commencing such business, should be duly exa¬
mined as to their skill and knowledge. There is no difficulty in establishing
this position which forms the preamble of the Bill, but the Government and
the Legislature have to consider not only whether the safety of the public
calls for legislative interference in the particular direction indicated, but also
how far the proposed interference would fulfil all that is required, and would
do so in the most effective and unobjectionable manner. The basis of the
Bill as it stands at present is as simple as it could be made. It imposes a
test of qualification upon those who undertake to prepare the prescriptions
of duly-qualified medical practitioners, but in other respects it leaves the sale
of medicines unrestricted. Now it may be thought by some that this is
hardly going far enough, as it leaves the sale of poisonous drugs in the hands
of all who choose to undertake it. A stronger case in support of the Bill
would no doubt be established if it was made to apply to the sale of all dan¬
gerously poisonous drugs, for this would touch the popular feeling on a point
on which there is a feverish sensitiveness, and no small anxiety for the public
safety. But the framers of the Bill wished to avoid making it a Poison Bill,
being impressed with the difficulties attending the satisfactory settlement of
the questions involved in that part of the subject. To some extent, however,
the Bill as it stands will restrict the sale of poisons to qualified men ; for if
none but examined men be allowed to keep open shop for dispensing pre¬
scriptions, this will virtually exclude all others from the business, and although
hucksters and grocers may sometimes undertake the sale of poisonous drugs, it
will be easy by a separate measure to deal with any evils arising from that
source when they have developed themselves. The great point at present is
to bring all the Chemists and Druggists throughout the country into one
united and legally recognized body, and to ensure their qualification for the
most important of the duties they have to perform. This is the foundation
upon which any efficient arrangement for the protection of the public in the
sale and administration of medicines and dangerous drugs must be based.
To the attainment of this object our efforts should now be directed. The
Bill that has been prepared will accomplish what is required. No valid ob¬
jections have been urged against it, and there is ground for encouragement
in the opinions expressed with reference to it by those whose influence will
aid greatly in getting it passed. But no means for promoting our object
must be neglected, and in particular it is desirable that the Council should
be furnished with as many expressions of opinion as possible in its favour
from the body of Chemists and Druggists in every part of the country.

300

TRANSACTIONS

OF

THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

AT A MEETING- OF THE COUNCIL, November 2nd, 1864,

Present — Messrs. Bird, Davenport, Deane, J. B. Edwards, Hanbury, Haselden, Hills,
Mackay, Morson, Orridge, Proctor, Reynolds, Sandford, Savage, Watts, and Waugh,

The following were elected

MEMBERS.

John James . .

John Baily .

David Morgan . .

Thomas Mansell Orpe
Thomas Gilks Gibbons

Marshall Heanley .

Alfred Payne Balkwill
George Brown .

.East Dereham.

.London.

.London.

.London.

Manchester.

Peterborough.

Plymouth.

Sandown, I. W.

Specimens of dried indigenous medicinal plants were ordered to be procured and
placed in the Library for the use of the students; also books containing original
manuscript prescriptions.

BENEVOLENT FUND.

A third donation of Ten Pounds was granted to the family of a distressed Member of
the Society, in the west of England.

The following subscriptions were announced : —

Butcher, Thomas, Cheltenham... £0 10 0

Davenport, John T., 33, Great

Russell Street . 2 2 0

Fay, Julius Cicero, Kingsland ... 110

Garle, John, Bromley . 110

Harris, E. R., Brighton . 1 1 0

Picnot, Charles, Strood . 110

Parkes, John C., Woolwich . 0 10 6

Prockter, Richard E., Cheltenham 0 5 0

Robertson, James, Edinburgh... 1 1 0

Russell, Charles J. L., Windsor 0 5 0

Southall, Son, and Dymond,

Birmingham . 1 1 0

Squire, Peter, 338, Oxford Street 110
Stott, Win., Sowerby Bridge ... 0 5 0

Thomas, John A., Harrogate ... 0 5 0

EXAMINATION, November 1 6th, 1864.
MAJOR (Registered as Pharmaceutical Chemists).

Gilling, John . Lincoln.

Rickards, Edwin . Ludlow.

MINOR (Registered as Assistants).

Balch, Edwin . Bideford.

Barrett, James . Leicester.

Davies, John H . Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Shephard, Thomas F . Brighton.

REGISTERED APPRENTICES.

Name. Residing with Address.

Broomfield, Robert W . Mr. Coupland . Harrogate,

Field, John . Mr. Shepheard . Chester.

Lewis, William . Mr. Williams . Cardigan.

Lynn, Sam . Mr. Wellington . . Oakham.

Parkes, William Edmund ...Mr. Swain . . . Birmingham.

Pratt, Frederick William ...Messrs. Hudson and Pershouse... West Bromwich.

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

301

EXAMINATION, November 23rd , 1864.
(Registered as Pharmaceutical Chemists).

Goldfinch, George . Hendon.

Harvey, Sidney . Canterbury.

Lucas, Joseph . Birmingham.

Mercer, Thomas William . Rochdale.

Nosworthy, Robert . . . London.

Rhind, William Waddell . London.

Saville, John . Hovvden.

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

Wednesday , November 2nd, 1864.

MR. HILLS, VICE-PRESIDENT, IN THE CHAIR.

The minutes of the previous meeting having been read, the following

DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY AND MUSEUM

were announced, and the thanks of the meeting given to the respective donors
thereof : —

The Chemical News.

The Chemist and Druggist.

The British Journal of Dental Science.

The Dental Review.

The Medical Circular.

The British Journal of Ophthalmology .

The Photographic Journal.

The Educational Times.

The Technologist .

The Veterinarian.

The Journal of the Society of Arts.

The Journal of the Chemical Society.

The Canada Lancet.

Bulletin de la Societe Chimique de Paris. From the respective Editors.

Classified and Descriptive Catalogue of the Indian Department of the Interna -
tional Exhibition , 1862.

Classified List of Contributions from British India to the New Zealand Exhibition,
1865. By Dr. J. Forbes Watson. From the author.

Specimens of Flowers used for Scenting Teas. From Messrs. Piesse and Lubin.
Fine Crystals of Bicarbonate of Potash. From Messrs. Huskisson and Sons.

The Safety Capsule Poison Bottle. From Mr. G-. M. Howell.

The Chairman regretted that in consequence of the indisposition of the
President he had been called upon to fill the chair. He was quite sure that
the meeting would join him in thanks to their friends for the valuable contri¬
butions on the table. He wished to call their attention to one of these dona¬
tions, — that of a “ poison-bottle ” which had been just placed in his hands, and
which he thought might be found very useful for the purpose to which it was
intended to be applied. Aluch had been said on the subject of accidental poison¬
ing, and it was very important that they should take advantage of any means
that might be proposed for the purpose of obviating these unfortunate oc¬
currences, — and he thought the best thanks of the meeting were due to Mr.

302

HYDRO CYANIC ACID PROM BITTER CASSAVA ROOT.

Howell for introducing this bottle to their notice.* A committee had been
formed for the purpose of investigating this subject, and he thought it very

desirable that they should resume their inquiry, so that the best precautions
might be adopted for securing the safety of the public.

The following papers were then read : —

ON THE PRODUCTION OE HYDROCYANIC ACID PROM

BITTER CASSAVA ROOT.

BY W. F. DANIELL, M.D., F.L.S., HON. MEM. PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY OF

GREAT BRITAIN.

The presence of Hydrocyanic Acid in the roots of the bitter Cassava ( Manx -
hot utilissima, Polil) was known so far back as 1836, from an analysis insti¬
tuted by MM. Henry and Chalard, two French chemists, who arrived at the
conclusion, that the active or poisonous principle of the product exclusively
depended on this acid. At a subsequent date their researches were confirmed
by Dr. Christison, from experiments on a supply of the preserved juice brought
from one of our West India colonies. The specimen of this acid in a diluted
form now on the table, with the connected preparations, was obtained from the
fresh roots by Mr. Hughes, a young pharmaceutical student, a Creole resident
in Kingston, Jamaica, by a process probably analogous to one of those detailed
by chemical authorities. I may mention that Mr. Hughes is a representative of
a type of young men, on the increase in many of our colonies, who are com¬
pelled to follow their preliminary studies under peculiar difficulties, owing, to
a great extent, to their limited resources ; hence in their early youth they are
obliged to undergo a life of unremitting toil to enable them to procure the
funds necessary to gain the diploma of the Pharmaceutical Society, — a diplo¬
ma, I may observe, which is now held in high esteem in Jamaica and most
portions of the globe.

The production of hydrocyanic acid in the tropics, where the raw material
is abundantly provided, is evidently deserving of some attention ; for, al-

* Safety Poison Capsule. — The purpose to which the design has reference, is to prevent
mistakes in dispensing medicines, as the capsule cannot be removed from the bottle without
pressing on the side levers, which liberate the two pins from the neck of the bottle.
References to the drawing : — A, Plan view; B, Elevation; C, Section.

HYDROCYANIC ACID FROM BITTER CASSAVA ROOT.

303

though chemists have stated that the pure acid may be preserved unchanged
if excluded from the light (which, doubtless, is true as applicable to colder
climates), yet apparently such is not the case in the warmer portions of the
tropics, for, even under the most favourable circumstances, it there gradually
becomes decomposed into a carbonaceous black liquid devoid of taste and
odour. A large quantity had recently to be condemned as useless in the
military medical Depot at Kingston, although strictly isolated in a cool under¬
ground store, and excluded from light and air.

The specific botanic differences that separate the bitter from the sweet
cassava ( Manihot Aipi, Pohl), are of such an indeterminate character, that
botanists are inclined to class them merely as varieties of one species ; the
negroes, however, can readily distinguish them by certain peculiarities, and by
no means can be brought to consider them as identical.

It has been asserted that the fresh juice of the bitter cassava is equally poi¬
sonous with that retained under atmospheric exposure for some time. I may,
however, express some doubts with reference to the correctness of this state¬
ment, for I have noticed poultry, hogs, etc., in the vicinity of Stony-hill, eat
the roots with impunity out of the red earth, and similar facts have been
noticed at different periods by other observers. Their exemption from death
has been ascribed (erroneously) to the adherent red earth swallowed with this
food, the alkaline salts of which have been supposed to neutralize the activity
of the poisonous principle. Long, in his ‘ History of Jamaica,’ had even in
the last century expressed views corroborative of this opinion, for he remarks
that hogs feed on the fresh roots with avidity, and suffer no inconvenience,
owing either to the use of the mould, or from some peculiar organic structures
of the stomach and intestines that rendered this food capable of being assi¬
milated into wholesome nutriment.

Under different conditions, however, the bitter cassava juice is far from be¬
ing innocuous, and, by a very natural process, becomes converted into one of
the most deadly substances. Whenever the cortical peelings of the roots with
the water in which they have been washed and steeped, prior to the extrac¬
tion of its starch, with the residual debris, have been allowed to remain exposed
to the air for some period, and then thrown on the refuse heap adjoining the
native huts, a gradual fermentation, or some abnormal change of its consti¬
tuent elements occurs, and it is transformed into a virulent poison, — hogs,
poultry, and every animal, in fact, paying the penalty of their lives should
they be tempted to feed off this deleterious garbage.

This variety of cassava is cultivated in Jamaica chiefly for the large supply
of starch it yields, deemed by the negro washerwomen to be of much better
quality than that prepared from the roots of the sweet cassava. In the harvest
season this starch is vended in the Kingston markets in considerable quanti¬
ties, and, independently of various uses, is employed to adulterate the ordi¬
nary arrow-root of commerce, procured from the tubers of the Maranta
arundinacea.

This product also constitutes an article of food among several of the negro
tribes of western Africa, the roots having previously been roasted on the fire,
to dissipate their noxious qualities. With some of the Susu populations to the
northward of Sierra Leone, it is apparently more valued for the kind of spirit
manufactured from the roasted roots. These are first moistened with water,
exposed to the sun, and then reduced to a paste, from which the liquor is
strained and permitted to ferment.

Professor Bentley, who (in the absence from illness of Dr. Daniell) read the
paper, remarked that although the present communication made no claims to

301

EXTRACTS OF THE BRITISH PHARMACOPOEIA.

any fresli discovery, it confirmed the fact first noticed by MM. Henry and
Chalard, and subsequently by Dr. Christison, of the presence of hydrocyanic
acid, under certain conditions, in bitter cassava root. The specimen of the
juice now on the table, and the products obtained from it, would be conclu¬
sive evidence, he thought, to all present, of the presence of hydrocyanic acid.
It was certainly a most interesting circumstance that a root which yielded
such a mild nutritious substance as tapioca, should also yield so virulent a
poison as hydrocyanic acid. It was also remarkable that sweet cassava root,
which was obtained from a plant so closely allied to that yielding bitter
cassava root, would not under any circumstances produce hydrocyanic acid.
The bitter cassava and sweet cassava roots presented in these respects a
striking similarity to bitter and sweet almond seeds.

Dr. Edwards said that an analysis of the red earth alluded to in Dr.
Daniell’s paper, and which had been regarded as an antidote to the poisonous
principle of the root, was desirable. It would probably be found to contain
an antidote to hydrocyanic acid, in the form of oxide of iron.

Dr. Redwood thought that the author of the paper had left the question of
the poisonous principle of bitter cassava root in a very unsatisfactory state.
Iso information was given as to the quantity of hydrocyanic acid obtainable,
nor any details as to the process adopted for the purpose. That hydrocyanic
acid might be derived from bitter cassava root was clear, but how it was
formed, was still a subject for investigation. Indeed, he thought that it had
yet to be proved that hydrocyanic acid was the sole poisonous principle of the
root.

ON SOME OF THE EXTRACTS OF THE BRITISH PHARMA¬
COPOEIA PREPARED FROM THE DRY MATERIAL.

BY A. F. HASELDEN.

I. — Extract of Calumbo.

The British Pharmacopoeia, which we were so anxiously looking for about
this time last year, has now been in our possession nine months, and during
that time it has been pretty freely commented upon by lecturers and others ;
but in those cases there has been no discussion between the lecturers and
their audiences, or the writers and their readers ; the talking, if one may so
express it, has been all on one side of tl>e table ; now the opportunity for ex¬
perimenting and obtaining something lixe reliable results in making the vari¬
ous pharmaceutical preparations, has probably been limited, influenced by
the number of the changes and the disposition to ignore the work, but there
has been time for many of us to try our hands upon the British Pharmacopoeia
dishes, and as there is abundance of material to work upon, I hope that my
paper this evening will be but one of very many which will be contributed by
the members and associates of the Pharmaceutical Society during the session.
My present object is to bring before your notice some of the British Phar¬
macopoeia extracts prepared from the dry material, touching upon those
points in the preparation which seem to require it, and offering as far as it
goes the result of my own experience, and thus make as it were a starting-
point for free discussion, not in a spirit of criticism, but with the intention of
coming at a fair and useful conclusion.

EXTRACTS OF THE BRITISH PHARMACOPOEIA.

305

The extract of calumbo being a novelty in the British Pharmacopoeia, I
have selected it as the first upon which to say a few words, and in order that
I may be as clear as possible, I must trespass upon you the form and process
as laid down in the British Pharmacopoeia. Take of calumbo, in powder, one
pound, proof spirit, four pints ; macerate the calumbo in two pints of the
spirit for twenty-four hours ; pack in a percolator, and pass the remainder of
the spirit slowly through it, distil off the spirit, and evaporate the residue to
a proper consistence. This extract has probably been taken from the Prus¬
sian Pharmacopoeia, but unfortunately whilst borrowing the idea and the
proportions, the compilers of our national Pharmacopoeia have forgotten to
copy the directions. Now the first and perhaps principal point to be noticed
in the process given is this, that having macerated the calumbo in the first
portion of the spirit, and having packed in the percolator, and poured on the
remainder of the spirit, and having allowed as much of the spirituous liquor
or tincture to pass through as will, there is no direction given for displacing
that portion which remains absorbed by the marc, either by a -weaker spirit
or water, or by the simple operation of expression, as directed in the pre¬
paration of tinctures. This was probably an oversight, but nevertheless, what
are the natural consequences which arise from following such directions P Just
this : the calumbo is not more than half exhausted, about one-fifth of the
proof spirit remains absorbed by it, and after distilling off from the tincture
which has percolated through as much spirit as can be before evaporating the
residue, there is a loss of something like eighteen ounces of rectified spirit
out of the fifty used, and a product, after evaporating down, of one ounce and
a half of extract, in appearance somewhat resembling leather, and at a cost of
something like two shillings an ounce when made upon a small scale.

If we now continue our operations upon the marc by passing through it
some hot water at a temperature of about 160° Fahrenheit, until it passes
through without much bitterness, — for it is almost impossible entirely to ex¬
haust it, — there will be obtained by evaporating the liquid another ounce and
a half of a somewhat similar extract, but not so tough, making together, three
ounces, from sixteen ounces of the root employed.

This simply proves that the Pharmacopoeia process is a wasteful one, and
does not obtain for the operator all that might be expected.

Now taking it for granted (and I am not quite satisfied about it) that spirit
is necessaiy, and proof spirit the best menstruum for exhausting calumbo and
making a good extract, let sufficient be used, and let all the tincture — for it is
virtuall}7- a tincture — be displaced either by pressure or water, previous to the
second part of the process, that of distilling off the spirit ; nearly the whole
of the spirit might then be recovered, and there can be no valid reason, that
I know of, why water should not be used for displacing the tincture, — for
granted that a little mixes up with the spirituous portion in passing through
the percolator, it cannot in any way injure the product, as water is really, in
any case, the menstruum which is evaporated down with the extract after the
spirit has been distilled off

The next point which I desire you to consider is this : is spirit essential in
making good extract of calumbo ? I believe it is not. It appears to me that
there is nothing in the composition of calumbo which requires the use of
spirit for the extraction of its bitter. According to Planche and Buchner,
calumbo consists of from 10 to 13 parts of bitter matter, 6 parts of animal
matter, 9 parts of gum, 33 of starch, and 39 of woody fibre, with a trace of
volatile oil. The bitter matter is soluble in cold water, and that appears to
be what is required. I have been in the habit of making extract of calumbo
by percolation with cold water for some time, and long before the British
Pharmacopoeia was published ; the product has averaged from two and a half

306

EXTRACTS OF THE BRITISH PHARMACOPOEIA.

to three ounces of extract from one pound of root. In the extract which I have
here with the others, and recently prepared the product, was two and a half
ounces from one pound, being one ounce more than obtained by the Pharma¬
copoeia process and direction. To carry the question still further, I may say
that a very creditable extract may be prepared by percolation with boiling
water, the product being three and a quarter ounces from one pound of root,
being three-quarters of an ounce increase upon the quantity obtained by the
cold water process. In this last extract there is undoubtedly a considerable
amount of starch ; the relative proportion of the three preparations as to
quantity stands thus : —

British Pharmacopoeia extract 1^ oz. from 1 pound of root.

Cold Water . 2% oz. ,,

Boiling Water . 3^ oz. ,,

I am not quite sure that percolation has any advantage over maceration in
the matter of calumbo, for every one who has practised upon it must have
experienced the fact that calumbo is not the most tractable substance one
could have in the percolator.

It may also be a question for consideration whether the absence of the
starch in the extract and the infusion is an advantage or not, — whether the
propensity in the present day to leave out everything which has the cha¬
racter of being inert matter is always an improvement ; and I am sometimes
doubtful whether in some pharmaceutical preparations, the scientific fever is
not carried too far.

When we call to mind that calumbo is often given in an irritable and weak
condition of stomach, and after attacks of diarrhoea, when more active tonics
might not be advisable, the question will occur, is not that starch, 'which
some are so desirous of leaving out, the very thing that might be useful?
Arrow-root and other starches are naturally suggested as articles of diet
for persons so suffering ; permit me to quote in addition a few words from
one of our lost friends, but no mean authority. The late Lr. Pereira says : —
“ Calumbo is one of our most useful stomachics and tonics. Its great value
consists in its not being apt, like other and more powerful tonics, to create
nausea, sickness, febrile disorder or headache, so that it is tolerated when
other remedies of .this class would be immediately rejected. Indeed, on many
occasions it evinces a positive power of checking vomiting. Probably it owes
these valuable properties to a combination of circumstances ; such as its free¬
dom from acidity and astringency, the large quantity of starch which it con¬
tains (from wdiich it acquires its demulcent properties), and the peculiar ope¬
ration of its bitter principle.” But one word more, and that for ourselves :
every dispenser knows that extracts "when made into pills require something
to give them consistence and render them permanent in shape, — the starch
would do this in extract of calumbo.

II. Extr actum Glycyrrhizce.

The next extract upon which I beg to offer some remarks is that of Liquo¬
rice, and I am induced to select it because the process of the British Phar¬
macopoeia is just the reverse of that of the London Pharmacopoeia, which
has hitherto been our guide.

In order to be plain and clearly understood by any who may not be con¬
versant with the process and directions of the British Pharmacopoeia, I will
just read the form.

“ Take of liquorice-root, in coarse powder, 1 pound, distilled water a
sufficiency, macerate the liquorice-root in 8 fluid ounces of the w7atcr, for

EXTRACTS OF THE BRITISH PHARMACOPOEIA.

307

twelve hours ; then pack in the percolator and add more distilled water until
the root is exhausted. Heat the liquor to 212° and strainthrough flannel, then
evaporate by a water-bath to a proper consistence.”

Now, the process of the London Pharmacopoeia has maceration of the
fresh root in boiling-water for twenty-four hours, decoction of the liquid to
one-half, straining whilst hot, and evaporating to a proper consistence.

You will at once perceive that in the British form there are four points in
which it differs essentially from the London, namely, the extract is to be pre¬
pared from the dried root, cold water is to be used in the place of boiling, and
percolation instead of maceration, and lastly, the liquor is to be heated to
212° Fahrenheit, in order to separate any albuminous matter, which is to be
taken out of the liquor, by means of straining through a flannel bag, before
evaporating it down to the consistence of an extract.

Percolation with cold water was the process directed in the last Edinburgh
Pharmacopoeia, and maceration with cold water in that of the Dublin; but
the Dublin did not order the liquor to be heated before being strained and
evaporated. There are one or two points in the preparation of this extract to
which I may draw your attention ; in the first place, the root is to be dried
and coarsely powdered : this part of the operation increases the amount of
labour, for, in order to dry the root by a gentle heat, it should be first sliced.
Now, during the drying, the root will, upon an average, lose one-half its
weight, so that two pounds of fresh root will part with one pound of moisture ;
I say this is the average, because the root will sometimes vary according to
the dampness or dryness of the season or the time when it is dug up, and
also, according to the time which may have elapsed between the taking up
and the drying by artificial heat. It would be natural to suppose that the
root having parted with one-half its moisture, that would be precisely the
quantity required to macerate the powdered root before placing it in the per¬
colator, and so bring it to its normal state as to moisture, and just in the con¬
dition to yield up everything soluble in water ; but it may be observed that
the Pharmacopoeia directs otherwise, and it is correct in so doing.

The direction says, macerate one pound of coarsely powdered root with
eight fluid ounces of distilled water, — just one-half ; this, it is true, can scarcely
be called maceration, for the quantity of water is not sufficient to moisten the
powder, but nevertheless it is enough for the purpose, and if more is used,
the mass puts on a pasty, pudding-like character, settles down and packs
itself so firmly in the percolator, that the liquid passes through so slowly, that
before the root can be exhausted, if circumstances as to temperature (a warm
shop heated by gas) should assist, it is highly probable that fermentation
will take place in the marc, and alter the character of the product both in
quality and quantity. This little caution as to the amount of water used in
the moistening or macerating of the root, is, I believe, important and worthy
of attention, and more especially if extract of liquorice is likely to be made
upon a large scale by the cold-water percolation process. In small quantities,
attending strictly to the directions of the Pharmacopoeia, using in all about
eight pints of distilled water for exhausting one pound of dried root, a clear
good extract will be obtained, soluble in water and proof spirit, throwing
down a slight deposit from the latter solution upon standing ; thirty per cent,
of moist extract will be the average product from dry root, which is equiva¬
lent to fifteen per cent, from the fresh root, seeing that the fresh loses one-
half its weight in drying. It is, I think, with commercial men at all times an
object to know the cost of producing an article : well, this extract costs, upon a
nice calculation, about 45. Qd. a pound, and, in making this calculation, I set
the fire used in drying and the labour of powdering or grinding against the
fire in making the decoction and the labour of bruising. Now the average

308

EXTRACTS OF THE BRITISH PHARMACOPOEIA.

cost of English extract of liquorice, as supplied by wholesale druggists, is 3s.
per pound, so the Pharmacopoeia article costs Is. ( )d . per pound more than the
commercial, — truly exemplifying the fact that the compilers of the British
Pharmacopoeia spared no cost in order to obtain a good preparation ; and in¬
deed, if there is one thing more than another in which price should not be
complained of, either by the vendor or consumer, it is in the production of
good medicines.

As there are two sides to most pictures, let me now say a few words upon the
process of making the extract by decoction. The form as directed in the
London Pharmacopoeia was not altogether a good one, and therefore, as I
have been in the habit of making some quantities of this extract, I will lay
before you my own modus operandi. In the first place, I prefer the large
full-grown roots, or, more properl}r speaking, underground stems, as they ge¬
nerally yield a far larger and better product. They are bruised with a mal¬
let, so as to lay well open the entire skin, and then cut into convenient
lengths of ten or twelve inches ; then placed in a copper, and in the evening
covered with water to the extent of three or four pints to the pound ; allowed
to macerate until the following morning, when a fire is put under, and the
contents, after being brought to the boiling-point, suffered to simmer for two
hours ; then left to infuse until the following morning, when the liquor, still
warm, is run off and strained as it comes out of the tap through a canvas bag ;
then transferred to a pan heated by steam, and evaporated to about one-third,
when it is taken out and placed in an earthen pan, and there allowed to de¬
posit, and when cold the clear liquor is poured off, and the thick strained
through flannel; this process is repeated with two quantities more water, only in
these the water used is much reduced in amount. The first liquor, rich in ex¬
tract, is evaporated down by itself, and the poorer liquid from the second and
third decoction by itself, mixing the products towards the end ; by so doing,
the first rich liquor is not subjected to the action of heat more than half the time
it would be if, as directed in most pharmacopoeias and books, the mixed liquors
were evaporated down together ; and this remark is applicable to nearly all
the extracts prepared from the dry material, wrhether by percolation, cold ma¬
ceration, infusion, or decoction, and I think it well worthy of attention, for,
by keeping the first portion apart from the rest, should any peculiar aroma
be present, the advantage of the plan will be at once apparent. In addition,
I may add that the long-continued heat renders the extract less soluble when
finished than it otherwise would be.

Now, by this manner of proceeding, fresh liquorice-root yields upon an
average something less than one-fourth, approaching very closely twenty-two
per cent, of good, sweet, rich extract, answering well as a demulcent and
sweetener of other preparations not so agreeable as itself. It is soluble in
cold water and proof spirit, leaving, like that prepared by percolation with
cold water, a deposit on standing from the spirituous solution. The cost of
this extract may be stated, at the outside, at three shillings per pound. Now,
a much larger product may be obtained by straining the decoctions whilst
hot, as according to the Pharm. Lond., and evaporating them at once, amount¬
ing to thirty-five per cent, of the fresh root ; but this extract contains a con¬
siderable amount of mucilage, amylaceous and gelatinous material ; but
nevertheless it is very sweet, and w'ell calculated for liquorice jujubes, etc.
This extract, as might be anticipated, is not perfectly soluble in cold water,
but yields a deposit giving unmistakable evidence of the presence of starch.
These extracts, as a rule, become darker by age, as may be seen by that pre¬
pared in 1862, which is on the table with the others. The product and cost
of the three preparations stand thus : — Percolation with cold water fifteen per
cent., at a cost of 4s. Q>d. per pound ; decoction and strained when cold twenty-

EXTRACTS OF THE BRITISH PHARMACOPOEIA.

309

two per cent., at a cost of 3s. per pound ; decoction and strained hot thirty-
five per cent., at a cost of 2s. per pound.

I have now, I believe, in one sense pretty well exhausted this subject,
though there may be points which I have passed over ; but I trust that, while
I have endeavoured to show that the Pharmacopoeia process is a good one,
and that the process of decoction is also good if well carried out, I have
thrown out some hints which may not be altogether without their value.

October 31s£, 1864.

In the discussion which took place after the reading of this paper, allusion
was made by Mr. Mackay, of Edinburgh, to some extracts that were exhibited
at the International Exhibition of 1862, by M. Berjot, of Caen, in the French
department. Mr. Mackay wished to know if any of the members present could
give any information as to the mode of producing those extracts. Specimens of
them were deposited in the Economic Museum in Edinburgh, and they had at¬
tracted a good deal of attention there, and were thought, in some respects, to be
very superior to the extracts commonly met with.

Professor Redwood said the extracts alluded to had not escaped the attention
of the jury appointed to that department of the Exhibition. They were care¬
fully examined in common with other pharmaceutical products, but they were
not considered deserving of any very special commendation, on account of their
very unstable nature. They were made by evaporation in vacuo , and being
reduced to perfect dryness while in the vacuum pan, they had a light spongy
condition, somewhat similar to that of tannin, as usually prepared. They could
only be preserved in this state, however, while they were perfectly excluded
from air containing any moisture. The vesicular condition they were in while
dry gave them a light colour very different from that which they acquired on
exposure to the air, when they speedily became soft.

Mr. D. IIanbury had examined the extracts alluded to, in the Exhibition,
but he in common with others did not consider them worthy of imitation. It
would be impossible to keep them for use in dispensing without their becoming
completely changed from even very slight exposure to the air.

Several opinions were offered with reference to the extracts prepared as de¬
scribed in Mr. Ilaselden’s paper. The extract of calumbo made according to
the Pharmacopoeia was thought to be inconveniently tough and leathery. That
made with water had a better consistence. Of the extracts of liquorice, the
prevailing opinion seemed to be that that made by the Pharmacopoeia process
was the best.

Mr. Umney stated, as the result of his experience in making extract of
liquorice on the large scale, that it was necessary to adopt a somewhat different
method of operating from that described in the Pharmacopoeia. The plan he
adopted was to macerate the coarsely powdered root with water in a large barrel
for twenty -four hours, then to drain off the liquor and press the marc, finishing
the extract as described in the Pharmacopoeia. If the root was left in contact _
with water for more than twenty-four hours, fermentation was very likely to
setup. With reference to extract of calumbo, lie had obtained a larger pro¬
duct than Mr. Ilaselden mentioned by the spirit process, but he had used suffi¬
cient spirit to exhaust the root.

SiO

PROVINCIAL TRANSACTIONS.

LIVERPOOL CHEMISTS’ ASSOCIATION.

The Annual Meeting was held at the Royal Institution, Colquitt Street, on Thursday
evening, September 29th, 1864 ; the President, John Shaw, Esq., in the Chair.

The President, having explained the business before the meeting, called upon the
Hon. Secretary, H. Sugden Evans, Esq., F.C.S., etc., to read the following Annual
Report of the Council : —

Annual Report: — In bringing to a close the fifteenth session, your Council present,
with much pleasure, their Annual Report of the continued prosperity of the Chemists’
Association.

During the session the addition of thirty names has been made to the roll of mem¬
bers ; but from death, removal to other places, and other causes, some names have been
removed, leaving an increase of twenty-two.

The continued interest in the subjects discussed at the ordinary fortnightly meetings
has been manifested by the excellent attendance of members, which has been above the
average throughout the session. The papers read and lectures delivered have, in com¬
parison to former proceedings, maintained their high character ; and the publication of
the long looked-for British Pharmacopoeia, during the session, gave a new interest to
the meetings. One extraordinary and two ordinary meetings, to which the members
of the medical profession were invited, wrere devoted to the discussion and critical ex¬
amination of the additional new, and altered old, formula;, resulting in the conclusion
that many valuable improvements have been introduced, at the same time that many
emendations were requisite to the perfection of any future edition. Three ordinary
meetings were also devoted to the more careful discussion in detail of special subjects
involved in the British Pharmacopoeia.

In view of a probable new edition being shortly called for, your Council would urge
upon members the desirability of carefully noting, in the practice of their manipulations,
the character and results of the preparation which may come under their observation, so
as to enable them to suggest improvements, the discussions of which, at our ordinary
meetings, would afford much interest and practical information.

In compliance with the very generally expressed wish, your Council held, during the
session, a conversazione, which was well attended ; and they have pleasure in referring
to this addition to the many delightful meetings of a similar character which have from
time to time taken place.

Encouraged by the success of the excursion to Runcorn Gap, held last year, your
Council were induced to make arrangements for a similar excursion this summer to
St. Helen’s, which took place on the 18th of August, when a large number of members
and their friends visited the chemical works of A. G. Kurtz, Esq., the iron foundry of
Robert Daglish, jun., Esq., and the glass works of Messrs. W. andR. Pilkington ; there¬
after dining together at Thatto Heath. Your Council desire here to record their
acknowledgment of the kind and courteous attention the members received on the oc¬
casion from the above proprietors.

In response to an invitation from the Executive of the British Pharmaceutical Confer¬
ence, your Council were glad to avail themselves of the opportunity to depute Messrs.
J. Abraham, J. B. Edwards, Ph.D., and N. Mercer, to attend the meeting at Bath, and
present the following resolution : — “ That the Delegates be requested to convey to the
Conference the hearty approval of the Council of the Liverpool Chemists’ Association of
the important objects contemplated by the Conference, as set forth in the constitution
and rules, feeling assured that the labours of its members will be productive of large
and valuable results to Chemical and Pharmaceutical science ; also that when a favour¬
able opportunity occurs, the Liverpool Chemists’ Association will be glad to welcome
the Conference to Liverpool.”

The deputation reports that the meeting, which lasted four days, was of a highly
satisfactory and encouraging character, the communications were of a practical and

LIVERPOOL CHEMISTS’ ASSOCIATION.

311

valuable nature, the attendance uniformly good, the discussions interesting, and the
general feeling one of great unanimity and concord. The invitation from the Associa¬
tion for the Conference to hold a meeting in Liverpool was cordially received, and will
be accepted on the first opportunity. *

The Library and Museum continue to receive valuable additions, and to afford im¬
portant aid to members and associates in their varied studies and investigations.

Your Librarian, Mr. Scoffin, reports that during ,the past year 572 volumes have
circulated amongst 60 readers.

Your Council regret that they have to record Mr. Scoffin’s resignation of the post of
Librarian through the pressure of his other business engagements, and that in conse¬
quence a further removal of the Library will be necessary. In selecting a new locality,
your Council will consult the convenience of the members, and hope to be able to make
arrangements for placing it in this Institution, which arrangement they believe would
prove highly satisfactory to the members and associates.

Your Treasurer, Mr. Sumner, will read to you his Financial Statement, showing a
balance of £35. 6s. Id. to the credit of the Society, the appropriation of which will de¬
volve upon the new Council.

Mr. R. Sumner having read the Financial Statement, the President moved the adoption
of the Reports of the Council and Treasurer. In reference to the resignation of Mr.
Scoffin, the Librarian, he observed that that resignation would render the removal of
the Library necessary, but he hoped they would be able to make such an arrangement
as would enable them to have the Library in the Royal Institution.

The motion was seconded by Mr. H. Bird and adopted.

Mr. H. Bird moved “That the Council Report and Financial Statement now read,
with the Proceedings of the Association during the past Session, the Laws and Bye-
Laws, the Catalogue of the Books in the Library, and the List of the Members and
Associates, be printed and published.”

Mr. R. Sumner seconded the motion, which was carried.

Mr. A. Redford moved “ That the best thanks of the Association be given to those
gentlemen who have lectured or read papers at the meetings, and to the donors to the
Library and Museum during the past session.”

Mr. King seconded the motion, which w^as carried.

Mr. W. King moved “ That the thanks of the Association be given to the officers and
other members of the Council, and especially to Mr. H. Sugden Evans, F.C.S., for their
valuable services during the year.”

Mr. A. Redford seconded the motion, which was carried. The President acknow¬
ledged the compjiment.

The meeting then proceeded to the election of four members to fill up the vacancies
in the Council caused by the retirement in rotation of Messrs. H. Sugden Evans, J.
Dutton, N. Mercer, and M. Murphy. These gentlemen were re-elected.

Mr. R. Sumner expressed a wish that the list of associates should, if possible, be in¬
creased, and remarked that it did not increase so much as that of the members. He
thought the Library would be more advantageous to the Association at the Royal In¬
stitution than elsewhere.

The Secretary announced the following donations to the Library : — * The Chemist
and Druggist,’ from the Editors ; ‘ The Proceedings of the Historic Society of Lancashire
and Cheshire,’ from the Society.

After a vote of thanks to the Chairman for his services had been accorded by accla¬
mation, the proceedings terminated.

The first G-eneral Meeting of the Liverpool Chemists’ Association was held at the
Royal Institution, Colquitt Street, on the evening of the 13th of October. The Pre¬
sident occupied the Chair, and there was a large attendance of the members.

The Hon. Secretary having read the minutes of the last Annual Meeting, recording
the re-election to the Council of Messrs. H. S. Evans, J. Dutton, N. Mercer, and M.
Murphy, he announced that the Council had made the following selection from its
body to fill the respective offices attached, namely : — Mr. A. Redford, President ; N.
Mercer, Vice-President ; R. Sumner, Treasurer ; M. Murphy, Hon. Secretary. Also

312

LIVERPOOL CHEMISTS’ ASSOCIATION.

that Dr. Edwards and Mr. N. Mercer, F.C.S., had been appointed to conduct the La¬
boratory Pharmacy Class for the ensuing session, conjointly ; and that Messrs. J.
Abraham, S. Banner, J. B. Edwards, H. S. Evans, and M. Murphy had been constituted
the Library and Museum Committee.

The following gentlemen were elected members: — Messrs. Henry Murray Steele,
B. Pheysey, and J. F. Brown.

The donations to the Library announced were : — ‘ The Analysis of the British Phar¬
macopoeia,’ by Dr. Nevins, from the Author ; ‘The British and London Pharmacopoeias
Compared,’ by George Barber, Esq. ; ‘ The Chemist and Druggist ’ for September, from
the Proprietor ; ‘The Technologist,’ from the Editor.

Mr. J. Shaw presented, through the kindness of Major Greig, a number of Calabar
beans, the seeds of the Physostigma venenoswn, to the Museum.

The President proposed that the thanks of the meeting be given to the donors ; it
was carried.

The President then proceeded to deliver his annual address. He said, — Gentlemen,
Another year, with its thousandfold transactions, its startling facts, and ceaseless flow of
word and thought, has passed into history, and finds us, the members of the Liverpool
Chemists’ Association, upon the threshold of a new arena of discussion, research, and
education. It is with very mingled feelings that I meet you this evening, to inaugurate
the sixteenth session of this Society’s proceedings. The position in which your Council
have placed me, as President, is one the duties of which I cannot for a moment consider
without the greatest solicitude. Indeed, I fear that in accepting this highly honourable
but responsible office, which I have done, after a very great deal of hesitation, I have
laid myself open to a charge of presumption, that one in such indifferent health, with
such a scanty acquaintance with science, and so much pre-engaged, should stand in the
way of others far more able and worthy to preside in this assembly, and far more
worthy to wear the mantle that descends from those highly esteemed gentlemen who
have graced this chair before me. I can only say that while I thank you for the honour
you have, through your Council, done me, it shall be my study to make my poor abili¬
ties keep pace with my earnest will for the continued success and growing efficiency of
the Liverpool Chemists’ Association. In looking forward to the duties of the coming
session, as I do through the clouds I have just indicated, as well as through the cares of
a public appointment, the details of which would almost puzzle an Admirable Crichton,
it is a great consolation to know that your Council have elected as Vice-President a
gentleman whose fame and esteem among us to attempt to augment by any eulogium
of mine, would be an impertinence. The very history and existence of the Society is
wound in thread for thread with his own. That gentleman is our esteemed friend Mr.
Nathan Mercer. As Secretary, his energy and zeal have never been surpassed. What,
then, will his Vice-Presidency be? I fear to think of a future, when his counsel and
far-reaching judgment shall not be available for your interests.

I must also congratulate you upon the accession to office of another gentlemau, who
gives promise as Secretary of being a worthy successor to the Mercers, and Walkers,
and Shaws, and Tates, and Evanses of the past.

Mr. Murphy, I have very little doubt, will leave the impress of his well-known abili¬
ties upon this Society, as I hope, we are collectively, as an association, leaving our mark
upon the Pharmaceutical trade of this country and the age. Long as I have been con¬
nected with your Association, which is nearly from its commencement, I have never felt
more interest in its operations and success, than at present, nor so much impressed with
its value and usefulness. I wish for it the most decided progress and enlarged pro¬
sperity, because this is almost sure to be the result of increasing education, thoughtful¬
ness, and elevation among the members of our community in Liverpool.

Among the pleasures and advantages connected with an association like ours, both to
employers and employed, I may mention the pleasant social intercourse which it secures,
when we sip together the cup of friendship, “which cheers but not inebriates,” the
happy oblivion of unpleasant distinctions, the confidential interchange of opinion, by the
humblest with the most distinguished ; and last, though not least, let me not forget “ the
bright spots in memory’s wastes,” when at our conversaziones, the cheering, elevating in¬
fluence of the gentler sex is shed upon our path. In our keen pursuit of science and im¬
provement in our art, let us not forget the cultivation of the moral feelings. And as often

318

LIVERPOOL CHEMISTS’ ASSOCIATION.

as we can, let us try and share our pleasures with those who too often have to share our
pains and cares. I do not over-estimate the influence of our Association when I say that
it must tend to the production of good feeling, and mutual respect and confidence
among all its members. The members of an intellectual and scientific professional bro¬
therhood meet here on equal ground. We have a freemasonry of thought ranging over
the wonder-teeming worlds of chemistry, botany, materia medica, and therapeutics ; our
passwords are the discoveries we make, the information we gather : one truth elicited,
one fact wrung from the vast unknown around us, is worth a thousand petty advantages
and trade jealousies. I trust the day has dawned, and advanced by many hours, when
we can say that the improvement and advantage of all is the advantage of each. As
workers side by side in the mine of knowledge and human progress, jet us not look
askance at one another, but freely afford that cordial help which medical men so gene¬
rally understand, and which is but the currency of a common humanity.

Before I leave these topics, and because the man precedes the chemist, bear with me
while I touch, and it shall be tenderly, on one or two related subjects.

The high position which our profession takes in the social scale, by reason of the in¬
tellect and attainments necessary for its successful pursuit, commits us to a correspond¬
ingly high, conscientious course ; the more conscientiously we exercise our vocation,
the greater our self-respect will be, and the esteem of our fellow-men.

As was observed by Mr. Harvey at Leeds, in regard to opium-eating, which, accord¬
ing to Prof. Taylor’s report, casts some of its odium upon the chemists, “We may some¬
times have the opportunity of discouraging the improper use of opiates. The chemist
can warn an incautious customer of his danger. In other cases he would, I conceive,
be fully warranted in refusing to sell opiates when it is plain they are used habitually
and improperly. Among the poor the use of opiate anodynes for their teething children
may often be quietly but effectually discouraged, and the customer be persuaded to try
much better and safer means.”

This is but a sample of the power for human good in our hands. But there are other
vices as common as the use of opium. To say that quackery and puffing are peculiar
to chemists, would be very wide of the truth ; indeed, it would be difficult to find a de¬
partment of human activity where these pernicious parasites do not fasten their man¬
dibles, and weaken, if not altogether destroy, the finer moral feelings. But have not
the sick, afflicted, ignorant, and poor in all ages been a prey to the unscrupulous,
from their credulity in matters connected with the mysteries in the healing art ? He
that gives another ground for false hope, and raises expectations he cannot fulfil, is a
disgrace to any profession.

Let me in this connection urge upon my elder brethren in the trade the kindly con¬
sideration of the claims of the young, who are training up in our establishments, and
who will take our places in the next generation. Let us, as much as possible, curtail
the hours of labour, and cheerfully accord them opportunities of study. And again,
without apology, let me express my firm conviction of the inviolability of the Sabbath,
and the lasting obligation of the command, “Remember the Sabbath Day, to keep it
holy.” How this is to be done I leave to those individual convictions which it has been
the object of these remarks to foster, nor would I for a moment bind a yoke upon any.

To those who are entering the profession of pharmacy, I may be allowed to repeat
the oft-heard warning, “Yours is the seed-time of life sow sparingly, and such will be
your harvest. Study at intervals, few and far between, and let your applications to
the dusty Pharmacopoeia, and dustier laboratory, be like “angels visits,” and it will be
as easy to predicate your future as to work a rule-of-three sum. Of all things avoid in¬
dolence, and cultivate habits of study, and you will soon surprise yourselves with the
ease and facility with which that labour is performed which has become habitual and
pleasant.

The foundation of character of any worth is well said to be in “ a thoughtful mind,
good principles, and a strong will.” Secure these at all hazards, and they must lead to
proficiency in any branch of your studies and pursuits. Apprentices and assistants have
their discouragements ; the former too often look upon the all-pervading ubiquitous dust
as the arch-enemy that devours their time and peace alike, forgetful that though dis¬
guised, he is a friend who schools them in lessons of industry, neatness, and perse¬
verance, the value of which future life alone can reveal. The latter, we admit, are among

yol. yi. 2 A

314

LIVERPOOL CHEMISTS’ ASSOCIATION.

the most over-worked and ill-paid members of the community. As Mr. Long said last
week of the medical profession, “ ours is a noble art, but a poor trade,” but the present
time is not without omens of better times ahead.

The bad consequences of a false start are instructively shown in the early history of
Berzelius, the eminent Swedish chemist, who may perhaps be called the father of mo¬
dern chemistry ; while at the same time his success, in spite of immense opposition,
affords the highest encouragement to the young resolutely to go forward with dauntless
will till every obstacle is overcome. Early an orphan, it is related that “ he was for some
years under the care of a pious Swedish clergyman, with whom he read a chapter of
the Bible every morning, and one of ‘ Sturm’s Reflections’ every afternoon, preparatory
to his daily walk. In the course of one of these walks it is related, that, struck with
his eagerness in collecting plants, and with the acuteness of his observations, his step¬
father remarked, ‘ Jacob, thou hast talent enough to walk in the footsteps either of
Linnaeus or Cartouche, — I hope thou hast God before thy eyes, and so wilt thou do the
former.’ Yet for some time he gave little prospect of the fulfilment of these hopes.
Bandied about from house to house, and brought up among connections who looked
upon him as a burden, his vigour, though unbroken, was long subdued. When his
childhood was over, he spent four unprofitable years at the school of Nordkbping, and
quitted it along with some other young men for the University of Upsala ; but opposite
to his name in the list forwarded by the Rector of the school to the University autho¬
rities, wTere the words ‘ Indifferent in behaviour, and of doubtful hope.’ He was re¬
ceived, therefore, with reserve, and regarded with suspicion ; his first year was passed
idly, and consequently, in his ‘ Examen,’ the professor of chemistry was so dissatisfied
with his answers as to say to his brother professors that ‘ he would not send the young
man back if they were satisfied with him.’ He was thus partially disgraced, and, it is
probable, roused thereby to exertion. He was nineteen years of age when he began to
frequent the laboratory of the professor, then, as now, in the Continental universities,
open to the students. But his evil name accompanied him thither ; on one of his first
visits he was- encountered by the question, ‘If he understood the difference between a
laboratory and a kitchen ?’ and finally the treatment of the laborator drove him from
it in disgust. Meanwhile he studied assiduously at his lodgings, without counsel or
advice, and the despised pupil succeeded, in his own apartments, in preparing oxygen
gas, and showing the combustion of various substances in it, to his fellow-students,
although in the laboratory for a whole year the attempt had been made in vain.” The
sudden and unexpected acquisition of a glass retort by surreptitious means, with which
he experimented at home, in the silence and solitude of night, led to his first chemical
discovery. The searching spirit which years before had struck his step-father in the
child, had begun again to animate the young man ; and though years of difficulty and
struggle afterwards beset the man, this keen spirit never once forsook him. Professors
opposed him in his examinations, and academies returned his papers with cold scorn.
As the reviewer sums up, “ the early life of Berzelius was thus a constant struggle with
poverty, with unkindness, and with many difficulties, which had originated in an idle,
listless, and unconciliatory disposition, itself the fruit of a depressed and half-broken
spirit. How different the opinion formed of him by his teachers from that which his
pupils and friends universally entertained in after-life. The mental discipline he under¬
went at college, probably, however, improved him as a man ; and had he not thus been
almost forced into the study of experimental science, to which his mind seemed early
and naturally predisposed, he might have passed a life of little comfort to himself, and
of no value to his country.”

Need I remind you of the great advantages offered for the acquisition of knowledge
by our excellent Library and Museum, in addition to the papers read at our fortnightly
meetings, and also of the Chemical and Pharmaceutical Class, now placed under the
joint superintendence of Dr. Edwards and Mr. Nathan Mercer? The latter, I trust, will
be well attended through the coming session. The whole of these form such a com¬
bined assemblage of privileges as few provincial towns can boast. The remembrance of
the good old cathedral city in the midland counties, where I served my apprenticeship,
now nearly twenty-five years ago, often comes across my mind in strange contrast to
what I see now, and I think what would I have given to share in the stirring question¬
ings and stimulating fellowship of inquirers which your Association presents.

But I must not forget that an inaugural address, without a retrospect and a prophecy,

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315

would be very much like acting ‘ Hamlet/ with the Prince of Denmark left out. I
shall carry you with me, most likely, when I say that the past or rather passing year
has been or is the most eventful to our community we have seen since the formation of
the Pharmaceutical Society. The great event of the year to us is the appearance of the
long delayed British Pharmacopoeia. Let us rejoice that the learned medical professors
■of the United Kingdom have at last agreed to bury their national pharmaceutical
predilections beneath, or to enshrine them within, that monument of advancing intelli¬
gence. The British Pharmacopoeia is a boon that we cannot feel too thankful for ; with
all its faults, it is a great achievement, and if not perfect, as few can wonder at, who
know the history of its incubation and birth, it is a first step that cannot fail to be fol¬
lowed by other and more perfect ones. It contains many additions to the Materia
Medica, which had become widely used and deservedly esteemed. It supplies us with
elegant and effiient preparations, not previously recognized, such as the Syr. Ferri Phos-
phatis, Syr. Auantii Floris, and so on ; with Lin. Aconiti and Belladonnse, Lithise Citras,
etc. ; the liquid extracts of opium, male fern, pereira, and bael ; the permanganate of
potash, officinal lozenges, juices, cataplasms, and suppositories ; new ointments, as veratria,
calomel, cocculus, aconitia, atropia, and turpentine, with new and improved formulae for
other preparations such as Syr. Sennse, Syr. Limonis, Infusum Gentianae, etc. ; and a new
process for the perparation of tinctures, combining the advantages of both maceration
and percolation ; and the new feature of making up products to a definite quantity, and
giving a standard of the result, which ought to be obtained from every process — I will
not attempt to advance, however, on this well-trodden road, but above all it fixes the
ground beneath our feet. We are not now ever treading on the shifting sands of three
varying Pharmacopoeias, never quite certain that we were right where they conflicted ;
but now we have an appeal to one sure and universal standard. You are well acquainted
with the principal objections to the work, such as its omissions, its errors, its posological
silence, its arbitrary alterations, and singular nomenclature. You have heard stated
fully the practical inconvenience and uselessness of some omissions, the strangeness of
its errors, and the disagreeable costliness of keeping duplicate medicines with varying
flavours ; the impossibility of fractionizing the new ounce with accuracy, and the im¬
possibility of dismissing to limbo those useful handmaids to prescribing and dispensing,
the scruple and the drachm, time-honoured institutions of the art, which no living man
among us, I fear, will see laid to rest ; so that I need do no more than just indicate such
things. I think it somewhat strange, after the interest the profession took in its discus¬
sion at first, that the nomenclature and preparations have not come into more general
use. But time, which always works wonders, will be the best friend of the British
Pharmacopoeia.

The late Pharmaceutical Conference at Bath is another event which has transpired of
very great importance to us as a body. I cannot help referring you to the admirable
opening address of Mr. Deane, the President ; it is a model, which will well repay care¬
ful perusal. The papers read, and the discussions raised, were most interesting and
important, judging from the report in the ‘Pharmaceutical Journal’ for this month, and
I have no doubt that the publication of those papers will be a great boon to the trade
generally. The effect of these gatherings is likely to be beneficial in advancing phar¬
macy, and it is to be hoped will not interfere with the support of local institutions
having similar objects. I, for one, should regret to see this, while I think the Conference
might be regarded as a sort of Upper House of Peers, to be looked forward to with plea¬
sure by those who desire or deserve elevation. The Editor of the ‘ Pharmaceutical ’
says, “ It is by inducing our brethren in different parts of the country to look beyond
the mere drudgery of trade, to accustom themselves to the investigation of phenomena
which are frequently coming under their observation, to confer together on the results
of these investigations, and thus to cultivate a love for science and mutual friendship
one with another, that these provincial meetings may be made most useful.”

The subject of the prevention of accidental poisoning was brought forward at the
third day’s sitting of the Conference. The Committee having that subject under its
care, brought up their report, which will be found printed in the Journal. A discussion
ensued, and upon the fourth day the whole culminated in a list of suggestions, amount¬
ing to seven in number, which were received by resolution, with thanks. But before
going further I must adopt the language of Mr. Deane, “ that the subject is one, the
importance of which to us, as responsible persons, in the sale and dispensing of medi-

2 a 2

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cines, it is scarcely possible to over-estimate. It is one so large, complicated, and diffi¬
cult, that I am quite incompetent to lay it before you in that clear and logical manner
it requires to impress you fully with its importance.” I must say that it is one requiring
so much time, and careful thinking over, that I have been quite unable to do any justice
to it. It will perhaps not be forgotten that in October, 1861, I read a paper in this room
on the subject, when I laid before you samples of all the poison-bottles then in existence.
My advocacy of Savory’s bottles at that time, though earnest, was not received with so
much favour as I think it would have been now, with the result of three years’ experi¬
ence, in mind. I have continued to use the hexagonal, coloured, fluted bottles ever
since, and the fact that their use is spreading, and becoming general, and that the York
Glass Company are now making a similar bottle, I take as conclusive evidence of the
general approval. One great point is gained if all would combine to use the angular
and coloured fluted bottles for outward applications of a dangerous character, so that
the public might be educated to the idea which we express by that shape. As the re¬
sult of my own experience, which extends over three years, during which I have used
some grosses of the bottles, I have only had one bottle brought back appropriated to
another purpose — hair oil — than the original ; but were they misappropriated every
day, I should always feel it my duty to exchange them for ordinary ones. Another
poison-bottle has been invented by Mr. Merrikin, which he calls his caution-bottle, and
is getting the patent completed. I regret being unable to show this to-night, but he
declines even to forward a sample at present. The peculiarity of this bottle is that
it is covered with pointed excrescences, except where labelled, and therefore cannot
be touched without exciting attention. I shall take the earliest opportunity I can of
showing it to you. I beg to call your attention also to the bottles with black caps, for
dispensing, invented by Messrs. Savory. These I showed you before, but their great
utility and beautiful workmanship will bear a second mention. I have had to wait
nearly three months for half-a-dozen; I suppose they are so little known. One of
these shall be placed in the Museum, for members’ inspection. The employment of
these most ingenious contrivances to prevent the too free access to poisonous solids, I
consider very desirable ; nothing that I know of, so well fulfils the necessary qualities
of a guarded dispensing powder-bottle ; no murderous knife can enter to draw out a fatal
dose ; time is secured for thought, ere the contents will yield to the operator’s wishes.
Obstruction to the too facile performance of the act, and forced delay, are of the utmost
value in preventing mistakes. I know there is the danger of mistaking one poison for
another, and this is urged against using peculiar bottles ; but such an objection is
equally forcible against every precaution that we know of ; and further, the mistaking
of one deadly poison for another is a rarer, less probable, less fatal mistake than sub¬
stituting a deadly poison for a harmless medicine. Further, it narrows the chances down
to their lowest dimensions. We can render one substitution almost impossible, and this
the more likely and disastrous of the two. Moreover, the virulent poisons and alkaloids
are seldom used by the dispenser but in minute quantities, fractions of a grain, and a
grain, if we except morphia. I imagine that we seldom use more at one time of bi¬
chloride of mercury, strychnine, atropine, aconitine, etc. And who does not see that if
we can withdraw these dangerous agents from the sphere of large doses, we have ac¬
complished a great deal, but not rendered a mistake utterly impossible, which is a feat,
beyond the powers of mortal man ?

I have said we must except the morphias, which we do frequently use in larger
quantities, and much oftener than the rest of the group. But here is a fact which suggests
a remedy ; that which is so much used must be withdrawn and isolated from the rest.
He must be a hardy man who would keep his morphia side by side with his atropia.
And here let me say I think much good might be done by classifying our poisons into,
first, deadly ; second, dangerous ; the latter comprising preparations of colchicum, digi¬
talis, lobelia, etc. The former should certainly be under lock and key ; the less deadly
may be considered safe if furnished with Bird’s poison cork, or tied over with gutta-percha
tissue, bladder, or black leather. These arrangements are not only applicable to the
dispensing department, but also to our shop rounds upon the shelves containing articles
which we retail to the public, such as laudanum, sugar of lead, oxalic acid, etc.

But I must hasten on to mention the other novelties brought forward at the Confer¬
ence, — bottles that will not stand, as soda-water bottles, tin cases reaching up to the
stopper, but having no covers ; a metal band for the poison bottle ; also in labels, those

LIVERPOOL CHEMISTS’ ASSOCIATION.

317

•with white letters on a black ground, and Latin labels by Ford and Shapland, on which
the name of the drug is given in large letters, as “ Rheum,” and the preparation as
“Tinct.” or “ Syrup,” is placed beneath it; these I find are not yet ready. Also the
use of black wrappers with white letters “Poison ” for all dry poisons, such as oxalic acid,
sugar of lead, red and white precipitate, etc. The poison cupboard has received the
sanction of the Conference, and I think will commend itself to every one’s judgment as
a wise and efficient precaution against accident.

The Committee took as the basis of their deliberations, the whole of the poisoning
cases that were reported for two years past, twenty-five in number ; of these 10 cases were
mistakes of the administrator, 2 by a surgeon, 1 by a wholesale house, 11 by retail che¬
mists or their assistants. With respect to these, they say that “there are 17 of the 25
cases of accidental poisoning, in which there is every reason to believe that a thoroughly
effective poison-bottle would have prevented the accident ; next, that there are three
cases in which, had the poison sold been wrapped in paper of distinctive character, and
labelled as suggested, there is reason to believe that the accident would not have oc¬
curred. Thus we have (they say) encouraging assurance that at least 80 per cent, of
the usual cases of accidental poisoning may hereafter be prevented by the use of such
means.”

There is another aspect of this important subject to which I must refer, and that is
Government interference with our business. You are generally aware, no doubt, that
the medical officer of the Privy Council has reported upon the subject, and called to his
aid Professor Taylor, who has also drawn up a very lengthened report on the matter.
Both these documents relate to “ poisoning, and the dispensing, vending, and keeping
of poisons,” and, as has been said, are the most important that have for many years
appeared, and are “ big with the fate of pharmacy.” Those who have not read these
papers should do so, that they may be prepared to discuss the question when the time
for action comes. The great organ of the Press has also announced its opinion “ that
the present state of things ought not to be allowed to exist.” It is not then very difficult
to prophesy that before long some Government enactment will be passed, setting at rest
those vexed questions which have occupied our attention for years past, such as — what is
a poison ? Can a schedule be so framed as to be a useful restriction without being a
vexatious hindrance to trade ? Second, who are to be considered qualified to dispense
and deal in poisons ? Third, how should poisons be stored? and fourth, is inspection
necessary ? The great fear is not that legislation will take place, but that it will be
hasty, and the result of present apprehensions from recent events, and will not do jus¬
tice to all classes of druggists. It is greatly to be desired that this subject should be left
to those who alone are competent to cope with its intricacies and great difficulties ; I
mean those who practically know the working of the business. It would be far better
for us as a body, and more likely to secure the interests of the public too, who must
and will have poisons in many cases with as great facility as possible, if the Pharma¬
ceutical Society and the United Society of Chemists and Druggists would agree upon
one measure, to comprise the whole trade.

A measure that is too stringent will become ra dead letter, its effect would be to
demoralize more than to restrain. To register, for instance, the sales of laudanum,
oxalic acid, sugar of lead, and precipitates, no Act of Parliament that could be devised
could possibly enforce.

If the Government should appoint an Examining Board independent of the Phar¬
maceutical Society, the license of such a board would be a serious rivalry to their
examination ; it would satisfy the outsiders themselves, and satisfy the public, and so
retard a consummation much to be desired — the enrolment of the whole trade under
that one distinguished society. If, on the other hand, the Government make the Phar¬
maceutical Society the examining body, whose diploma shall give the only right to
exercise pharmacy in this country, then it is clear the examination must be made such
as can fairly be required of men already in business as masters or assistants, and also be
without any, or with only nominal fees.

A man who has served a regular apprenticeship of five years to a chemist and druggist,
so long as that continues to be a trade, and not a profession, has obtained an equitable
right to deal in every article vised in that trade. Such a man need have no fear of
submitting to any examination on the subject of poisons, which the Government are
likely to render compulsory ; he must have spent his five years much worse than poor

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Berzelius did his schooling, who at the end of that time is unable to discriminate between
rhubarb powder and opium powder, or between arsenic and farinaceous matters. Pro¬
fessor Taylor’s first suggestion is, “ that none but qualified persons, educated to the
trade of druggists, should be allowed to vend by retail drugs or medicines capable of
acting as poisons.” This is most excellent ; the only question at issue is the amount of
education fairly to be demanded of a tradesman ; one, for instauce, who has to supply a
low, unhealthy, dirty neighbourhood of a town with drugs. Can you expect a highly
educated man to settle there and deter others ? The case of small towns, villages, and
poor neighbourhoods must be met. The second suggestion is to prohibit grocers and
other trades selling poisonous drugs ; but this, to be of any use, ought to prohibit their
selling any medicines at all, if they know not their nature, appearances, and doses.
Number three restricts the sale of certain specified poisons to Pharmaceutical Chemists
and apothecaries, and speaks of a “proper examination” for other persons acting as
druggists. Number four forbids boys and girls who cannot read or write, selling poisons.
Five forbids dispensing or selling poisonous drugs by any youth under eighteen years
of age, nor then, unless he have been one year under a Pharmaceutical Chemist or
apothecary, or have been examined. Now here is a case of singular ignorance of what
is at all feasible. Youths almost invariably go to business at fifteen years of age, which
is on the whole a wise plan. If for three years they be not allowed to sell any poison,
or even for one year, I should like to know how they can learn the trade. Six relates
to keeping similar-looking drugs apart. Seven, to restrain the sale of deadly poisons.
Eight, to forbid sales of poison to any under twenty years of age, and only with a wit¬
ness. This again is simply absurd, if intended to apply to a great variety of poisons
that will instantly suggest themselves to your minds. Nine, all poisonous drugs to be
labelled. This all respectable men do, perhaps very few druggists omit it ; but added
to the label is to be the date of sale. This might perhaps be done for a fewr weeks after
the passing of the Act, — not, I fear, longer ; its uselessness in 999 cases in 1000 would
soon lead to its disuse. Ten relates to storing and labelling large quantities of noxious
substances, which would principally oppress our wholesale brethren. The inspection of
all depositories, whether they be kept by surgeons and apothecaries having open stores,
in hospitals, dispensaries, druggists’ shops, wholesale houses, or manufactories, is the
only way I see of making any regulation for storing poisons, really effectual.

I cannot better bring these remarks to a close than by reading the following extract
from the report of the medical officer of the Privy Council : — “Dr. Taylor concludes his
report with suggestions which deserve to have much weight, as to the reforms which are
desirable in the conduct of pharmaceutical business. His fundamental opinion, that
poisons, and medicines likely to act as poisons, ought not to be sold in retail except by pro¬
perly educated persons, and under some other reasonable restrictions as regards both seller
and purchaser, is an opinion which I submit for consideration as one in which I entirely
concur. And it seems to me that this object might be attained without giving the drug
trade any reasonable ground of complaint, and without inconveniencing the public as
regards the purchasability of non-poisonous drugs. Facilities might be given to drug¬
gists to divide themselves into an upper and a lower class. At first such a division
might be made by an enactment constituting into an upper class all who had previously
passed an examination as Pharmaceutical Chemists or as apothecaries ; perhaps with the
further addition of all who at the time of the making of the enactment should be in
bond fide practice as druggists on their own account, provided their trade as druggists
were conducted separately from all other trade ; and, subsequently to the first constitu¬
tion of this upper class, admission into it might be obtained on examination before some
appointed authority or authorities. To persons of this class (but with express exclusion
of general shopkeepers) the office of selling poisons might be restricted. As the pur¬
chasability of poisons by the public might at the same time be made effectually subject
to the rule which now ineffectually relates to the purchase of arsenic ; — that no such sale
shall be made except with full registration of the buyer’s name and residence, and of
the time, quantity, and proposed purpose of his buying; nor, even thus, to any person
unknown to the seller, unless in the presence of a witness acquainted with both seller
and buyer. But whether or not provisions like these may seem to the Legislature fit
and proper for enactment, I must submit that, with or without such enactments, one
particular act of legislation is urgently wanted in the matter, — an act, namely, which,
either by its own language, or by empowering some department of the Government to

LIVERPOOL CHEMISTS’ ASSOCIATION.

319

make regulations in the matter, shall directly or indirectly provide for the establishment
of a legal criterion as to what is culpable carelessness in the sale of drugs and poisons,
and shall thus render every such carelessness an offence punishable at law.”

I wish that I had the time and ability to go further into this subject, but here I must
stop. The foregoing remarks I feel to be exceedingly crude, and unworthy of the occasion ;
but such as they are, I hope you will receive them in the spirit of kindness and candour
in which they are made. I can only thank you, Gentlemen, for the patience which you
have exhibited, and apologize for thus detaining you to this protracted hour.

Mr. N. Mercer eulogized the able and lucid address with which the President had
favoured them, and augured from it the success that would accrue to the Association
from the guidance of the worthy head during the session.

The proposition was seconded by Mr. J. H. Shaw in appropriate terms, and unani¬
mously acknowledged.

The President returned thanks, and called upon the Hon. Secretary to read “ The
Suggestions of the late Pharmaceutical Conference at Bath,” which was to be the subject
of discussion of the evening.

The discussion was opened by Mr. N. Mercer, who passed the several “ suggestions ”
in review, remarking upon their comparative merit and practicability. He concluded by
asserting that considering there were at least 10,000 prescriptions compounded in this
kingdom daily by the profession, nothing could testify more strongly to the great care
and vigilance of dispensers, than the fact that during two years only eleven mistakes
were recorded against them, in the ‘Pharmaceutical Journal.’

Messrs. Shaw, Dutton, Jones, and Bird also submitted their views, but the lateness
of the hour precluded the members from entering more fully into the subject.

The second General Meeting was held at the Royal Institution on Thursday evening,
October 27, — the President, Mr. A. Redford, in the chair.

Mr. G. F. Williams was duly elected a Member of the Association.

The following donations were announced to the Library and Museum, and the thanks
of the Meeting awarded to the donors : — ‘ The Chemist and Druggist ’ for the current
month, from the Society ; a sample of Scammony Root, collected near Killis, Asia Minor,
in 1864, from Mr. William Ransom, of Hitchin, per, and by request of, Mr. J. Abraham.

The President announced the steps which the Council had taken towards having the
Library placed at the Royal Institution, and then called upon Dr. Edwards for his
address relative to the “ suggestions” of the late Pharmaceutical Conference at Bath.

Dr. Edwards opened his remarks by referring to an expression of the late Mr. Jacob
Bell, to the effect “ that it was an unsafe thing to place a weak fence around a pit that
•was considered dangerous,” and continued by alluding to the various “ fences” which
had been suggested to guard against “accidental poisonings,” such as sand-paper labels,
encased and spurred bottles, etc. etc. ; contending, however, that the safest “ fence” was
a sound education, which warned the Pharmaceutist of danger more thoroughly than any
of those referred to. He then dwelt upon the advantages which a good education con¬
ferred, showing that, in addition to other qualities, it induced habits of careful attention
and precision in the various duties of the shop. He concluded an interesting address by
inculcating the application of the adage, “ Take care of the pence, and the pounds will
take care of themselves,” to the dispensing of medicine, implying by “ the pence” inno¬
cuous drugs, and by “ the pounds” poisonous ones.

Mr. N. Mercer, after complimenting Dr. Edwards, referred to the Pharmaceutical
class, in connection with the Association, as a great means for imparting that degree of
education to which Dr. Edwards alluded, and regretted that such use was not made of
the laboratory as was anticipated by the Association, and which the benefits derivable
from it merited.

The President and Dr. Edwards further referred to the advantages which would accrue
to the members by studying in the laboratory, and expressed their hopes that it would
be more generally patronized for the future.

Dr. Edwards occupied the remaining part of the evening with a discourse upon the
properties of “ Light” as indicated by the spectrum, in the course of which he showed
the difference which is manifested by sunlight and the light emitted from the combus¬
tion of other bodies. He pointed out the variation of refrangibility of the principal rays

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composing polychromatic and monochromatic light, and exhibited, by means of Geisler-
tubes and a solution of sulphate of quinine, the fluorescence of those rays of light not
ordinarily observed in the violet part of the spectrum of sunlight. In reference to the
dark lines observed in the latter spectrum, he considered them as being due to the
absorption of certain metallic vapours evolved from the heated mass of the sun by the
luminous atmosphere which surrounds him ; and with regard to the actinic or chemical
rays which exercise a chemical effect upon certain salts, he stated that these rays were
found to exist largely in the light evolved from the combustion of magnesium. Finally,
several spectra of rarified gases were exhibited for the inspection of the members
through the spectroscope.

A vote of thanks to Dr. Edwards concluded the business of the evening.

The third General Meeting was held at the Royal Institution on Thursday evening,
November 10, — the President, Mr. A. Redford, in the chair.

The following gentlemen were duly elected members : — Mr. Daniel Lomas and Mr.
Joseph Rodgerson.

The following donations to the Library and Museum were announced, and the thanks
of the meeting voted to the donors : — 1 The Journal of the Liverpool Polytechnic
Society ’ for November, from the Society ; ‘ The Technologist ’ for November, from the
Editor ; a sample of pure Crystallized Phenic Acid, from Mr. Charles Lowe, of the
Phcenix Works, Newton Vale, near Manchester, per Mr. Edward Davies, F.C.S.

Mr. E. Davies, F.C.S., read a paper on “ Carbolic Acid.” After referring to the
valuable products obtained from coal-tar, he stated that this one would probably become
the most important. Though used for several years in a crude, impure state, it has only
been prepared pure during the last three years by Messrs. Calvert and Lowe. As now
obtained in a pure state, it is a colourless crystalline solid body, possessing most extra¬
ordinary antiseptic properties. One part of this substance added to five hundred parts
of glue or flour-paste will keep them perfectly sweet for years. Hides steeped in a
solution of it in water, and then dried in the sun, have been brought from Monte Video
without emitting any unpleasant odour. Extracts of colouring-matters, especially those
containing tannin, are also preserved unchanged by the addition of a very small quantity
of this acid. In medicine, carbolic acid has also been used most successfully in the
treatment of skin diseases, ulcers, sloughing wounds, toothache, and internally for
dyspepsia. In veterinary practice it has been found to be a specific for foot-rot in sheep,
and has proved very effectual in curing grease and canker in horses. Various dyes are
obtained from carbolic acid ; they are called picric or carbazotic acid, peonine, azuline,
and aurine. The last-named is a new dye for silk, producing a splendid orange colour.
Carbolic acid is being used by Mr. M‘Dougall for disinfecting sewage before applying it
on land. The fine grasses which would otherwise be destroyed are not injured by the
disinfected sewage. The paper concluded with showing how manufactures and science
had mutually benefited by their alliance in this as in many other instances.

After the reading of the paper, a brief discussion, in which Mr. Mercer and Dr.
Edwards took part, followed.

A vote of thanks to Mr. Davies brought the business of the evening to a close.

LEEDS CHEMISTS’ ASSOCIATION.

The Second Annual Meeting of the Leeds Chemists’ Association was held at the
Mechanics’ Institute on the evening of October 19th, 1864. In the absence of the
President, the chair was taken by Mr. E. Thompson.

The Honorary Secretary read the following Report : —

The Committee are pleased to have the opportunity of again meeting the Members
and presenting the Second Annual Report.

The Committee regret that during the past year two members have been removed by
death, Mr. George Reinhardt and Mr. E. Smeeton, a deserved tribute to whose memory
appeared in the proceedings of our Association.

The monthly meetings of the Association have been supplied with papers or lectures
as follows: — 1863, November 11th, “Beeswax and its Adulterations,” by Mr. Reynolds,
E.C.S.; December 8th, “Materia Medica,” by Mr. E. Thompson ; 1864, January 13th,
“Medicated Waters,” by Mr. E. Brown ; February 24th, “ Iodide of Potassium,” by Mr.

LEEDS CHEMISTS’ ASSOCIATION.

321

F; C. Clayton, Associate ; March 9th, “ The Value of the Marc left in the preparation
of Tr. Opii by Maceration,” by Mr. R. H. Davis, Harrogate; March 9th, “Liq. Ammon.
Acet., B.P.,” by Mr. R. M. Atkinson ; April 13th, “ French Pharmacy,” by Mr. D. H.
Cussons, Associate; May 18th, “Lin. Saponis, B.P.,” by Mr. J. Abbott ; May 18th,
“ Remarks on the Value of the Marc left in the preparation of Tr. Opii by Percolation,”
by Mr. E. Yewdall. The character of several of these papers was such as to render
them exceedingly interesting and instructive, while each offered ample scope for discus¬
sion, an opportunity not missed by those who were present.

An extraordinary meeting of the Association was held January 27th, at which Mr.
J. S. Blockey gave a lecture on “ Aniline Dyes.”

The Committee arranged with Mr. E. Thompson to give a course of lectures on
“ Materia Medica,” for which fifteen tickets were taken, and several of the Associates
attended with commendable regularity.

During the past year the library has received some important additions, amongst
which will be found Miller’s ‘ Chemistry,’ in 3 vols. ; Pereira’s ‘ Materia Medica,’ in 3
vols. ; ‘ Garrod on Medicines,’ Galloway’s ‘ First Steps in Chemistry,’ Sutton’s ‘Volu¬
metric Analysis,’ and Wittstein’s ‘ Practical Pharmacy;’ together with the following
periodicals : — ‘ Pharmaceutical Journal,’ ‘ Chemist and Druggist,’ ‘ Intellectual Observer,’
i Technologist,’ ‘ The Chemical News,’ Bentham’s ‘ British Flora.’

From this recapitulation it will be seen that the objects of the Association have been
steadily kept in view, and that the Committee have endeavoured to give attention to the
important duties assigned to them.

A report has been presented to the Privy Council by Dr. A. S. Taylor, “ On Poisoning,
and the Dispensing, Vending, and Keeping of Poisons,” which has been published by
authority. It is evident, therefore, the consideration of Government continues to be
given to this important question, to which also recent events have strongly drawn the
attention of the public. It is far from improbable that some further attempt may be
made at no distant date to regulate the sale of poisons by law. While it is obvious
that no absolute safeguard can be devised, it is not less certain that the greatest attain¬
able security to the public from accident in the use of these potent remedies can only
be reached by raising the standard of character and education in those who deal in and
dispense them.

Since it is the aim of our Association to spread professional and scientific knowledge
among us by mutual efforts, and in so doing to increase or confirm the wholesome sense
of responsibility under which any right-meaning chemist and druggist carries on his
business, the Committee think the present state of the question of Poisons, with all the
public and private interests it involves, supplies the strongest motive for continued
energy and zeal in carrying forward our “ Chemists’ Association.”

The Treasurer’s account was presented, and was as follows: —

Dr.

BALANCE SHEET.

Cr.

1863-4. £ s. d.

To Balance in hand . 5 18 11

,, Error in last account . 0 4 0

,, Sale of Tickets — Materia Medica

Lectures . 5 12 6

,, Thirty-five Members’ Subscriptions 17 10 0
,, Forty-two Associates’ ,, 5 5 0

,, Donations to the Library . 3 0 0

£37 10 5

1863-4. _ £ s. d.

By Barrister’s Room, two meetings ...110

,, Printing, Periodicals, etc . 11 17 0

„ Lecture Room . 1 9 6

,, Rent of Library . 8 0 0

,, Reprints from Pharmaceutical

Journal . 1 16 6

,, Advertisements . 0 13 0

„ Envelopes . 0 7 9

„ Oiled Cloth . 0 7 10

,, E. Thompson — Materia Medica

Lectures . 5 12 6

„ Postages . 1 14 9

,, Balance . 4 10 7

£37 10 5

Examined and found correct.

JOSEPH HAIGH,-^.

T. B. STEAD. i auditors.

The adoption of the Report was moved by Mr. Haigh, seconded by Mr. S. Taylor,
and carried.

Mr. Stead and Mr. S. Taylor were requested to act as Scrutineers of the ballot for

322

DETECTION OF IODIDE IN BROMIDE OF POTASSIUM.

Officers for the session 1864-5. The result of the election was as follows : — President,
Mr. Joseph Haigh ; Treasurer, Mr. J. Laud ; Secretary, Mr. E. Yewdall; Librarian, Mr.
E. M. Atkinson ; Committee, Messrs. Jefferson, Eeynolds, Stead, B. Taylor, Thompson,
and Ward ; Auditors, Messrs. Bilbrough and Eeinhardt.

The thanks of the meeting were offered to the retiring officers.

ORIGINAL AND EXTRACTED ARTICLES.

THE APPLICATION OE THE STARCH TEST TOR DETECTING
IODIDE IN BROMIDE OE POTASSIUM.

BY MR. WILLIAM HUSIvISSON, JUN.

Having been much engaged in the preparation of bromide of potassium, and
having taken every precaution for ensuring a perfect salt, both as regards its
purity and general characters, some weeks since my attention was directed to
the fact that it contained iodide, or traces of iodine.

In the 1 Chemical News ’ of Saturday last, the 19tli inst., Mr. F. Fewtrell
states: — Recently it has been observed that bromide of potassium adminis¬
tered in large doses has been occasionally followed by symptoms of iodism, or
the peculiar affections which are sometimes produced by excessive doses of iodine
or iodide of potassium ; as no such effects followed the use of the pure bromide,
the circumstance gave rise to a suspicion of the presence of iodide.” He fur¬
ther states, — u Having procured a sample which was labelled c bromide of potas¬
sium, French,’ which was well crystallized, the crystals being perhaps rather
more opaque than those of the pure bromide, on a quantitative analysis being
made it showed the presence of iodide of potassium to the amount of twenty
per cent.*

To the suspected solution of the bromide of potassium I had prepared, the
following tests were applied : — A few drops of solution of chlorine were added,
then a few drops of bisulphide of carbon. The bead that was formed remained
colourless, or turned slightly yellow. Had the bromide contained more than
traces of iodide, the bead would have collected the iodine developed by the
chlorine and changed it to a rose colour of surpassing beauty, which, in the
course of a few hours, would again change on the further collection of iodine to
a rich violet colour, which would remain permanent. A little chlorine gas was
then brought in contact with the solution, which failed to separate any iodine.
On the addition of nitrate or chloride of palladium, a slight brown tint was
communicated to the solution ; and after the lapse of some hours a slight brown
precipitate separated. f

The solution was then mixed with boiled starch, and a drop of solution of
chlorine, or what is still better, a breath of chlorine gas passed over the surface,
the blue iodide of starch was instantly developed. The solution of bromide
was then mixed with boiled starch, and acidified with hydrochloric acid. On
and addition of nitrite of potassa, the presence of iodine was manifest. Dr.
Price has detected ^oouwoo Par^ iodine dissolved in water as iodide of potas¬
sium by this means. If much iodine is present, a dark blue colour will instantly

* This would represent 15'3 per cent, of iodine. It should he observed that French
bromide of potassium is sold at less than it would cost the English manufacturer to pro¬
duce jit.

f Iodide of potassium occasions a black precipitate with nitrate or chloride of palladium.
If chloride of palladium be added to a solution of one part of iodide of potassium in 400,000
of water, it produces a brown tint.

DETECTION OF IODIDE IN BROMIDE OF POTASSIUM.

323

be developed ; if a very small quantity, as for instance the two- or three-mil¬
lionth part, then a few seconds elapse before the blue colour makes its appear¬
ance ; this test admits of exceeding delicacy.

My attention was now directed to a sample of bromide of potassium said to
be pure, or free from iodide. The peculiar appearance of this salt led me to
suspect the presence of an alkali, or that the combination was not quite perfect,
instead of the well-defined cubes so characteristic of well-combined bromide of
potassium. The opacity and crystalline form is one of the best indications of its
purity and skilful manipulation, and the presence of iodide does not affect the
crystalline form or opacity of the bromide. Farther, when iodide of potassium
is prepared by many of the processes recommended, it has a predisposition to
decompose and the crystals become yellow or pink, although almost pure, and
form iodate, which has never been found to be the case with bromide. I have
furnished an interesting specimen of bromide of potassium crystallized under
peculiar circumstances, the geometrical form being apparently that of a fiat
parallelopiped, but still representing the internal structure of a cube. It will
be observed, as in iodide of potassium, the plates forming butterflies’ wings are
not thicker than bank-note paper. I here furnish some well-defined opaque
cubes of bromide with five perfect faces, as well illustrating the marked differ¬
ence between the bromide and iodide.

To a solution of the above salt starch and chlorine were added, without the
slightest development of iodine. A minute quantity of nitric or hydrobromic
acid was then added to the solution previous to the application of this test.*
This addition caused the instantaneous development of iodine cn the application
of starch and chlorine. A few drops of solution of potassa were then added
to the salt that I had prepared, which indicated iodine with starch and chlorine.
Since this addition of potassa, the evidence of iodine could no longer be traced
on the application of starch and chlorine. Having obtained samples of bromide
of potassium from various manufacturers, I found, without exception, that they
all indicated iodine on the addition of starch and chlorine. Four samples of
French bromide of potassium indicated a percentage of iodine on the application
of each or every one of the tests here employed ; also one sample obtained in
London gave similar results. Hence it would appear from the above statement
that starch cannot be relied upon for detecting iodine in alkaline solutions, but
is of the greatest value in detecting minute traces of iodine in neutral or acid
solutions, as it readily developes its presence when almost every other known
test fails to do so. I then proceeded to examine the bromine I had operated
upon, and on the application of various tests, I readily detected iodine, and also
in five samples of bromine of French manufacture. One of the most favour¬
able conditions for examining the bromine for iodine I found to be bromide of
ammonium. A sample of the bromine was supersaturated with sulphide of am¬
monium, the solution was then heated until the excess of ammonia was expelled,
and the sulphur precipitated or separated.f If the solution be now concen¬
trated by evaporation, the iodine can be readily traced by starch and chlorine.
It seems, therefore, more than probable that the processes adopted by the manu¬
facturer for separating iodine from the bromine, either by chlorine or sulphate
of copper and sulphate of iron, and its subsequent purification by ether and
potash, fail to remove the traces which are developed by starch and chlorine,
etc.];

In the present state of the bromine market, therefore, chlorine and bisulphide

* I readily obtained hydrobromic acid by decomposing bromide of zinc with oxalic acid.

f If the bromide contains sufficient iodine it will render the sulphur ductile, and it can
be traced by starch and chlorine.

J A liquid containing of its weight of iodine receives a blue tinge from a solution

of starch.

324

COMMERCIAL BROMIDE OF POTASSIUM.

of carbon seems to be a fair test of ascertaining the value of commercial bro¬
mide of potassium.

Swinton Street, Gray's Inn Road.

COMMERCIAL BROMIDE OE POTASSIUM.

BY MR. C. IJMNEY.

The adulteration of bromide of potassium noticed in the ‘ Chemical News ’
of the 19th, by Mr. Fewtrell, is of the greatest importance, both to the phar¬
maceutist and medical man ; more especially as the adulteration with iodide is
not only found in the so-called “ French bromide,” but even in the salt sold by
some of the principal manufacturing chemists in London.

In August last, my attention was called to a sample of bromide of potassium,
returned by a country druggist, with a statement that a medical man (whom he
had supplied with the salt) noticed all the symptoms produced by iodine upon
his patient.

I made a qualitative examination of it, and found it contained a large propor¬
tion of iodide.

I immediately procured samples from five of the principal manufacturing
chemists in London (who professed to make the salt) ; of these only one was
pure, and this was charged by its manufacturer 6 per cent, less than the impure
salt of the other makers.

It is therefore advisable for every pharmaceutist to test his bromide of potas¬
sium before using it. This he can readily do by dissolving some of the salt in
water, adding to the solution starch, and subsequently a few drops of chlorine
water, when if any iodide be present a blue colour will be produced. Although
the bromine is set free as well as the iodine, still the bromine does not produce
a blue with starch. Nitric acid may be used in the place of chlorine water, but
it is not so delicate a test. Chloride of palladium added to solution of the salt
containing iodide will give a precipitate of iodide of palladium, the bromide
being left in solution ; this affords a ready means for the quantitative determi¬
nation of the iodide present.

40, Alders gate Street.

STATE OF PHARMACY IN FRANCE.

BY MR. CHARLES EKIN.

"Whilst questions regarding the vending and safe keeping of poisons, and
the education and necessary qualifications of chemists, are engrossing the
attention of the pharmaceutical world, it may perhaps be to our advantage if
we inquire into the state of Pharmacy in France, for it may be, that we shall
find in the system carried out there many points that we should do well to
adopt ; and we are the more led to expect this from the results of their sys¬
tem, for we find that the statistics ranging over the last ten years, of the
Morgue in Paris, and published a few weeks ago in the ‘ Times,’ show that in
a number of about 1700 suicides, seven only were the result of poison. We
have but to compare these with like statistics in our own country, to see how
very much the comparison is in favour of France.

Believing the subject to be one that would be likely to interest the readers
of this J ournal, I wrote to a friend of mine, a pharmacien at Montauban, in the
south of France, requesting him to give me such information as he might

STATE OF PHARMACY IN FRANCE*

325

consider pertinent, and from Iiis letter in reply, and also from information
received through the courtesy of Mr. Daniel Hanbury from Professor Planchon
of the Ecole de Pharmacie of Montpellier, I am enabled to give the following
abstract: — There are two kinds of pharmaciens in France, those of the first
and those of the second class. A pharmaeien of the first class must be a
Bachelor of Sciences, which is the degree required of students of medicine
before entering on their special studies : he must pass twelve terms, occupy¬
ing a period of three years in a higher school of pharmacy (Ecole superieure
de Pharmacie), or he has the option of passing four terms in a higher school
and ten terms in a secondary school of pharmacy (ecole secondaire) ; he must
then be articled for three years to a pharmaeien (trois annees de stage dans
une officine). In France pupils are said to be “ articled ” to professional men
and pharmaciens, and to be “ apprenticed ” to grocers and other tradesmen.

A pharmaeien of the second class need not be a Bachelor of Sciences, a
certificate of the fourth form # sufficing ; he must pass one year in a school of
pharmacy, keeping either four terms in a higher, or six in a secondary school,
and be articled for six years, or he has the option of being articled for four
years and keeping eight terms in a higher or twelve in a secondary school.
No pharmaeien can commence business until he has attained the age of
twenty-five.

The examinations for both classes are three ; two oral, a day intervening
between each, and a third practical. The first examination is in physics,
chemistry, toxicology, and in the translation of passages in the ‘ Latin Codex.’
The second is in botany and materia medica, the candidate being required to
recognize and describe thirty articles of the materia medica and twenty plants
selected at random. The third examination is divided into two parts : in the
first, the candidate has to determine the name, etc., of such materia medica as
are placed before him, their natural history, chemical properties, sophistica¬
tions, and the means of ascertaining the purity of their products ; in the
second, he has to prepare, under the surveillance of the examiners, at the
least five galenical medicaments and five chemical products, — he has to describe
their properties and characters, and how he has prepared them ; this exami¬
nation occupies four days.

Again, a pharmaeien of the first class has a right to commence business in
any town in France, and to change to any point at will ; his fees on examina¬
tion are about £56.

The Minister of Public Instruction has the power of granting, and generally
does grant on demand to pharmaciens of this class the privilege of com¬
mencing business at the age of twenty-four.

A pharmaeien of the second class, on presenting himself for examination,
must. name the department in which he intends to open an “officine,” and if,
at any time, he wishes to go into another department, he must again submit
himself to examination and again pay the fees, and this as often as he changes
his department : his examination fees are £33.

No pharmaeien is allowed to sell any poison without the order of a medical
man or veterinary surgeon, and even then the sale has to be duly entered in
a book kept for that purpose, which book is annually inspected by a com¬
mission appointed to that end. The commission at the same time examines
the general arrangements of the officine with regard to the safe keeping of
poisons, and also satisfies itself as to the proper preservation and good con¬
dition of the medicaments.

* In a Lycee there are nine classes or forms, one of which is passed yearly by every pupil
of ordinary capacity ; as the pupils begin at the ninth form, by the time they obtain their
certificate of the fourth form they must have passed six years in study.

326

STATE OF PHARMACY IN FRANCE.

So far as the examinations are concerned, in substance, though not in de¬
gree, they are the same as those held by the Pharmaceutical Society, but in
general education how far we lag behind! We need not wonder now that
Mr. Deane and Mr. ff anbury, as they told us at the late Conference, invari¬
ably found in their botanical excursions in France the country pharmacien to
be a well-educated and intelligent man, but how can we compare such a one
with our village chemist ?

One other privilege I may name, which I came across the other day in a
French law-book, that when a patient dies, among the first claims to be set¬
tled are those of the physician and chemist. “ Les creances privilegiees sur
la generality des meubles sont celles ci-apres exprimees, et s’exercent dans
l’ordre suivant : 1°, les frais cle justice; 2°, les frais funeraires ; 3°, les frais
quelconques cle la derniere maladie, concurremment entre ceux a qui ils
sont dus.” Added to this too, it must be remembered that in France no
medical man dispenses his own medicine.

I cannot but think that we may gain some hints from these details, — as,
for instance, may we not find in “ a commission ” a solution of the poison dif¬
ficulty ? All seem to agree that it would be advisable to have a set of
rules, the due observance of which shall exonerate us before a jury from tho
charge of carelessness or want of precaution, but there is by no means the same
happy unanimity of opinion as to what those rules should be ; and when we
consider, not only how much businesses vary in their nature, but even shops
in their arrangements, it must be seen that it is impossible to lay down regu¬
lations, unless they are of such a general character as to be worthless, which
can be made to apply to all. One fears to think what trouble, annoyance,
and expense even, we should be put to, in the event of all being obliged to
follow set rules as to labelling, poison cupboards, and the like. Perhaps it
may be objected that Englishmen would not brook what might be called the
prying element of a commission ; but shall we not have much more liberty
under a system which leaves to every man a choice of detail, always subject
of course to the approval of the commissioners ?

For a very interesting description of a Lycee, I would refer those who have
not seen them to two papers by Matthew Arnold, which appeared in ‘ Mac¬
millan’s Magazine ’ some eighteen months ago. As he shows, it is a crying-
evil that we have hardly a good middle-class school in England, certainly not
one that will bear comparison for a moment with a French public school, and
I venture to think that, until something is done in this direction with regard
to the general education of future chemists and druggists, we can hardly hope
to raise the status of our business ; however, it will be very long, I fear, be¬
fore the Board of Examiners of our Society will be able to exact from its
students, not only a three years’ course of study at its laboratories, but a
degree, like the French Baccalaureat-es-Sciences, which is esteemed at all
events as high and is much more difficult to obtain than the degree of Bachelor
of Arts of our own Universities ; of course the increased expenditure of both
time and money would be amply met in the increased remuneration and higher
•standing of our business, or, as it might then be justly called, profession.

STATE OF PHAEMACY IN FEANCE.

Paris, August 23rd , 1864.

Gentlemen, — I send you the following extracts from ‘ La Euche Pharma-
ceutique ’ for August, as curious illustrations of the present state of pharmacy
in France. You may possibly think them worth insertion in your Journal.

S. J. Weston.

STATE OF PHARMACY IN FRANCE.

327

EXTRACTS FROM THE REPORT OF THE COMMISSION APPOINTED BY
“LA SOCIETE MEDIC ALE DU PANTHEON” ON THE “EXERCISE OF
PHARMACY, AND ITS RELATIONS TO THE MEDICAL PROFESSION
AND THE PUBLIC HEALTH.”

The Commission was composed of MM. Blondeau and Deschamps, pharmaciens,
and MM. Domerc and Saudras, medical practitioners.

“ The Commission is unanimous in recognizing that the best means of preserving
their reciprocal interests and prerogatives is to take, as the only limit of their professions,
the advantage and safety of the public health. They point out the weakness of the
present law, which dates from the year XI. of the Republic, and which is only a repro¬
duction, in many points imperfect, of the law of Louis XIII. This law prohibits secret
remedies, and they swarm. It forbids the advertisement of secret or new preparations,
and the newspapeft are filled with them. Pharmaciens ought not to supply medicines
but with a physician’s prescription, yet, for the most part, as much medicine is sold
without them as with them. They ought to confine themselves to the formulas of the
Codex, yet many use other formulas ; and it thus happens that a medical man does not
always obtain for his patients the medicine he desires. A great number of pharmaciens
give daily consultations, some by prospectuses or pamphlets, others viva voce , and often
in open consulting rooms and at fixed hours.

“Finally, as this law neither defines a secret medicine nor a recognized medicina
weight, it results that mineral water manufacturers, druggists, colour merchants, photo¬
graphers, perfumers, liqueur manufacturers, grocers, herbalists, seed merchants, sisters of
mercy, somnambulists, homoeopathists, and a crowd of pretended chemists and charlatans
exercise medicine and pharmacy more or less illegally, to the great dishonour of these
honourable professions. They impose upon the public with lying advertisements, aud
often with ignorance as dangerous as it is vulgar. A new legislation, giving greater
protection to pharmacy and medicine, is thus become necessary.”

The Society adopted the following propositions : —

1. No one shall exercise medicine but a legally qualified medical man.

2. No one shall exercise pharmacy but a legally qualified pharmacien ; and in those
places where there is no pharmacien, the duties shall be fulfilled by the medical practi¬
tioner.

3. The pharmacien only has the right to prepare and sell medicines.

4. Every substance or preparation shall be considered a medicine , which shall be sup¬
plied to the public as suitable to combat or prevent one or more diseases. The Codex
will give a list of preparations which have come into general use, and which may be
supplied without a prescription.

5. Every simple or compound medicine shall be considered secret whose formula is
not published in the French Codex, unless it be accompanied by its formula completely
detailed.

6. The sale of secret medicines is absolutely prohibited.

7. In the public interest, medical and pharmaceutical advertisements are prohibited in
the journals, and especially in the political journals.

The Society decided that the above resolutions should be sent to the Minister of Agri¬
culture and of Commerce, praying him to take them into consideration.

Henry’s Magnesia. — M. Henry of Manchester v. 46 Pharmaciens of Paris.

For at least half a century the glass manufacturers have supplied for the sale of
calcined magnesia moulded bottles, bearing on their sides the inscription “ Henry’s Cal¬
cined Magnesia, Manchester.” These bottles are to be found in nearly every pharmacy ;
they a!re sold habitually, and without the slightest concealment. Their use is a custom
which each pharmacien has received from his predecessor, to which he attaches no im¬
portance, beyond its influence on the sale, and which, if he had been requested, he would
willingly have given up. The astonishment and excitement was then great, when it was
announced that a large number of these bottles had been seized in the pharmacies of
Paris, under the instructions of Messrs. Henry. The case, called several times before the
tribunals, was decided on the 5th inst., judgment for the defendants ; Messrs. Henry to
restore the bottles seized, and to pay to each pharmacien 100 francs damages.

328

PHARMACY IN AMERICA.

[to the editor of the pharmaceutical journal.

Sir, — The following paragraph, taken from a recent letter of the “ Special
Commissioner1’ to the ‘ Daily Telegraph’ may, at the present juncture, be worth
more than a passing notice. The letter is headed, as usual, u America in the
Midst of War,” and is inserted in the issue of the above journal for October
13th, 1864. After complaining that fifty cents were asked by “ a gentleman
in a druggist’s shop” for a twopenny box of Palmer’s vesuvians, which proved
on trial to be “ hopelessly mildewed, and wouldn’t even smoulder,’’ the writer
goes on to say — u Very nearly the same thing happened to me at Niagara. I
wanted some seidlitz powders. The proprietor of perhaps one of the most woe¬
begone little apothecary’s shops on the American side I ever saw anywhere,
declined to sell me less than a ; family box,’ costing two and a half dollars, al¬
though he had just sold ten cents' worth of laudanum to a barefooted girl, who
brought a teacup for the poison. When I opened the ‘ family box,’ ” etc.

On reading the above I could not help thinking that if this is the state of
the poison question on the other side of the Atlantic, we, of the old country,
have little cause to complain about the want of legislative anxiety in our own
body, for the safe “ dispensing, vending, and keeping of poisons.”

With reference to the purchase of the seidlitz powders, the writer in question
was a second time unfortunate. “ When,” says he, “I opened the ‘family
box,’ I found the damp had effected an entrance, and that the contents were
utterly worthless.” I am quite sure, Sir, that we, on this side, shall all feel
sorry for the disappointments of “our special commissioner.”

I remain, Sir, yours obediently,

W. WlLMOTT.

27, Bishopsgate Within , October 21, 1864.

PHARMACEUTICAL RESPONSIBILITY.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — As several correspondents in the Journal, as well as private corre¬
spondents of my own, are very strenuously advocating a system of mutual
assurance to meet any expenses which might result from a prosecution under
Lord Campbell’s Act, I wish to offer a few observations in opposition to any
plan of the kind. Before the verdict had been issued in the late Liverpool
case, several friends foreseeing the inevitable and disastrous nature of the
verdict, suggested one or other of the protection schemes which have since
appeared in print, but a few minutes’ discussion was sufficient to show the
dangers into which we should plunge by adopting any such course, — that in
fact we should be creating a great evil to get rid of a comparatively small one.
I have subsequently taken the opinion of an eminent solicitor, whose views
perfectly coincide with my own. He says it would be most impolitic and in¬
judicious to adopt any such course. It would invite prosecution on the part
of those who, under existing circumstances, would not think of such a thing.
We should then indeed become a company, and fairly open to legal proceed¬
ings. He instanced the London Omnibus Company as an analogous case.
Before it existed, a process against an independent omnibus proprietor was
never heard of, though disasters arising from various causes wrere not unfre¬
quent. But now that a large portion of the omnibus traffic is in the hands of
a company, the company is in a constant state of siege by prosecutors on all
sorts of pretexts. That is just what we should draw upon ourselves if we took

DEATH BY POISONING.

Q 0 Q
O ^ o

upon ourselves to do this thing. Many of the propositions to meet this diffi¬
culty have been very plausible, but they all result in the dangerous condition of
a company of Mutual Insurers whose objects, position, and condition would be
known from one end of the kingdom to the other, and would remain a stand¬
ing temptation to even the best- disposed persons living. It would be a very
different thing if the existing Life and Accidental Insurance Companies were
to lay themselves out to grant protecting policies, which they might readily
do on very easy terms. In that case the world at large would know no more
of what we did in that way than they now do of our life and fire policies, and
consequently would not be tempted to prosecute, for we may rest assured
that no prosecution would follow an accident unless there was a moral cer¬
tainty of remuneration in case of a verdict in favour of the appellant, — un¬
less the case were criminal. At present we are, as a body, too poor to excite
the cupidity of more than a very small portion of the public, and therefore
the chances are ten to one in our favour. The number of serious accidents
amongst us are very few, and have been greatly exaggerated. At present
I have no fear of our being oppressed by the obnoxious Act, but, once let
us be united to pay the lawyers, then good-bye to all peace of mind and com¬
fort in the prosecution of our calling ; we shall have charged a mine that
would explode at the smallest spark.

There is very little chance of our being able to get an alteration in the law
to meet our case, and that of many other tradesmen similarly circumstanced
as to liability to accident ; still I do not despair of finding at least a partial
remedy ; but until the idea is more fully developed, I shall say nothing about
what may after all prove as fallacious and impracticable as its predecessors.

Yours respectfully,

Heney Deane.

DEATH BY POISONING.

BY ME. E. GOODWIN MUMBEAY.

When the dispensing chemist has accurately prepared a medicinal com¬
pound and sent it out properly labelled, his responsibility ceases ; the medica¬
ment, whether of an innocent or dangerous character, is equally beyond his
control, and is thenceforth confided to the patient or to the nurse.

If through carelessness on the part of either fatal or injurious results
occur, the chemist is not held blameworthy ; but if, on the other hand, a life
is lost or injury is sustained in consequence of the dispenser’s inattention, he
is held amenable to the law, and the finding of a coroner’s inquest may result
in bringing him to grief.

In order to obviate as far as possible the liability to mistakes, expedients
have from time to time been proposed, much ingenuity has been evoked, and
considerable sums of money expended in the endeavour to produce what is
called a “ poison bottle.” It is foreign to the purpose of this paper to notice
all the numerous inventions and failures which have taken place, the reasons
for their rejection have been fully expressed from time to, time in the pages of
this Journal.

Almost without exception, the whole tribe of inventors have been quietly
shelved or altogether ignored. The only really practical “ poison bottle ” 1
have seen is that invented by Messrs. Gilbertson and Sons. Its form being a
wedge, it cannot be stood upon a shelf in company with other bottles, conse¬
quently can never be mistaken for another. The shape, too, is very advan¬
tageous, as it does not allow the contents to run out, even when uncorked ;
Vol. vi. 2 B

330

DEATH BY POISONING.

this is no trifling advantage, obviating as it does the possibility of an upset
and damage resulting from corrosive solutions, as iodine, etc.

The latest suggestion I have noticed is that made by a representative of
the York Glass Company, namely, the “ direct square.” The discoverer of

this idea cannot be aware that several leading houses have for some time
adopted this form for dispensing, its introduction would therefore only lead
to “ confusion worse confounded.” It is to be feared that if the trade arc
induced to order these “ direct square poison bottles,” they will find a place
on the same shelf with certain feeding bottles brought out by the same firm.

The more practical part of this subject is that which affects the arrange¬
ments of a dispensing establishment, in order to guard against fatal occur¬
rences which we too often have to deplore.

The unfortunate young man who was the unwitting agent in sending a
fellow-creature, without a moment’s warning, into the world of spirits, has
enough to bear in the recollection of the sad catastrophe. The sensation
produced throughout the country has directed attention of thoughtful men
to the preventibility of the recurrence of so grievous a calamity.

It must be candidly acknowledged that nothing can replace that caution
and intelligence, the result of scrupulous conscientiousness. The examina¬
tions of the Pharmaceutical Society will, it is hoped, tend to weed out the
careless and flighty young men who have too often assumed positions for
which they are totally unfitted, either by talent or by acquirements, as well
as those self-sufficient ignoramuses who, having tried many trades and failed
in each, at length settled down and have been admitted (by the great mistake)
to the title of Pharmaceutical Chemist.

PoisOn closets and poison shelves are mere futile expedients which have
oftener been proposed than carried into practice. I have not much faith in
any plan that has been discussed, but have adopted a very simple and costless
method in my own business, it is simply to place the label longitudinally in¬
stead of across the bottle ; this difference is so apparent that casual observers
frequently notice it. No person, however careless, but must have his atten¬
tion arrested by this distinction; nor could he, without intention, fill a
draught Anal with laudanum instead of black draught.

I cannot conclude this notice without alluding to a very common error in
speaking of accidents which are not really such. An accident may be de¬
fined as an event occurring without any previous warning, or which could
not be expected to happen in the ordinary course of things, or the result of
principles over which we have no control, as wind, electricity, or fire.

The proper term to use in most cases set down as accidents is inadvertency
- — in and advertens — not turning the mind to — negligence — the root and

LIQUOR PERM PERCIILOKIDI.

► O

>o L

■cause of accident. If this distinction vrere more strictly insisted on, I be¬
lieve we should less frequently see reports of “ Death by Poison.”

Richmond , October 19, 1864.

LIQUOIl FEBI1I PERCHLOBIDI.

TO THE EDITOR OF TIIE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — In a lecture on iron bjT Mr. E. Davies, F.C.S., an abstract of which
appeared in the June number of the Journal, the lecturer, while explaining
how “ the perchloride is best prepared,” is reported to have said: — ‘‘‘The
process given in the Pharmacopoeia is not good, as a sample prepared in strict
conformity to its directions gave a dark liquid containing protosalt and nitric
acid. On heating more strongly, the solution became muddy from formation
of a subsalt.”

The next number contained a letter from Mr. A. Utley, endorsing the above
statement. He found, however, “ that] if twelve instead of ten ounces of hy¬
drochloric acid (sp. g. 1T7) are used ... a liquor is obtained which will an¬
swer the tests given,” etc., — the reason being that “ymofochloride of iron
requires half as much more chlorine as it already contains to convert it into
perchloride.”

The process in my hands has answered better, and I do not regard the
addition above suggested as an improvement.

The quantity of chlorine contained in the hydrochloric acid of the formula
is nearly 50 grains greater than that required to convert the whole of the iron
into perchloride. Put as this is only a scanty surplus, the necessity of avoid¬
ing loss as far as practicable is obvious. The nitric acid is in considerable excess,
as according to the equation, GFeCl T 3HC1 + H 05 — 3Fe2Cl3 \ 3HO -f H 02,
-scarcely 41 fluid drachms of it take part in the reaction. The temperature
required to complete the decomposition is so low towards the end of the pro¬
cess in question, that it seems hardly likely a “ dark liquid containing proto¬
salt*” should result from failure in this respect.

To give an experiment : — 2 ounces of flue bright iron binding-wire, cut
into short lengths, were introduced into a long-necked flask and treated with
10 ounces of hydrochloric acid of correct strength , diluted with 5 ounces of
water, the flask being partially closed by a loosely-fitting stopper. After the
lapse of twelve hours, a “ gentle heat ” was applied to complete the solution
of the metal. The liquor was now poured into a capacious evaporating-dish,
the nitric acid diluted with the rinsings of the flask added, the whole heated
sufficiently to perfect the decomposition and then evaporated to the proper
bulk. The product possessed the characters ascribed to it in the Pharmaco
poeia, except that it was not quite “ without smell.”

A small quantity of this liquor diluted and heated was mixed with a slight
excess of ammonia. The precipitate washed until The washings were free
from chlorine, then dried and ignited, gave Fe203 30‘30 grains. To the filtrate
and washings acidified with nitric acid, solution of nitrate of silver was added,,
The precipitated AgCl, alter washing, drying, and heating to incipient fusion,
weighed 162’34 grains. These weights give the proportion of 56 iron to
106 ‘03 chlorine, and show a deficiency of the latter in. the whole batch of
rather more than 7 grains, which would leave about 4 grains of iron “unpro¬
vided for.” To another accurately measured portion of the liquor, diluted
and heated, alkaline solution of known strength was added from a burette to
.aint alkaline reaction. Deducting the quantity required for combination

332

POISONOUS PRINCIPLE OP BITTER CASSAVA ROOT.

with, the known weight of chlorine from the whole quantity used, the differ¬
ence, calculated for nitric acid, gave a total of 63 grains, — B. P. strength.

Allowing 2 grains for impurity of the iron, the above figures give the fol¬
lowing as the composition of this sample of Liquor Ferri Percliloridi : —

Percliloride of Iron . 2521 grains.

Pernitrate of Iron . 17 „

Nitric Acid, 3 110,2 N 05 .... 47 „

Water, sufficient to make up ... 10 fluid ounces.

If the process be less carefully performed, the amount of free acid will of
course be less and that of the pernitrate of iron greater than in this instance.
But the presence of a little of this last salt cannot, I presume, be reckoned
of much consequence, as, according to Pereira, “ altogether this preparation
resembles in its medicinal properties the sesquichloride of iron.”

The tincture made with this liquor is similar in appearance to a good sam¬
ple of the P. L. preparation. The colour is, however, a shade lighter and the
taste perceptibly more acid.

I>r. Attfield, it appears, advocates the use of the anhydrous perchloride, and
considers its preparation a very simple matter ; and so, no doubt, it is to a good
manipulator, but I suspect that many of us would find it rather a troublesome
business. If great purity were the sole desideratum, it would perhaps be the
best plan ; but as a 'pharmaceutical process, that of the Pharmacopoeia seems
to me to deserve the preference. Only the simplest apparatus is needed
for its performance, and by the exercise of a small amount of care and skill it
yields a product of uniform strength, and, to borrow a phrase from the last-
named gentleman, “ sufficiently pure as a medicinal remedy.”

[Respectfully yours,

John T. Miller.

Sheffield, October 19, 1864.

POISONOUS PRINCIPLE OP BITTER CASSAVA ROOT.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — On my return from the Pharmaceutical Meeting on Wednesday
evening, I turned to Gray’s Supplement, 5th edition, 1831, page 39, and
found —

“ Bitter Cassava ( Jatropha Manihot ) root, full of an acrid, poisonous,
milky juice, separable by expression, or corrected by roasting, thus yielding
a nutritive farina ; also by boiling the juice, which is used as a sauce and
made into soy.”

Beasley’s ‘ Pocket Formulary ’ mentions this sauce under the name of
Cassareep.

Royle says the juice is acrid and poisonous, owing, it is said, to the pre¬
sence of hydrocyanic acid, and probably also to an acrid principle.

Gray’s testimony seems to favour the idea that the only active matter pre¬
sent in the bitter cassava- root juice is the hydrocyanic acid, unless the acrid
principle is also poisonous and dissipated by boiling. While a chemical
analysis of this root and the red earth spoken of by Dr. Daniell will doubt¬
less be very instructive and interesting, we cannot dissemble the fact that the
chemistry of organic substances, so far as that science is treated of in our
schools, is a very finite affair, and for medicine sadly wants associating with
physiological tests to be really useful to the medical practitioner ; and, to ad-

THE METIIYLIC ALCOHOL TEST.

OOO
00 6

vance the science of medicine, we cannot altogether divorce pharmacy from
physiological research, any more than a physician can neglect pharmacy and
materia medica in favour of his pathology, or divorce animal chemistry
from his physiology.

It surely cannot be wrong for a chemist, any more than it is for a barrister,
to be versed in the first principles of physiology. Every intelligent man, in
fact, should know the laws of his constitution ; and the chemist, above all, who
is too apt to overrate the powers of his pet science, should have some smat¬
tering of a science so closely allied and so intimately and transcendentally
mingled with it.

We cannot value too highly papers like Dr. Daniell’s at our evening meet¬
ings. In more favoured climes than our own for vegetation, richer in medicinal
virtues, yet undiscovered by a Wallich or a Itoyle, gems may yet be found to
adorn the science of medicine, — like quinine, morphia, and strychnia. I have
had repeated testimony from men who have had excellent opportunities of
judging in India and Ceylon, that even the untutored natives use plants we
have no knowledge of in our class-books, to alleviate their sufferings ; and I
feel certain there is a vast field of research before us, if we could organize
•some plan to obtain more information about these matters from our immense
possessions and other quarters of the globe, and the cultivated intellect brought
to bear upon them, which is now but too often exerted uselessly to dress up
our own minerals in new garments, to amuse the doctor longing for more re¬
liable remedies, and tantalizing us.

Consumption, cancer, scarlatina, the innumerable maladies of the alimen¬
tary tube, the motley skin-diseases, and other disorders of a still more loath¬
some class, still remain an opprobrium to the healing art, and cry to the same
intelligence for help that has afforded the means to stem the torrent of the
plague, the cruel variola, and modified at least the awful cholera.

There is indeed much to be done, and to do the work of our generation the
doctor and the pharmaceutist must go even more hand-in-hand ; and the more
we chemists learn, the less shall we be disposed to tread on the heels of the
medical practitioner, who, with even his long and varied training, can bring
so little to resist the progress of diseases that so often slay prematurely our
neighbours and our dearest friends.

“ Ignorance makes a lion, where wisdom would a lamb create.”

When we consider what the inorganic world has furnished us, how much
may we anticipate from a correct and extended appreciation of the organic !
that from whence we derive our common sustenance seems naturally that
most pregnant with our specific food. We seek not the philosopher’s stone,
but the Rosetta stone of organic medicine is a prize worth seeking for. And
who will be our Napoleon P

I am, your obedient servant,

George Mee.

8, Torrington Place, Gordon Square,

November 6, 1861.

THE METIIYLIC ALCOHOL TEST.

TO TIIE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir,— Had I been so well acquainted with a Mr. E. Reynolds’s proposed me¬
thod for detecting “wood spirit” previous to the meeting of Conference, as
since, I should in all probability have adopted my usual course of saying nothing,
unless of a favourable nature, or until a given subject has been fairly tried.

ON THE METAL INDIUM.

QO A

oo4j

Mr. Reynolds’s letter now makes it imperative upon me to state that his pro¬
posed method is of such a complicated and unsatisfactory character that it is
open to serious objections ; hence I presume it was, that the following question
was proposed by Conference, “ Required, an easy method of detecting methylic
alcohol in the presence of ethylic alcohol?” Mr. Reynolds has forgotten to
state where his proposed method may be found. I herewith supply the omis¬
sion, — “ Wood spirit and its detection,” ‘ Pharmaceutical Journal ’ for December,
1868. I need scarcely observe that my answer to the above question of Con¬
ference is published in full in the November Journal.

John Tuck.

Wilton, near Salisbury , Nov. 19, 1864.

PRAUD AND DEATH.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — A singular circumstance has occurred this last month in the neighbour¬
hood of Temple Bar, which will perhaps be interesting to other chemists, who
have not taken active measures in the case, but who may have suffered more or
less by a similar fraud, and may have wondered where the miserable trickster
has ensconced himself. Alas ! ere they again glance through the pages of the
ever welcome Pharmaceutical Journal, he has his quietus found, in the grave.

It appears that a man representing himself as a surgeon’s dispenser, of a
shabby-fine appearance (or I may say,

“ Meagre were his looks,

Sharp misery had worn him to the hones”),

has been in the habit of obtaining drugs, such as morphia and chloroclyne, from
chemists by means of forged orders purporting to be from a doctor or surgeon
close by. As a matter of course, it was soon discovered tc be a mode of swind¬
ling, and a warrant of apprehension was taken out at Bow Street. On the
evening of November 15th he presented a second order at Mr. Pedler’s, Fleet
Street, and was there detained and identified by Mr. Huggins, Strand, who at
once gave him into custody.

Now comes the most extraordinary part of the case. During the time the
prosecutors and witnesses were waiting at the Old Bailey, expecting every
minute the case to come on, having been before the grand jury, a message came
down from Mr. Jonas, the governor of the prison, to say the prisoner had ceased
to exist. We leave the case in the hands of our medical friends as to the cause
of his death ; suffice it to say, it is generally supposed he was an opium eater,
and died for want of his daily stimulus.

Apologizing for intruding upon your valuable space,

I am, your obedient servant,

William Wiiysall.

199, Fleet Street, November 23, 1864.

ON THE METAL INDIUM AND RECENT DISCOVERIES ON SPECTRUM

ANALYSIS.

( Delivered at the lloyal Institution, by Professor Poscoe.)

Since the spring of 1862, when the speaker delivered a course of three lectures in this-
Institution on the Spectrum Discoveries, much has been done to increase our knowledge
of Spectrum Analysis ; but the whole subject is still in its infancy, and the further we-
advance the more we find remains to be known.

I

ON THE METAL INDIUM. 335

No less than four new elementary bodies have already been discovered by means of
Spectrum Analysis : Caesium and Rubidium, by Bunsen ; Thallium, by Mr. Crookes ;
and Indium, by Reich and Richter, of Freiberg ; whilst the foundations of Solar Che¬
mistry, laid by Kirchhoff, have been rendered more secure by the observations of Cooke,
in America ; Donati, in Italy ; and Miller and Huggins, in England.

Caesium and rubidium were at first only found in one or two mineral waters ; they
have since been shown to be widely distributed in the vegetable as well as in the mine¬
ral kingdom ; they have been obtained in considerable quantities from the beet-root
salt, and found in the ashes of tea and coffee, thus proving that they occur commonly in
oil ; whilst, quite recently, M. Pisani has found that a mineral, called pollux, occurring
in Elba, contains 34 per cent, of caesium : this metal having been mistaken for potash in
the analyses which had previously been made of this substance. Thallium and its com¬
pounds have been obtained in large quantities, and their properties fully investigated by
Crookes and Lamy ; whilst this metal has not only been found in iron pyrites, but also
in large quantities, by Schrotter, in the mica of Zinnwald, and in lepidolite, from Mora¬
via. Thallium has been shown byBoettgerto occur, together with caesium and rubidium,
in the mineral water of Nauheim, near Frankfort. Boettger has, moreover, shown that
thallium is contained in the vegetable kingdom : he has found it in the yeast of the vi¬
nous fermentation ; so that thallium exists in wine, also in treacle, tobacco, and chicory.
If 4 lb. of any of these substances are employed, a sufficient quantity of thallium can
be obtained as the double platinum-chloride to enable its presence to be easily detected.
Professor Bunsen has informed the speaker that he has found a mother liquor from the
Hartz, which contains so much thallium, that the iodide can be obtained by direct pre¬
cipitation at the rate of 10s. per lb. The speaker exhibited the spectrum of the Nauheim
salt, which contains the three new elements ; the spectrum of each metal is well seen
by placing the mixed platino-chlorides in the electric arc.

Drs. Reich and Richter, of Freiberg, in Saxony, have lately discovered a fourth new
metal in the Freiberg zinc blende.* This metal has been termed Indium, from the two
splendid indigo-blue lines which characterize its spectrum. Through the kindness of
Professor Richter, the speaker had been placed in possession of a few grains of this new
metal, the spectrum of which was exhibited by the electric lamp. In its chemical rela¬
tions it resembles zinc, with which it is associated in nature ; the metal can be reduced
before the blowpipe to a malleable bead, when it forms a soft, ductile bead, which im¬
parts streaks to paper on rubbing, and possesses a colour lighter than that of lead, being
about the same as that of tin. The metallic bead dissolves in hydrochloric acid with
the evolution of hydrogen. The oxide of indium is formed as a yellow fusible incrusta¬
tion when the metal is heated before the blowpipe on charcoal. Indium differs from
zinc in the insolubility of the hydrated oxide in excess of both ammonia and caustic
potash. This new element may be separated from all the known metals by precipita¬
ting its sulphide in alkaline solution, and by throwing down the hydrated oxide first
with ammonia and then with caustic potash ; and, lastly, by precipitating the iron with
dilute solution of bicarbonate of sodium. The hydrated oxide of indium then remains
in solution in the pure state. Indium may be readily detected when present in its pure
compounds by the deep purple tint which these impart to flame. The characteristic
lines are, however, best seen when a small bead of indium salt is placed between two
poles, from which an electric spark passes ; the lines In a and In £ fall respectively upon
divisions 107\5, and 140 of the photographic scale of the spectroscope, when Na = 50,
and Sr 5 = 100'5. Up to the present time, indium has been only found in the very
smallest quantity, and hence the atomic weight of the metal and the composition of its
salts have not yet been determined ; in fact, the speaker was led to infer that Professor
Richter sent him nearly all the compound of the metal remaining from the investigation
of its properties, for the purpose of illustrating this discourse. It has only as yet been
detected in the zinc blende of Freiberg ; but it will, doubtless, soon be discovered in
larger quantities, and its compounds more closely studied.

As regards the spectra of the well-known metals, our knowledge has been much in¬
creased by the publication of the second series of Kirchhoff’s maps of the solar spectrum
and the spectra of the chemical elements (Macmillan and Co.). In these, Kirchhoff has
marked the position of the bright lines of no less than thirty metals, and indicated those

* Phil. Mag. for March, 1864, 4th ser. vol. xxvii. p. 199.

ON THE METAL INDIUM.

336

which, as they coincide with a dark solar line, reveal the presence of the particular metal
in the sun's atmosphere. Kirchhoff’s maps now embrace the whole of the visible spec¬
trum from the line a in the extreme red, to the line g in the indigo ; beyond these
limits the intensity of the light passing through his three prisms became too slight to
enable him to draw the lines. The observations thus made of coincidences of metallic
with solar lines in the red and indigo portions of the spectrum, confirm the conclusions
drawn by Kirchhoff from his earlier observations, with the exception of the presence of
potassium. This metal is not seen in the solar atmosphere ; the potassium red line is
not coincident with the solar line a, as it was supposed to be, nor with any other dark
solar line. No metal, in addition to those previously observed, was found to possess
lines coincident with solar lines, and hence the number of bodies known to be present in
the sun has not been increased.

The experiments of Mr. Huggins on the spectra of the metallic elements, made with
an instrument of six prisms, although not yet published in full, promise to add greatly
to our knowledge on this subject : one interesting observation may be cited ; viz. that
the spectrum of sodium has been found to contain three pairs of lines in addition to
those corresponding to the dark double line d, and that these also coincide with dark
solar lines, adding to the evidence previously possessed of the -existence of sodium in
the sun. The audience had been already made acquainted with Dr. Miller’s important
researches on the photographic spectra of the metals, and with the valuable observations
made by himself and Mr. Huggins on the spectra of the fixed stars. Connected with
this part of the subject may be mentioned Professor Stokes’s interesting investigation on
the long spectrum of the electric spark, in which he shows that the vapour of certain
metals, such as iron and magnesium, when heated by the passage of an electric spark,
emit rays of so high a degree of refraugibility, that they are situated at a distance from
the lines h, ten times as great as that of the "whole visible spectrum from a to h. These
highly refrangible rays only become visible at the highest temperatures, and they are not
seen in the solar spectrum, although the less refrangible iron apd magnesium lines are
present ; hence it has been suggested that the temperature of the sun must be lower
than that of the electric spark in which these lines are developed. This conclusion ap¬
pears legitimate only if we know that these rays of high refrangibility are not absorbed
in passing through our atmosphere ; and an investigation of great interest here presents
itself for those who ascend into the higher regions of the atmosphere.

The observations of Dr. Robinson upon metallic spectra have led this astronomer to
doubt the validity of some of the conclusions arrived at by Ivirchholf concerning the
existence of a separate and non-coincident set of lines in the spectrum of each metal.
It seems, however, that Dr. Robinson employed only one prism and a low magnifying
power, so that we must conclude that the observations from which he deduces the coin¬
cidence of certain lines as proving their identity in several metals, cannot impugn the
results obtained by help of a larger instrument of sufficient power to resolve these appa¬
rent coincidences.

The original statement made by Bunsen and Kirchhoff concerning the spectra of the
metals still remains unopposed by a single well-established fact, — the statement, namely,
that when a metal is heated up to a certain point, the spectrum of its incandescent
vapour contains a number of fine bright lines which do not change their position with
increase of temperature, and are not coincident with the lines of any other known
substance. There is, however, no doubt of the fact that in the spectra of certain
metals or metallic compounds new lines are developed by increase of temperature ; and
also that certain metals, as calcium, barium, and strontium, yield spectra of two kinds ;
one of these, seen at the lower temperature, and consisting of broad bands, being re¬
solved at a higher temperature into bright lines. These bright lines do not undergo any
further change on elevation of temperature, and characterize the true metallic spectrum,
whilst the band-spectrum is probably produced by the incandescent vapour of a metallic
compound which is decomposed at a higher temperature.

Our knowledge of the spectra of the non-metallic elements is, as yet, in a very in¬
complete state. To the researches of Pliicker we are especially indebted for information
on this subject ; he has shown that each metalloid possesses a peculiar and characteristic
spectrum ; hydrogen, for instance, yielding only three bright lines, all of which are co¬
incident with dark solar lines ; and nitrogen exhibiting a complicated series of bands.
Pliicker has lately come to the conclusion that many non-metallic elementary bodies,

ON THE METAL INDIUM.

3^7

and among them sulphur and nitrogen, exhibit two distinctly different spectra when the
temperature is altered, in this respect resembling the metals of the alkaline earths.
This difference Pliicker ascribes to the existence of these elements in two allotropic con¬
ditions.

A singular relation with regard to what have been termed the carbon lines was ob¬
served by the speaker. It has been stated that all the various forms of carbon com¬
pounds, "when in the state of incandescent gas, yield identical spectra. This proves not
to be the case ; the spectrum obtained from the flame of olefiant gas is different from
that obtained by the electric discharge through a vacuum of the same gas ; whilst the
spark passing through a cyanogen vacuum produces a spectrum identical with that of
the olefiant gas-flame, and through the carbonic oxide vacuum a spectrum coincident
with that of the spark through olefiant gas-vacuum.

As an illustration of the application of abstract scientific principles to useful practical
purposes, the speaker stated that he had lately applied spectrum analysis to the manu¬
facture of steel by the Bessemer process. One of the great drawbacks to the successful
practical working of Mr. Bessemer’s beautiful process for converting cast-iron directly
into steel, has been the difficulty of determining the exact point at which the blast of
air passing through the molten metal is to be stopped. The conversion of five tons of
cast-iron into cast-steel usually occupies from fifteen to twenty minutes, according to
the varying conditions of weather, quality of the iron, strength of the blast, etc. If
the blast be continued for ten seconds after the proper point has been attained, or if it
be discontinued ten seconds before that point is reached, the charge becomes either so
viscid that it cannot be poured from the converting vessel into the moulds, or it contains
so much carbon as to crumble under the hammer. Up to the present time, the manu¬
facturer has judged of the condition of the metal by the general appearance of the
flame which issues from the mouth of the converting vessel. Long experience enables
the workman thus to detect, with more or less exactitude, the point at which the blast
must be cut off. It appeared to the speaker that an examination of the spectrum of this
flame might render it possible to determine this point with scientific accuracy, and that
thus an insight might be gained into the somewhat complicated chemical changes which
occur in this conversion of cast-iron into steel. At the request of Messrs. John Brown
and Co., of the Atlas Works, Sheffield, the speaker investigated the subject, and suc¬
ceeded in obtaining very satisfactory and interesting results. The instrument employed
was an ordinary Steinheil’s spectroscope, furnished with photographic scale and lamp,
and provided with a convenient arrangement for directing the tube carrying the slit
towards any wished-for part of the flame, and for clamping the whole instrument in
the required position. By help of such an arrangement the spectrum of the flame can
be most readily observed, and the changes which periodically occur can be most accu¬
rately noted.

The light which is given off by the flame in this process is most intense — indeed, a
more magnificent example of combustion in ox}rgen cannot be imagined ; and a cursory
examination of the flame spectrum in its various phases reveals complicated masses of
dark absorption bands and bright lines, showing that a variety of substances are present
in the flame in the state of incandescent gas. By a simultaneous comparison of these
lines in the flame-spectrum with the well-known spectra of certain elementary bodies,
the speaker has succeeded in detecting the presence of the following substances in the
Bessemer flame : — Sodium, potassium, lithium, iron, carbon, phosphorus, hydrogen, and
nitrogen.

A further investigation, with an instrument of higher dispersive and magnifying
powers than that employed, will doubtless add to the above list ; and an accurate and
prolonged study of this spectrum will probably yield very important information respect¬
ing the nature of the reactions occurring within the vessel. Already the investigation
is so far advanced that the point in the condition of the metal at which it has been
found necessary to stop the blast can be ascertained with precision ; and thus, by the
application of the principles of Spectrum Analysis, that which previously depended on
the quickness of vision of a skilled eye has become a matter of exact scientific ob¬
servation.

Another interesting practical application of our knowledge concerning the properties
•of the kind of light which certain bodies emit when heated, is the employment of the
light evolved by burning magnesium wire for photographic purposes. The spectrum

333

A COLOURLESS VARNISH.

of this light is exceedingly rich in violet and ultra-violet rays, due partly to the incande¬
scent vapour of magnesium, and partly to the intensely-heated magnesia formed by the
combustion. Professor Bunsen and the speaker, in 1859, determined the chemically ac¬
tive power possessed by this light, and compared it with that of the sun ; and they sug¬
gested the application of this light for the purpose of photography. They shoived*
that a burning surface of magnesium wire, which, seen from a point at the sea’s level,
has an apparent magnitude equal to that of the sun, effects on that point the same
chemical action as the sun would do if shining from a cloudless sky at a height of 9° 53
above the horizon. On comparing the visible brightness of these two sources of light,
it was found that the brightness of the sun’s disc, as measured by the eye, is 524*7 times
as great as that of burning magnesium- wire when the sun’s zenith distance is G7° 22' ;
whilst at the same zenith distance, the sun’s chemical brightness is only 3G*G times as
great. Hence the value of this light as a source of the chemically active rays for pho¬
tographic purposes becomes at once apparent.

Professor Bunsen and the speaker state in the memoir above referred to, that, “ the
steady and equable light evolved by magnesium wire, burning in the air, and the im¬
mense chemical action thus produced, render this source of light valuable as a simple
means of obtaining a given amount of chemical illumination, and that the combustion
of this metal constitutes so definite and simple a source of light for the purpose of
photo-chemical measurement, that the wide distribution of magnesium becomes desira¬
ble. The application of this metal as a source of light may even become of technical
importance. A burning magnesium-wire of the thickness of 0*297 millimetre, evolves,
according to the measurement we have made, as much light as 74 stearine candles of
which five go to the pound. If this light lasted one minute, 0*987 metre of wire, weigh¬
ing 0*120 grammes, would be burnt. In order to produce a light equal to 74 candles
burning for ten hours, whereby about 20 lb. of stearine are consumed, 72*2 grammes (2^
ounces) of magnesium would be required. The magnesium wrire can be easily prepared
by forcing out the metal from a heated steel-press having a fine opening at bottom. This
wire might be rolled up in coils on a spindle, which could be made to revolve by clock¬
work ; and thus the end of the wire, guided by passing through a groove or between
rollers, could be continually pushed forward into a gas or spirit-lamp flame, in which it
would burn.”

It afforded the speaker great pleasure to state that the foregoing suggestion had now
been actually carried out. Mr. Edward Sonstadt has succeeded in preparing magnesium
on the large scale, and great credit is due to this gentleman for the able manner in
which he has brought the difficult subject of the metallurgy of magnesium to its present
very satisfactory position.

Some fine specimens of crude and distilled magnesium, weighing 3 lbs., were ex¬
hibited as manufactured by Mr. Sonstadt’s process, by Messrs. Mellor and Co., of Man¬
chester.

The wire is now to be had at the comparatively low rate of 3c?. per foot ;f and half
an inch of the wire evolves, on burning, light enough to transfer a positive image to a
dry collodion plate ; whilst, by the combustion of 10 grains, a perfect photographic por¬
trait may be taken, so that the speaker believed that for photographic purposes alone the
magnesium light will prove most important. The photo-chemical power of the light
was illustrated by taking a portrait during the discourse. In doing this the speaker was
aided by Mr. Brothers, photographer, of Manchester, who was the first to use the light
for portraiture.

H. E. E.

A COLOUKLESS TARNISH.

At the time the process of varnish-making by Lulling was laid before the Society of
Arts, Mr. Eield put in a claim, when both the processes and products were found to
answer the intended purpose, and the claimants were awarded twenty guineas each.
Mr. Field describes his process as follows : — Six ounces of shellac, coarsely powdered.

* Phil. Trans. 1859, p. 920.

f From Messrs. Johnson and Matthey, of Hatton Garden.

THE AMERICAN PHARMACEUTICAL ASSOCIATION.

339

are to be dissolved by gentle beat in a pint of spirits of wine ; to this is to be added a
bleaching liquor made by dissolving carbonate of potash, and then impregnating it
with chlorine gas till the solution becomes slightly coloured. Of this bleaching liquor
add one or two ounces to the spirituous solution of lac, and stir the whole well together.
Effervescence takes place. When this ceases add more of the bleaching liquor, and
thus proceed till the colour of the mixture has become pale. A second bleaching
liquor is now to be added, made by diluting muriatic acid with thrice its bulk of
water, and dropping into it pulverized red lead till the last added portions do not
become white. Of this acid bleaching liquor small quantities at a time are to be
added to the half-bleached lac solution, allowing the effervescence which takes place
on each addition to cease before a fresh portion is poured in. This is to bo continued
until the lac, now white, separates from the liquor. The supernatant fluid is now to
be poured away, the lac well washed in repeated waters, and Anally wrung as dry a3
possible in a cloth. The lac obtained by the foregoing process is to be dissolved in a
pint of alcohol, more or less, according to the required strength of the varnish ; and,
after standing for some time in a gentle heat, the clear liquor — which is the varnish —
is to be poured off from the sediment. When the processes of Tuning and Field came
before the Society of Arts, the editor of the ‘Franklin Journal’ (Philadelphia) made
known the process of Dr. Hare, in which he stated that “ all the objects sought for
Avere perfectly attained, and left nothing to desire, save on the score of economy.”
The following Avas Dr. Hare’s process : — Dissolve in an iron kettle one part of pearlask
in about eight parts of water, add one part of seed or shellac, and heat the whole to
ebullition. When the lac is dissolved, cool the solution, and impregnate it with
chlorine till the lac is all precipitated. The precipitate is white, but its colour is
deepened by washing and consolidation. Dissolve in alcohol. Lac bleached by this
process yields a varnish as free from colour as any copal. — British Journal of Bkoio-
graniiy.

THE BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE AND THE AMERICAN

PHARMACEUTICAL ASSOCIATION.

At the first sitting of the Conference at Bath, September 14, the President stated that
he had received a communication from the Secretary of the American Pharmaceutical
Association, informing him that an address of salutation and gratulation had been agreed
upon, an engrossed copy of which had been fonvarded to the present meeting. The
President further explained that, owing to some accident, the said engrossed copy had
not come to hand, but recommended that the extract from the volume of Proceedings,
relating to the resolution, should be accepted in its place, Avhich Avas immediately
agreed to, and the Secretaries Avere ordered to draw up the draft of a reply, to be sub¬
mitted for the approval of a future sitting.

At'the final sitting of the Conference, on September 19th, it Avas determined that the
following resolution should be fonvarded to the American Pharmaceutical Association,
in reply to its address : —

Resolved : — That the members of the British Pharmaceutical Conference have re¬
ceived Avith much satisfaction the friendly greetings of their brethren of the American
Pharmaceutical Association. They appreciate these expressions of goodwill the more
highly, from their being spontaneously offered at so early a stage in the existence of
their own Society, and they see, in this circumstance, evidence that their American
brethren are Avatchful observers of all endeavours for the advancement of pharmacy
wherever made. The members of this Conference trust that such an example will not
be without its influence in this country, and desire to record their feeling that the
scientific labours of American pharmaceutists are worthy of being more extensively
knoAvn in Great Britain than has been the case hitherto.

“ This conference heartily reciprocates the expression of feelings of interest and good¬
will toAvards the American Pharmaceutical Association, and will gladly embrace all
opportunities for communication with its members, several of whom are honourably
known in England through their scientific researches.”

340

MISCELLANEA.

Accidental Poisoning by Strychnia. — An inquest was commenced at York, on
Monday, November 21, respecting the death of Elizabeth Nuttall, wife of Henry Nut-
tall, a brass finisher, living near Oxford Street, London. Deceased was a native of York,
and was visiting there at the time of her death, for the benefit of her native air. For
twelve or thirteen years she has been subject to palpitation of the heart, and during the
whole of that time had taken morphia for its relief. Her husband had also, from ill¬
ness, been addicted to morphia, taking as much as thirty grains a day ; but believing that
it did neither himself nor his wife good, he gradually broke off the habit. On Saturday
afternoon, Mrs. Nuttall sent to the shop of Mr. Hardman, druggist, of York, for five
grains of morphia, and her daughter brought back with her a powder closely resembling
it. Mrs. Nuttall at once took it in water, but instead of finding relief, was attacked
with what at first appeared to be spasms, but which subsequently, from the arching of the
back, the clenching of the hands, and other symptoms, led to the belief that she was
labouring under the influence of strychnia. She died in half an hour from the time of
taking the powder. Deceased’s daughter said her mother, before taking the powder, re¬
marked that it swam on the surface of the water, instead of sinking to the bottom as
usual. She was served with the pow'der by a Christopher Powell, who had not served
her before. At the time the daughter went for the powder, Mr. Hardman -was absent,
and the bottle from whence the poison was served was in a drawer with other poisons,
one of which was strychnia. Powell is a porter in Mr. Hardman’s establishment, can
read labels, and had frequently served various other articles before. The jury adjourned
the inquest for the purposes of a post mortem examination and analysis of the contents
of the stomach.

Fatal Explosion at a Match Manufactory. — On Saturday, Nov. 5th, an in¬
quest was held relative to the death of Michael Murphy, aged 12 years, who lost his
life by an explosion in a match manufactory at Stratford. It appeared, from the evi¬
dence of Philip Debor, a German, and foreman at Messrs. Smith’s factory, that “ Vesu-
vian lights ” were being made, and that the materials in which the matches were dipped,
and which consisted of gum, phosphorus, nitre, chlorate of potash, Venetian red, and
plaster of Paris, were being stirred with a stick by the deceased, when the explosion
took place. Witness said he told the boy to “ stir him von leetle bit,” but supposed he
must have struck the compound violently. It appeared, however, that the chlorate of
potash had not been moistened, as wras generally the case. The deceased was the eldest
of fifteen children employed in making these matches. The jury returned the following
verdict: — “That the deceased died from asphyxia through an accidental explosion,
while he was engaged in stirring a composition for the manufacture of ‘ Vesuvian
lights and the jury consider the manufacturer is open to censure for entrusting such
combustible materials to children of so young an age, and the jury recommend that in
future chlorate of potash should be wetted with water, and so rendered non-explosive,
before being mixed with the other ingredients of the compound.”

Sending: Dangerous Materials by Railway. — At the Worship Street Police
Office, Mr. Thomas E. Collyer, of Gislingham, in Suffolk, and of Ashley’s Hotel, Covent
Garden, was charged before Mr. Cooke, at the instance of Mr. William Henry Kent,
Superintendent of Police of the Great Eastern Kailway, with conveying in a break car¬
riage of the company explosive goods, without distinctly marking their nature on the
outside of the package containing them, and without giving proper notice of them to
the servants of the company. It was stated that on the arrival of the train at Shore¬
ditch, the box was found to be on fire. The defendant, who wras not aware of the legal
consequences of his act, under the Kailway Clauses Act, a penalty not exceeding £20
for such an offence, — regretted the accident should have occurred, but it was purely an
accident, as the whole of the chemicals had been carefully packed in sawdust, but, un¬
fortunately, the stopper of this bottle of nitric acid had not been so securely luted as it
should have been, and had come out, and so, gas being generated, it had led to the igni¬
tion of the packing and burning of the box, as it then appeared.

Mr. Cooke said, as these proceedings were chiefly intended to act as a warning, and
no particular penalty was pressed for against the defendant, who probably thought he
was entitled to carry such articles in this way, he should sentence him to pay a penalty

MISCELLANEA.

341

of 5 s. for the offence itself, and 2s. for the summons, and a guinea additional for the ex¬
penses of the company’s solicitor.

In another case, Mr. Henry Joseph, a pipe-maker, Houndsditch, was prosecuted by
the London and North-Western Railway Company for having sent by their railway a
quantity of combustible goods without indicating that they were of a dangerous cha¬
racter. The charge for the package if marked “ dangerous ” would have been 42s., but
by the omission of this precaution it was charged only 2s. 6d. At one of the receiving-
houses a strong smell of phosphorus having attracted attention, the package was opened,
and found to contain a quantity of articles labelled “ Blazing Fuzees.” The defendant
was fined £20 and costs.

Poisoning by Tobacco. — A young man, named Richard Edmondson, a cotton-
piecer at Messrs. Garnett and Horsfall’s, Low Moor, near Clitheroe, died somewhat sud¬
denly, with all the symptoms of having been poisoned. His pulse was quick and feeble,
his eyes dilated and insensible to light ; the heart was perfectly paralysed, his muscles
rigid, and he was unable to swallow. This was his condition before death. The
coroner ordered a post mortem examination of the body to be made by Dr. Scott, of
Clitheroe. He found the vessels of the brain swollen and filled with black blood, toge¬
ther with extravasation of blood in the ventricles of the brain. “ These appearances,”
he deposed, “ led me to conclude that the deceased had taken some narcotic poison, as
we find them in persons having taken opium. I attribute the appearance of the blood¬
vessels on the brain to narcotic poison. The deceased was very much emaciated. After
hearing all the evidence, I attribute the cause of his death to the chewing of Limerick
roll tobacco and his having swallowed the juice. It is a poison that acts on the brain.
It is not used in medicine now. I should not like to give a person 30 grains of the un¬
prepared tobacco. Tobacco gains power according to the way in which it is manufac¬
tured, and the Limerick roll is exceedingly strong tobacco.” The coroner summed up,
and the jury returned a verdict “ That the deceased died from the effect of having
chewed Limerick roll tobacco and swallowing the juice thereof, which has acted upon
the stomach as a narcotic poison.”

Poisoning by Epsom Salts. — A singular case came before Mr. Humphreys,
coroner, on Tuesday evening, September 27th, at an inquest held on view of the body
of a carman named Thomas Crooks, aged 53 years. Elizabeth Crooks, 23, Radnor
Street, St. Luke’s, said, — Last Tuesday, the deceased, being ill, got some medicine
from Dr. Bletchley. After taking it he got into a state of great suffering ; his stomach
swelled enormously. He exclaimed, “ I am poisoned. The doctor’s medicine has poi¬
soned me.” He died soon afterwards. Mr. F. J. Gant, pathological anatomist to the
Royal Free Hospital, said that the deceased died from inflammation of the small in¬
testines, caused by an excessive quantity of Epsom salts. He had actually taken a
quarter of a pound of Epsom salts before he sent to Dr. Bletchley for medicine,
and the enormous quantity had poisoned him. It generated a gas in the stomach
which caused the swelling which he attributed to the doctor’s medicine. Deceased’s
wife, recalled, admitted that he had taken a quarter of a pound of salts after a
drinking-bout, but she said she knew that the quantity could have done no harm,
for he had often before taken 32 doses at one draught, and he was a man that
could stand a great deal. Mr. Scott, solicitor for Dr. Bletchley, said that he was pre¬
pared to prove that the medicine furnished by that gentleman was not poisonous in its
character. The coroner said that evidence upon that point was quite unnecessary after
the testimony of Mr. Gant and the admission of the widow of the deceased. The jury
concurred with the learned coroner, and returned a verdict “ That the deceased was
poisoned by an excessive quantity of Epsom salts taken medicinally, and not for the
purpose of destroying life.”

Death from Drinking K" aphtha. — On Monday, September 12th, Mr. Richards,
deputy coroner, held an inquest touching the death of Samuel Neal, aged 28 years.
J. Neal, brother of the deceased, said that last Saturday evening his brother returned
home to No. 4, North Street, Whitechapel. He was very ill, and he expired the next
morning. He was an assistant to a wholesale druggist, and had been addicted to drink
for the last eight years. Dr. Lewellyn said that he had made a post-mortem examination
of the deceased. The lungs were congested, and the coats of the stomach were inflamed

342

MISCELLANEA.

from drinking spirits of naphtha. The deceased had evidently been in the habit of
satisfying his craving for drink by diluting the spirits of naphtha and spirits of wine, and
drinking them. He had expired from the effects of taking an overdose of spirits of
naphtha. A verdict in accordance with the medical evidence was returned by the jury.

Suicides by Prussic Acid. — An inquest was held on Wednesday, September 7th,
at the Battersea Union, on the body of Mr. Edward Yilliers Crotty, aged 50 years, who
was at one time possessed of a large fortune, all of which however he had lost on the
turf. From the evidence of his wife, it appeared that his reduced circumstances had
affected his mind. The deceased was found lying on the grass in Battersea Park ; death
took place a few minutes after he was discovered. A bottle labelled “ poison ” was
found in his pocket. Dr. W. Pocock stated that the deceased died from the effects of
prussic acid, and that the bottle found had contained that poison. The coroner having
summed up, the jury returned a verdict of “ Suicide while in a state of temporary mental
derangement.”

On Thursday, September 8th, an inquest was "held in the" Infirmary, Newcastle-on-
Tyne, on the body of Mr. William K. Murray, brother of Sir Patrick Keith Murray,
of Ochtertyre, Perthshire. Deceased had formerly been an officer in the GOth Rifles, but
had left the regiment. Pie had come to Newcastle for a course of instruction in Messrs.
Palmer’s works, at Jarrow. On Tuesday, about midnight, he entered the billiard-rooms
of the Central Exchange, which he was in the habit of frequenting. After being there
some short time he was supplied with a glass of gin, and shortly after he was seen put¬
ting some liquid into it. As soon as he swallowed it he suddenly collapsed, and sank
with his head on one side. A medical gentleman who was present attended to him, and
while the deceased was sitting in a chair in this condition a small glass bottle was taken
out of his pocket. The bottle was empty, but it had a disagreeable smell. He was
subsequently taken to the Infirmary, where he shortly afterwards died, — in the opinion
of the medical men from the effects of swallowing prussic acid. Mr. Murray had been
in the habit of taking laudanum in considerable quantities. The jury returned a ver¬
dict “ that the deceased had died in consequence of taking a quantity of prussic acid,
administered by himself, and that there was no evidence to show the state of mind he
was in when he took it.”

Alleged Poisoning' by Cyanide of Potassium. — On Friday, August 26th,
two women, named Frances Beckenham and Mary Ann Gribbin, were found dead under
the following circumstances. The deceased were sisters, and the former lived with her
husband at 21, Albert Cottages, Mile-End New Town ; the latter was a widow, and lived
in the same neighbourhood. The evidence proved that both women were much addicted
to drinking, and that the husband of Beckenham was a poor imbecile creature com¬
pletely under their control. On the night in question the two women were found dead
in the sitting-room, and the man Beckenham crouched under a bed in an adjoining
room. The room was in disorder, and there were indications of a recent drinking-bout.
A post-mortem examination made by Dr. Gayton afforded no clue to the cause of death
in either case, but in consequence of a suspicion that death had resulted from poison,
the contents of the stomachs with parts of the liver and intestines were submitted to
Dr. Letheby for analysis. The principal witness examined was an old woman named
Lydia Goozee, who said she was asked by Beckenham to go and see them on the Tues¬
day ; that she found Gribbin complaining of pain and retching violently. Twice during
the day Goozee went out and brought them porter and gin, and on the same night
Beckenham went to a public house and took home half a gallon of beer. Dr. Letheby
deposed that he had examined the contents of the stomachs of the deceased women.
The mucous coat of that of the woman Beckenham was very much softened, and the
stomach was stained by a purple colohr. It contained a teaspoonful and a half of
thickish fluid, of a deep red colour, which was carefully analysed for poison, but nothing
was found beyond a small quantity of potash and sulpho-cyanogen. Portions of the
intestines and liver were also examined, but no poison was found. The stomach of the
woman Gribbin contained an ounce and a half of red liquid. The mucous coat was
much softened, of a red colour, with a purple stain at one end. There was no trace of
food in the stomach. The liquid in it had no peculiar odour, but on being tested for
poison yt was found to contain about forty grains of carbonate of potash and a little

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

343

sulpho-cyanogen. The intestines and liver did not furnish any evidence of poison. The
result of the analysis was that potash was present in both of the stomachs to a large
extent. It existed as carbonate of potash, and might have been taken either in the
form of caustic potash, or carbonate of potash, or cyanide of potassium. His opinion was,
from the presence of sulpho-cyanogen, that cyanide of potassium was the drug taken.
It was a deadly poison, its active principle being prussic acid, and the forty grains found
in the stomach of the woman Gribbin would represent about three grains and a tenth of
the cyanide of potassium, the commercial cyanide, as compared with that sold by drug¬
gists, being an impure preparation, containing only about twenty per cent, of cyanide.
That quantity would be quite sufficient to cause death. The not finding prussic acid
was accounted for by the decomposition of the body, which has a tendency to destroy
prussic acid. All the appearances were those of poisoning by cyanide of potassium,
and he believed that to have been the cause of death in both cases. It was used gene¬
rally by photographers. The coroner, in summing up, observed that looking at the
medical evidence, to the effect that there was no organ sufficiently diseased to account
for death, and that the deaths had all the appearance of being due to cyanide of potas¬
sium, it was for the jury to say whether it was the cause of death. If they were of that
opinion, it would be for them to consider under what circumstances it was taken. The
evidence on that point was very meagre. The jury returned a unanimous verdict that
the deceased women, Fiances Beckenham and Mary Ann Gribbin, died from the effects
of poison, but under what circumstances it was administered there was no evidence to
show.

A CASE EOH THE BENEVOLENT.

We beg to draw the attention of our readers to the case of William John A. Bentley,
whose father was a pharmaceutical chemist, and who had been a Member of the Phar¬
maceutical Societjr from its foundation.

He appears to have been, at one time, in a prosperous way of business ; but for many
years failing health had overtaken him, and with this failing health a decline in his
business. He died in June last, leaving four children quite unprovided for.

Some friends, sympathizing with the orphans, are endeavouring to obtain admission
for one of them, the subject of this notice, to the British Orphan Asylum , and we appeal
to all our brethren who have any interest in that institution to give their support at the
election which takes place next month.

The case will strongly recommend itself to the sympathy of our Members, from the
fact that the father of the candidate, although for many years possessed of the scantiest
means, never failed in the payment of his annual subscription to the Society ; and as a
result of this, his orphans will feel the advantage of the “Benevolent Fund” to the ex¬
tent the existing rules and the Fund will admit.

This affords another proof of the value and importance of that Fund, which has been
so warmly advocated in this Journal.

BOOKS RECEIVED.

A Manual of Materia Medica and Therapeutics ; including the Preparations
of the British Pharmacopceia, and many other approved Medicines. By J.
Forbes Eoyle, M.D., F.E.S., and Frederick W. Headland, M.D., B.A., F.L.S.
Fourth edition. London: John Churchill and Sons, New Burlington Street. 18G5.
(From the Publishers.)

A Treatise on Smoky Chimneys, their Cure and Prevention. By Frederick
Edwards, jun. London : Robert Hardwicke, 192, Piccadilly.

A Manual of Chemical Analysis, Qualitative and Quantitative. For the Use of
Students. Part II., Quantitative. By Henry M. Noad, Ph.JD., F.R.S., etc. London:
Lovell Reeve and Co., 5, Henrietta Street, Covent Garden. 8vo. Pp. C63. 1864.

De l’Alimentation des Enfants. Memoire de Mmc Baines, a Londres. Imprime'
dans les Annales de l’Association Internationale pour le progres des Sciences Sociales,
congres de Gand. Londres : L. Booth, 307, Regent Street.

Q I I
O i-c

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

Hyoscyamus (Brighton). — Hooper’s ‘Physician’s Yade Mecum,’ by Drs. Guy and
Harley.

Student (Liverpool) and others. — Pereira’s ‘ Manual of Materia Medica and Thera¬
peutics,’ by Farre, Bentley, and Warington, will shortly appear. The price wjll be
about 15s.

Herbarium (Norwich). — Bentley’s £ Manual of Botany,’ price 12s. 6d., and Fownes’s
‘ Manual of Chemistry,’ price 12s. 6d.

G. H. Dunmore (Penarth, South Wales). — The remedy has been extensively tried in
the hospitals in this country and abroad, and is generally regarded as valueless. See a
Paper by Professor Bentley, in the ‘Pharmaceutical Journal,’ vol. iv. n.s. p. 294.

A. Z. (Penzance). — Thq plant alluded to has a popular reputation in certain dis¬
tricts as a purgative and emetic, but its medical properties are not mentioned in any
standard work on Medical Botany.

Aqua Fontana (Leeds). — The seeds are only occasionally met with in this country.
The only way of obtaining them is to apply to your wholesale druggist. There is no
formula for an extract, and hence we cannot give the dose.

Vinegar ivithout Acetic Acid ! — A correspondent informs us that a placard to the fol¬
lowing effect may be observed at the door of an oil-shop in the New North Road,
Islington : “ Strong Pickling Vinegar, 3d. per pint — warranted not to contain any
Acetic Acid.”

u Semper Idem ” (Manchester). — 1. In the Mixture referred to, the Ammonia enters
into combination with the Iodine, and thus deprives the solution of colour. 2. Yes, —
by the diligent use of the opportunities afforded for study.

li. D. (London). — Smee’s ‘ Elements of Electro-Metallurgy,’ or Ure’s 1 Dictionary of
Arts, Manufactures,’ etc.

H. IF. — Fownes’s ‘Manual of Chemistry.’

S. IF. (Burslem). — Hoblyn’s ‘ Dictionary of Terms used in Medicine and the Col¬
lateral Sciences ’ (Whittaker and Co.).

R. L. (Merthyr). — “ Chlorodyne ” is a proprietary article, the formula for which we
are unable to give.

uPonto ” (Liverpool) is referred to the Secretary, 17, Bloomsbury Square, for the re¬
quired information.

Chemicus Juvenis (Villa Faustina). — A cement made with Isinglass and Glacial
Acetic Acid would probably answer the purpose best.

Mr. H. Barnaby (Rochester), Mr. Howden (London), are thanked for their commu¬
nications.

A. B. — We believe there is no other edition of the ‘ Pharmaceutical Latin Grammar ’
than that of 1845.

Filula (Coventry). — The article wrould be liable to the Stamp Duty ; the fact of the
recommendation having been issued separately from the article to which it refers, does
not alter the case.

The Plates, in illustration of the paper by Messrs. Deane and Brady, “ On Microscopic
Research in relation to Pharmacy,” will be given in the January number.

Errata. — Page 19G, for Noakes, Henry Thorby, read Noakes, Edward Thorby ; for
Bailey, John, read Baily, John. Page 197, for Gibbans, Thomas Gilks, read Gibbons,
Thomas Gilks.

, Instructions from Members and Associates respecting the transmission of the
Journal before the 25tli of the month, to Elias Bremridge, Secretary, 17,
Bloomsbury Square, W.C.

Advertisements (not later than the 23rd) to Messrs. Churchill, New Bur¬
lington Street. Other communications to the Editors, 17, Bloomsbury Square.

PH ARM ACE U T ICAL JOURNAL.

SECOND SERIES.

YOL. VI.— No. VII.— JANUARY 1st, 1865.

THE PROPOSED LEGISLATION AFFECTING PHARMACY.

We may be excused for once more returning to a subject which at this moment
occupies so prominent a place in the miuds of the chemists and druggists of this
country, and we are encouraged to do so by the very favourable result of the
appeal that is now being made to the members of the trade in support of the
proposed new Pharmacy Bill of the Pharmaceutical Society. England stands
almost alone among the nations of Europe in her previous disregard of the
educational qualification of dispensers of medicine ; principally perhaps, but
not wholly, because the spirit of free-trade, or rather free-trading , has long
been established here as a fundamental principle. None can deny that the ab¬
sence of restriction and surveillance has been one great cause of the present
glory and prosperity of British trade and commerce. Since the early days
of the “ City Companies or “ Guilds ” as they were originally called (save
in so far as it was necessary for fiscal purposes) there has been no interference
with, or protection to traders in general. Each craft in the beginning, and each
individual as crafts enlarged, had to stand on an individual basis, and the
wholesome effect of competition best stimulated men to that degree of excel¬
lence which is essential to success in trade.

But individual independence should not be allowed to interfere with public
safety, and we need scarcely enumerate the instances in which a prohibition is
exercised where the moral health of the State is likely to be endangered.

Physical health too has had its share of legislative care. u Cunning men,”
u Herbalists and 44 Barber-surgeons ” have given place to the physicians, apo¬
thecaries, and surgeons of the present day ; not perhaps so much by positive
prohibitory laws as by negative ones, or more still by the advance cf civili¬
zation and knowledge. The medical advisers of that day were doubtless as
far ahead of their fellow-citizens as the Colleges are at this day. Society
advances, and perfection is ever before us. When the Goldsmiths of Lom¬
bard Street sufficed for the monetary transactions of London, the Worshipful
Company of 44 Pepper ers” had charge of die quality of drugs imported into
England, and there were few separate venders of drugs. Selling medicines
was not a trade ; the man who sold also prescribed, and hence the Apothecaries
Act of 1815. Since that time progress has been even more rapid, and we can
imagine the offended dignity of an L.S.A. of 1865, if called on to dispense a
physician’s prescription for an unknown customer, much more to sell over his
counter twopenny worth of jalap, unless indeed he be one keeping an open
chemist’s shop.

An apothecary is now a 41 general practitioner,” and as has been stated in this

VOL. vi. 2 c

346

THE BENEVOLENT FUND.

Journal again and again, he has cast off the true duties pertaining to his origi¬
nal title ; they have devolved by the mere progression of the division of labour
on dispensing chemists, who have now as much need of an educational training
for their occupation as had the apothecaries of fifty years ago. Between 1815
and 1865, so rapid has been the advance of science, that it may be almost said
to equal the vast distance between old Quincy and Jonathan Pereira ! Of the
responsibility thrown on dispensers by modern changes they can best appreciate
the weight ; they know well the anxiety which besets them day by day lest
their employes should overlook an accidentally excessive dose ; so potent are
the remedies now in use that the fractional part of a grain of some of them
may carry death instead of health to an unfortunate invalid. And again, so
much is the knowledge of the power of the modern virulent poisons now popu¬
larized, that the mere retailing of drugs becomes every day a more dangerous
occupation — an occupation requiring full knowledge of their power and proper
purposes on the part of the seller, and a vast amount of clear judgment and dis¬
crimination lest he should be imposed on by persons desiring to obtain them for
criminal or suicidal purposes.

That chemists generally are now alive to these things is proved by their
willingness, and almost anxiety, to be placed under legal compulsion as to edu¬
cational qualification, as the apothecaries were in 1815. We have ample oppor¬
tunity of measuring this feeling by the returns sent up by the Local Secretaries
of the Pharmaceutical Society in approval of the proposed Bill for the regulation
of chemists and druggists ; those returns are signed not merely by Pharmaceu¬
tical Chemists, who, being on safe ground themselves, might be regarded as pre¬
judiced witnesses, but also by men entirely unconnected with the Society.
Looking through such returns as have come in, and the reports of some meetings
which have been held to discuss the subject, we see striking instances of this ;
thus at Canterbury every chemist in the place has signed in favour of the Bill ;
at Leicester all signed but one, the paper having 43 signatures ; at Brighton 45
dispensing chemists have signed out of 52, and besides these, 31 assistants have
also signed, and in Manchester 116 names are attached to the memorial, and
of that number only 37 are the names of Pharmaceutical Chemists.

That we are on the eve of attaining our long-desired object — the object for
which our Society was established and has consistently worked, we have no
doubt ; and it will be a singular coincidence if that object should be attained
exactly half a century after the Apothecaries Act, which may be called its
prototype.

Let this then cheer us on our work ; let there be no disunion, and success is
certain. There is no injustice or oppression, nay, there is even positive protec¬
tion for chemists and druggists already in business. The Apothecaries Act
left men then in practice “as they were;1’ our Bill proposes to advance the
interest of the present race at once by registration ; and all would alike benefit
by the enactment that in future no ignorant persons should step in to nibble at
the loaf, which is none too large for those who must and ought to be fed from
it. We have this advantage, that the voice of the public is with us, and especi¬
ally the voice of the medical profession.

THE BENEVOLENT EUND.

The Council have determined to make a vigorous effort on behalf of the
Benevolent Eund. In another part of this month’s issue will be found the
revised regulations. These have been carefully considered by a Special Com-

THE BENEVOLENT FUND.

347

mittee on the subject, and are so framed as to afford a wide scope to the adminis¬
tration of relief, and to place the power of electing annuitants in the hands of
Members, Associates, and subscribers.

The Council have determined also upon an important step in attempting to
provide for the orphan children of deceased Members and Associates. In the
December number of this Journal, the candidature of W. Bentley was commended
to the notice of subscribers to the British Orphan Asylum. The Council are of
opinion that in cases like this, when the father has been long connected with
this Society, and dies in impoverished circumstances, the Benevolent Fund will
be well applied (under certain conditions) in endeavouring to secure a home for
at least one of his children in some asylum for orphans.

We believe that the determination they have arrived at, and the revised rules
under which it is now proposed to give annuities to the needy and afflicted, will
meet with the unanimous approval of our readers.

But mere approval will not alone suffice. The Council ask all who are
interested in the Society to come forward with a helping hand. It is a dictum
accepted among our household words, that “ the good men do lives after them. 17
He must be unobservant indeed who fails to recognize its truth. In so far as
benevolent institutions are concerned, they who run may read, when they look
on those now flourishing among us ; some founded by men long since departed,
some by those who laboured in our own day. Hospitals and dispensaries abound.
Special charities for the blind, the deaf, the crippled, and the incurable, meet
our eye. Almshouses innumerable shelter their humble inmates. Asylums
for the widow, the fatherless, and the imbecile, give their fostering care h>
those who are unable to help themselves. Foundation schools are thronged
with pupils. In short, London and our other great towns are abundantly
able to attest that the large hearts and liberal hands of Richard Whittington
$tnd Jenken Carpenter have had their representatives in each succeeding ge¬
neration.

Among the more remarkable, however, of the modern developments of the
spirit of philanthropy, is the noticeable fact that the members of the several
trades and professions (to a greater extent probably than at any previous period)
have shown a readiness to organize assistance for the destitute of their respective
callings. We wish emphatically to urge this fact upon every chemist and drug¬
gist in Great Britain. To those who are not Members or Associates of our
Society we would especially point out, that if the projected Pharmacy Bill
becomes law our Benevolent Fund will be open to any chemist then in business,
whose circumstances may require it.

For the enrichment of the Fund we appeal to all. whether members or non¬
members, to put aside minor differences, and recollect that —

“We do pray for mercy

And that same prayer doth teach us all to render
The deeds of mercy.”

348

TRANSACTIONS

OP

THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

AT A MEETING OF THE COUNCIL, December 7th, 1864,

Present — Messrs. Bird, Bottle, Deane, George Edwards, Hanbury, Hills, Morson,
Orridge, Sandford, Savage, Squire, and Watts.

The following were elected

MEMBERS.

Hodder, Alfred . Clifton.

Willshe^ Stephen Henry . Tenterden.

EXAMINATION, December 21s?, 1864.

MAJOR (Registered as Pharmaceutical Chemists).

Barton, Henry . Neivark.

Rastriclc, Robert Joseph . . . Southsea.

Sells, Robert James . Canterbury.

Shaw, Benjamin . Wakefield.

MINOR (Registered as Assistants).

Cornelius, Richard Bayly . .

Cox, Samuel Goodhall . .

Cruse, Thomas Harris .

Heald, Benjamin .

Heale, William . .

Matthews, John Hitchcock .

.Clapham.

.Leicester.

.Portsmouth.

.Sleaford.

Bideford.

Reading.

REGISTERED APPRENTICES.

Name.

Adams, Francis .

Allkins, Thomas Boulton..
Anderson, Howard Gibson

Bemrose, Joseph .

Buckett, Alfred Henry .

Candy, William Gilbert .

Farthing, Thomas .

Hollier, Edward Robinson

Howlett, Henry John .

Ockley, Frederick .

Moss, John .

Richardson, John Howard
Ross, Lewis Buttle .

Residing with
.Mr. Adams
Mr. Ruffe
.Mr. Anderson
Mr. Young
.Mr. Hibbert
.Mr. Commans
.Mr. Morton
.Mr. Hollier
Mr. Rastrick
.Mr. Hallaway
.Messrs. Hulme and Co.

.Mr. Rastrick .

.Mr. Ombler .

Address.
Stoke-upon-Trent.
Tam worth.
London.

Liverpool.

Neath.

Bath.

Durham.

Dudley.

Southsea.

Carlisle.

...Oldham.

...Southsea.

...Driffield.

EXAMINATION IN EDINBURGH, December 13 th, 1864.
MAJOR (Registered as Pharmaceutical Chemists).

Dobinson, William Lewis . Bishopwearmouth.

King, William . Huddersfield.

Shepperley, George . Nottingham.

Taite, James . Glasgow.

Walker, Joseph . Bootle.

MINOR (Registered as an Assistant).

Williamson, James . .Edinburgh.

CLASSICAL.

Mr. John Mackay . Edinburgh.

Laidlaw, William

349

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING .

Wednesday, December 7 th, 1864.

MR. HILLS, VICE-PRESIDENT, IN THE CHAIR.

The minutes of the previous meeting having been read, the following

DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY AND MUSEUM

were announced, and the thanks of the meeting given to the respective donors
thereof : —

The Chemical Eews.

The Chemist and Druggist.

The British Journal of Dental Science.

The Dental Review.

The Medical Circular.

The Photographic Journal.

The Educational Times.

The Technologist.

The Veterinarian.

The Journal of the Society of Arts.

The Journal of the Chemical Society.

The Canada Lancet.

Bulletin de la Societe Chimique de Paris. From the respective Editors.
Transactions of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh. From the Society.
Specimens of Savanilla Rhatany. Specimens of Peruvian Rhatany. From Mr*
Haselden.

Dried Specimens of the Lemon-Grass Plant. From Mr. Septimus Piesse.

The following papers were then read : —

ON THE BOTANICAL ORIGIN OF GAMBOGE.

BY DANIEL HANBURY, E.L.S.

The botanical origin of Gamboge has been long involved in some obscurity,
for although the drug was evidently produced by a plant of the genus Garcinia
it has not until recently been possible, for want of good specimens, to determine
the species.

Hermann, a Dutch naturalist of the seventeenth century, who resided in
Ceylon, referred the origin of gamboge to two plants, one of which is known
to modern botanists as Garcinia Morelia, the other as G . Cambogia ; and we
have it, on the authority of Mr. Thwaites, Director of the Royal Botanic Garden
of Peradenia, that the former is capable of affording a very good form of the
drug, but that such is not the case with the latter. It is, however, well known
that gamboge is not an export of Ceylon, but that it is a production of Siam, a
country which is still nearly unexplored by the botanist. Whether gamboge in
Siam was yielded by the same tree as that which affords it in Ceylon, was a
question which could only be settled by a careful examination of good botanical
specimens.

Some years ago Dr. Christison, of Edinburgh, received from Singapore speci¬
mens of a Garcinia cultivated there on the estate of Messrs. D’Almeida and
Sons, which Garcinia had been brought from Siam as the true gamboge-tree.
Dr. Christison, whose account appeared in the 1 Pharmaceutical Journal ’ for
November, 1850, found this plant to be nearly allied to the G. elliptica of
Wallich, but to differ from that species in having male flowers pedicellate ,

350

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

instead of sessile. Desirous of carrying the inquiry a little further, and of
attempting to set at rest the question of the origin of gamboge, I recently
addressed myself to Messrs. D ’Almeida, who promptly replied to my letter, and
forwarded a jar containing numerous specimens of the gamboge-tree cultivated
on their plantation at Singapore. These specimens I carefully examined, com¬
paring them with published descriptions and figures, as well as with specimens
contained in the herbaria of the British Museum, of the Royal Gardens of Kew,
and of the Linnean Society, in which investigation I had the valuable assistance
of my friend Professor Oliver. The correctness of Dr. Christison’s observation
respecting the pedicellate flowers was immediately obvious, and it was also
evident that the plant, but for this character, bore a strong resemblance to
Garcinia elliptic a ; we noticed further that it came equally near to the G. Mo¬
relia of Desroussefiux. Under these circumstances we thought it desirable to
obtain the opinion of Mr. Thwaites, who, besides being an excellent botanist,
was familiar with various species of Garcinia in a living state and especially
with G. Morelia. Mr. Thwaites, after examining specimens of the Singapore
gamboge-tree, which we had sent to him in Ceylon, replied that the plant was,
in his opinion, a form of G. Morelia , scarcely differing from the Ceylon type,
except in having pedicellate instead of sessile flowers. This opinion was com¬
pletely in accordance with that of Professor Oliver and other botanists whose
opinion I had asked, and I therefore felt warranted in bringing the plant before
the Linnean Society, in whose ‘ Transactions ’ a figure of it has been published,
under the following name and synonyms : —

Garcinia Morella, Desrouss., var . pedicellata.

G. Morelia , Desrousseaux, in Lamarck’s Encyclop. Method. Botan. iii. 701, pi. 405,
fig. 2 ; Thwaites, Enum. Plant. Zeylan. i. 49.

G. elliptica , Wallich, Catal. no. 4869.

G. Gutta , Wight, Illustr. of Indian Botany, i. 126, tab. 44 (exclus. synon. Linnsei).

Ilebradendron cambogioides , Graham, in Hooker’s Companion to Bot. Mag. ii. (1836,
193, tab. 27.

Tar. (3. pedicellata ; floribus masculis pedicellatis (pedicelli ad 3 lin. longi).

Messrs. D’Almeida informed me that the number of gamboge-trees cultivated
on their plantation is twenty-eight, but that it might have been increased to
thousands had any pains been taken to do so. The trees are from thirty-five to
fifty feet in height, the largest having a circumference of three feet. They
grow very luxuriantly, without any attention, on the slope of a low hillock.
Gamboge has at various times been extracted from them, but rather, it would
seem, as an object of curiosity than for the purposes of commerce.

Professor Bentley said that the subject of the paper just read was scarcely
of a nature to admit of much discussion in that room ; he would therefore only
.remark that, in his opinion, Mr. Hanbury had now put the last link in the chain
of evidence necessary to prove the botanical source of our commercial gamboge.
Commercial gamboge, as was well known, was derived from Siam ; it did not
differ in any marked particulars from the gamboge of Ceylon, and the botanical
source of the two kinds had now been satisfactorily traced to varieties of the
.same species of Garcinia.

ON SOME OF THE EXTRACTS OF THE BRITISH PHARMA¬
COPOEIA PREPARED FROM THE DRY MATERIAL.

( Continued from page 309.)

BY A. F. HASELDEN.

III. — Extractum Kramerise.

In pursuing ray remarks upon some of the Pharmacopoeia extracts prepared
from the dry material, I have selected that of Rhatany as the first for considera¬
tion this evening, under the impression that there are some observations in con¬
nection with it which may prove a source of interest. To the followers of the
London and Dublin Pharmacopoeias the extract of rhatany is a new prepara¬
tion, this is one feature which makes it worthy of notice ; and there is another
which is especially interesting, — I allude to the scarcity for some time past of the
Peruvian, or Payta rhatany in the London market ; indeed, about a year or
more ago it was scarcely to be obtained, and yet, with three preparations in the
Pharmacopoeia — namely, the infusion of London, the extract of Edinburgh,
and the tincture of Dublin — the Krameria triandra , or Peruvian rhatany, is
the only species recognised in the British Pharmacopoeia. Now there is, and
has been for some seven or eight years past, another kind of rhatany in the
market, known as Savanilla rhatany ; and with the probability or possibility of
a scarcity of Peruvian, it may be worth while to compare the preparations of
the two varieties. But before proceeding to that part of the subject, I should
like to say a word upon the sources of the two roots. The Peruvian, or old
kind, is found in Peru and Bolivia, and exported from Lima to the European
ports. The Savanilla is found in New Granada, and exported from the port of
Savanilla, and probably takes its name from that circumstance. Savanilla, as
may be seen upon the map, is situated in the north of New Granada, at the
mouth of one of the branches of the river Magdalena, which flows into the
Caribbean Sea. The two roots are from different species ; the second, not being
produced by the action of climate and soil upon the original kind. Upon care¬
ful examination they can be readily distinguished ; externally, the stems of the
Savanilla are smoother and not so knotty as the Peruvian, the adhesion of the
bark to the wood is stronger in the Savanilla than in the Peruvian, and it can
be broken without disturbing the bark so much ; the colour is also different.
For a more detailed account I must refer you to an article in the Pharmaceutical
Journal, by Dr. Schucharclt, vol. xvi. pp. 29, 132. The short specimens are
such as are commonly found of the Peruvian and Savanilla ; the long one,
measuring twenty-two inches, is also the Peruvian kind, and such as I should
always like to have. From the length and undisturbed state of the bark it is
evident that it has been taken up and packed with great care ; it is a sample of
some recently imported and presented to me by Messrs. Horner. But to turn
to the points more especially belonging to my subject. Is the Pharmacopoeia
process for obtaining the extract an efficient one ? and is Savanilla equal to Peru¬
vian rhatany ? and would it fill its place in case of a deficient supply ?

I believe that I shall be able to establish the facts that the Pharmacopoeia
process is a satisfactory one, and that there is little or no difference in the value
of the two roots. I have here an extract of each kind, prepared according to
the Pharmacopoeia directions, viz. percolation with cold water and subsequent
evaporation by a water -bath heat. From two pounds of coarsely-ground Peru¬
vian rhatany, using four gallons and a half of distilled water, I obtained three
ounces and a half of dry extract possessing considerable astringency, and from
the marc afterwards digested with boiling distilled water 180 grains of an al¬
most tasteless extract ; from two pounds of Savanilla under the same conditions,

352

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

in the first place, four ounces and a half of dry extract equally astringent, and
by subsequent boiling of the marc 480 grains of an equally tasteless extract.
It is clear, then, that in this experiment I obtained one ounce more useful extract
from the Savanilla than the Peruvian, passing over the inert productions. I
may mention that the Pharmacopoeia directs the aqueous solutions to be eva¬
porated to a proper consistence. As this extract, like that of logwood, is an
exception to the general condition of extracts, it might have been as well to
have written evaporate to dryness, as that is the condition in which these two
extracts are usually found in commerce ; unless the extract of rhatany be eva¬
porated to dryness it is likely to become mouldy. These extracts are soluble in
cold water in pretty much the same proportion as it took water to extract them
originally, namely, sixty grains in a pint, leaving only a small portion undis¬
solved ; they are also dissolved by rectified spirit.

In order to satisfy myself more fully as to the relative amount of extractive
obtained from the two, I prepared a pint of tincture from each, using the same
proportions and subjecting them in every way to the same treatment. The
specific gravity of the tincture prepared from the Peruvian was -932, that from
the Savanilla '933 ; a fluid ounce of the former evaporated to dryness by
water-bath gave fourteen grains of extract, while the same quantity of the
latter yielded fifteen grains of dry extract ; the difference is small, but still it
evidences in favour of the Savanilla. To the casual observer the two tinctures
might pass for one and the same ; but if observed carefully, the red of the Peru¬
vian appears rather the deeper of the two. The proof spirit in the tinctures
extracted nearly twice the amount of soluble matter that the water did ; that is
due to the fact that the spirit took up more of the colouring matter than the
water. It yet remains, 1 think, to be proved that either contains more than
the other of the astringent principle upon which its virtue as a remedy depends;
but from the taste of the extract and tincture, and all the other circumstances,
I can only come to the conclusion that the Savanilla is quite equal to the Peru¬
vian, and might in case of scarcity very well supply its place. Therefore I also
feel that it would have been well if both kinds had been indicated in the Ma¬
teria Medica of the British Pharmacopoeia, the same compliment being paid
them as the catechus ; and I may, I think, safely add that my experiments -point
to the efficiency of the Pharmacopoeia process.

There is only one more circumstance which may perhaps be worth mention¬
ing, — I allude to the possibility of the rhatany extract being contaminated with
the cheaper one of logwood. The bichromate of potash might here prove ser¬
viceable as a detective ; but I simply mention this as a hint, it not forming any
portion of my object in the present remarks.

IV. — Extractum Lupiili.

There is, I believe, sufficient in the extract of hop to make it worthy of being
brought before your notice, under the impression that every one cannot have
had the opportunity of making all the extracts of the British Pharmacopoeia.
The Colleges of London and Edinburgh ordered this extract to be prepared by
boiling the dried catkins with distilled water, expressing and evaporating, etc.
The l)ublin did not recognise the preparation at all ; and, I believe, although
frequently prescribed, it has not generally been looked upon as a reliable one.
In the British Pharmacopoeia the manner of preparing it has been changed, and
apparently wijh advantage. I must, at the risk of being tedious, read over the
form, in order to make myself quite intelligible.

“Take of hop one pound, rectified spirit one pint and a half, distilled
water one gallon. Macerate the hop in the spirit for seven days, press out the
tincture, filter and distil off the spirit, leaving a soft extract. Boil the residual
hop with the water for one hour, then express the liquor, strain and evaporate

EXTRACTS OF THE BRITISH PHARMACOPOEIA.

353

by a water-bath to the consistence of a soft extract, mix the two extracts, and
evaporate at a temperature not exceeding 140° to a proper consistence.”

It will at once be perceived that the employment of spirit in the first part of
the process is an important alteration, and I believe I shall be able to show an
equally great improvement. At first sight it would seem that with so bulky a
thing as hop the quantity of spirit would not be at all in proportion, but, how¬
ever, in practice it will be found that although the scales do not get soaked, yet
their surfaces are wetted with, and acted upon by the spirit. After maceration
for seven days I obtained, by strong pressure, twenty fluid ounces, from thirty
of spirit used, of a very strong dark olive-green tincture, possessing great
bitterness and a very powerful aromatic odour peculiar to itself. Two fluid
drachms of this tincture gave, by evaporation over a water-bath, ten grains of
a soft greenish resinous extract interspersed with streaks of a dark yellow,
having an oily appearance ; from a similar quantity, upon the addition of dis¬
tilled water, a precipitate was obtained, which, collected and dried, weighed
five grains.

From the twenty fluid ounces of tincture I recovered by distillation sixteen
ounces of spirit, having a strong odour of the hop, as you may notice from the
spirit before you ; but not having in solution sufficient oil to produce turbidity
when mixed with water, upon evaporating the contents of the retort (and I may
here remark that the spirit should not be drawn off too closely) I obtained one
ounce and a half of the soft extract before mentioned; having boiled the
residual hop as directed, I got, by expression and evaporation, two ounces and
a half of soft extract, having a bitter taste but little or no aroma. The two
extracts when mixed gave by weight four ounces of an extract not so stiff as
extracts are commonly made, but possessing, as you may clearly see by sample,
a very fine aromatic odour and bitter taste most unmistakably peculiar to hop ;
more extract might have been obtained by a second boiling of the hop, but it
would have been valueless. By this process I have obtained twenty- five per
cent, of extract, by the old process the product was nearer thirty per cent. ; by
comparing the two extracts a marked difference will be observed. I have but
little to add, except that I consider this mode of preparing the extract infinitely
superior to the old ; that if it be of any value as a calmative or hypnotic, it has
now a fair chance of proving itself worthy of attention. I would throw out as
a suggestion, that more spirit might be used with advantage ; that the present
extract will cost more than double the old, must also be clear to every one ; but,
as I have said upon former occasions, where so precious a thing as health is
concerned, the cost of a good preparation, if within reason, should never be a
bar to its production or employment.

Professor Bentley said that the investigations of Mr. Haselden led to the
same results as his own, for he had for some years past stated in his lectures on
Materia Medica, delivered at the Pharmaceutical Society, that there was no
material difference in Peruvian and Savanilla Rhatanies, but, upon the whole,
the latter was to be preferred. In his lecture “ On the Organic Materia Me¬
dica of the British Pharmacopoeia,” which was published in the Pharmaceu¬
tical Journal last April, he had also remarked that, as the officinal or Peruvian
Rhatany possessed no advantages over Savanilla Rhatany, there was no satis¬
factory reason why the latter should not have been also made officinal in the
British Pharmacopoeia.

Mr. Daniel IIanbury stated that Professor Guibourt had shown some years
since, when Savanilla Rhatany was first introduced into commerce, that it was
superior to Peruvian Rhatany. Mr. Danbury’s experience was to the same
effect, and in the house with which he was connected they used the two kinds
indifferently in making preparations of this drug.

354

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

The Chairman, in thanking the author for his valuable practical communi¬
cation, referred especially to the subject of extract of hops, and said he thought
it was worthy of consideration whether this extract would not be improved in
quality if it were made from hops that had not been exposed to the fumes of
sulphur. It was well known that hopgrowers were in the habit of exposing the
hops after drying them to these fumes, and the practice was so common that no
hops could be purchased that had not been thus treated, but he (the Chairman)
believed the peculiar aroma of the hop was injured by the sulphurous acid.
He had often wondered that some of the brewers had not tried the use of hops
in their natural state, feeling assured that the result would be the production of
a beer of very superior flavour. With reference to the samples of extract that
had been produced, he thought there could be no doubt that that made by the
process of the new Pharmacopoeia was decidedly the best.

Mr. Morson thought it might be satisfactory to the meeting to know that
the new process for extract of hops which had been introduced into the British
Pharmacopoeia originated with one of their own body, namely, Mr. Deane.
Referring to the spirit which was recovered by distillation in the process, he ob¬
served that it possessed the peculiar flavour of the hop in a high degree, and he
thought it might admit of some special application.

Mr. Haselden said it had also occurred to him that probably this spirit
might be used for the sake of the flavour it possessed.

Professor Redwood said some attempts had been made by brewers to prevent
the loss of the volatile oil of hop, the greater part of which was lost in the pro¬
cess of boiling as now conducted, but such attempts had not, he believed, proved
successful. With reference to the remarks made by the Chairman on the sub¬
ject of sulphuring the hops, it must be borne in mind that this practice was
universally adopted by hopgrowers, and had been so from time immemorial, and
it was generally found in such cases that there were some good grounds for the
adoption of the practice. He was not certain what the object of this process
was, but had conjectured that it was to destroy the larvae of insects which would
prove destructive or injurious to the hop. lie had discussed the subject with
brewers, and had not found that they considered the flavour of the hop to be
injured by fumigating them with sulphur in the usual way, although objection
was taken to the application of sulphur in the solid state to the growing hop-
plant, on the ground of its causing the hops to have a disagreeable flavour.

The Chairman thought the purpose for which the hops were exposed to the
fumes of sulphur was that of improving their appearance, and giving them a
good colour.

ON NITRITE OE SODA.

BY MR. A. J. ROBERTS.

It is with some diffidence that I bring this paper before the meeting, feeling
as I do that there are many present more conversant with the subject than
myself ; but knowing at the same time that the ranks of the Members must be
recruited from those of the Associates, and that it is to them that the Society
looks for future support, I am encouraged to proceed, in the hope that in our
discussion on the following remarks some facts to the advancement of Pharma¬
ceutical science may be elicited.

There is only one preparation in the Pharmacopoeia in which the nitrite of
soda is used, viz. spirit of nitrous ether, or, as it is commonly called, sweet
spirit of nitre ; the object of the compilers of the Pharmacopoeia has apparently
been to give a process for the preparation of the sweet spirit of nitre which
should be at once safe and easy of execution, but in the production of the prin-

ON NITRITE OF SODA.

cipal compound (the nitrite of soda) used in its manufacture, there appears to
be some difficulty. We are told to take nitrate of soda, and this is defined
to be pure, entirely soluble in water and giving no precipitate with either nitrate
of silver or chloride of barium, showing absence of mechanical impurities, sul¬
phates, and chlorides. This pure nitrate of soda, quite dry and in fine powder,
is to be thoroughly mixed with freshly burned charcoal, also in fine powder ;
the mixed powders are then to be thrown in successive portions into a clay
crucible heated to dull redness, and when the salt has become quite white the
heat is to be raised, so as to liquefy it, and it is then to be poured out on a clean
flagstone, and when cold broken to pieces and preserved for use in a stoppered
bottle.

Thus far the Pharmacopceial directions, and now for my own experience of
this process. I operated on one pound of commercial nitrate of soda, and an
ounce and a quarter of powdered charcoal, and obtained about twelve ounces of
a dirty reddish-brown and very impure salt. The next point was to ascertain
the quantity of nitrite it contained, which I did by trying to dissolve a portion
in rectified spirit, as the Pharmacopoeia tells us it is soluble in that menstruum.
On treating a weighed quantity with successive portions of rectified spirit,
I found forty- four per cent, were soluble ; this I considered favourable, as I was
operating on commercial nitrate, which I knew could not be pure.

I then tried what results could be obtained with pure nitrate of soda, so by
dissolving the commercial nitrate, filtering and crystallizing the solution, I ob¬
tained a beautifully clean and pure salt. I again submitted the same proportions
to deflagration, but, contrary to my expectations, the product was coloured,
though not so deeply as in the first instance, and the crucible appeared to have
been acted on by the fusion of the salt ; the result, however, was an improve¬
ment on the former one, for it contained sixty- eight per cent, of salt soluble in
rectified spirit.

I next tried a thin white kind of crucible, and subsequently one of blacklead,
but still the product was coloured; the yield of soluble salt in rectified spirit
was between sixty and seventy per cent.

Of two samples I obtained from manufacturing chemists, one contained sixty
and the other sixty-six per cent.

I found the salt which was dissolved out by rectified spirit to answer the
Pharmacopoeial test for nitrite of soda, namely : —

P'he evolution of nitrous fumes with tartaric acid.

A crystalline precipitate soluble on boiling the liquid with nitrate of silver.
And,

An emerald-green coloration with solution of sulphate of copper.

It also required one ounce of rectified spirit to dissolve ten grains of the salt.

It now remained to ascertain if nitrate of soda was soluble in rectified spirit,
and, if so, to what extent. I found four grains to be dissolved by a fluid ounce
of cold rectified spirit.

So that from this it appears that the solubility of this salt in rectified spirit is
no test of its freedom from nitrate. The form of the crystals will not help us,
for Gmelin states the nitrate and nitrite have both the same crystalline form.
AVhat is required seems to be a good quantitative test, and also a good process of
the manufacture of this salt. The intention of the framers of the Pharmacopoeia
has been excellent, and this is a step in the right direction.

I regret I am unable to bring any more definite results before you, but hope
to do so at a future day. Having thus started the subject, I hope some others
who may have been labouring in the same field will favour us with their
experience.

I have a specimen of the spirit of nitre on the table, prepared from the im¬
pure nitrite of soda ; its specific gravity is *840, rather lighter than British Phar-

356

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

macopoeia ; it possesses the property of dissolving balsam of copaiba when mixed
in equal volumes, which is not the case with the spirit of nitre usually sold.
This specimen is quite fresh, but some distilled a few weeks back, though free
from acid at first, became strongly acid in the course of four or five days.

The Chairman expressed satisfaction at having to congratulate an Associate
of the Society on supplying so practically useful a communication. It was to
those who are now Associates that the Society must look for its future support,
and he was glad to see their young men coming forward to contribute papers to
the meetings.

Professor Redwood said the Pharmacopoeia process for the preparation of
nitrite of soda was, as he believed he had been the first to notice, quite unequal
to the production of the article in a state fit for the purpose to which it was ap¬
plied. The salt produced by the process was a variable mixture of nitrite,
nitrate, and carbonate, together with caustic soda, if much heat be applied.
The alcohol test for nitrite was very fallacious, and could not be used for sepa¬
rating this from the undecomposed nitrate, as the latter was soluble in spirit to
some extent, — indeed, according to Fischer, as quoted by Storer in his 1 Dic¬
tionary of Solubilities,’ nitrite of soda w7as even less soluble in alcohol than
nitrate. The use of a salt made by the Pharmacopoeia process in the prepara¬
tion of spirit of nitre was objectionable, on account of the uncertainty belong¬
ing to it ; but if a good and reliable nitrite could be obtained at a suitable cost,
the use of such a salt would probably afford the best means of producing nitrous
ether. Rather than use the so-called nitrite of the Pharmacopoeia, he would
prefer to employ the nitrate which could be obtained in a state of purity, and
would therefore yield spirit of nitre in a more uniform state than the other. It
must be admitted that not only the production, but even the composition of the
nitrites was involved in some doubt. They appeared, in their decomposition
with acids, to give off N02 rather than N03. The Pharmacopoeia process for
spirit of nitre was founded upon the assumption that nitrite of soda would yield
N03, and produce pure nitrous ether in solution in spirit. Even if it did this,
it remained to be proved that a pure solution of nitrous ether was equivalent to
the old “sweet spirit of nitre.” He thought they should be cautious in such
a case how they were led away by the notion of having a pure product. There
were many substances used in medicine, in the arts, and as articles of diet, which
owed their excellence to what some might call their impurities, that is, to the
presence of bodies that could not be clearly defined. They were not simple,
definable bodies, but still they had their virtues and excellences. . The old
u sweet spirit of nitre ” he considered to be one of these. It was a complex
body in which nitrous ether was only one ingredient, and there were others on
which its useful and agreeable qualities might depend. He might refer to an¬
other similar preparation in the case of the so-called chloric ether. This was
originally produced by a process in which a solution of chloroform with other
allied bodies was produced, and that preparation obtained considerable repute.
It was miscible with water without any separation. But then the real nature
of its composition was not known, excepting that it consisted principally of a
solution of chloroform, and accordingly a process was adopted for its prepara¬
tion by merely dissolving chloroform in spirit of wine. He had no hesitation
in saying that this product was greatly inferior to the original. He could easily,
if necessary, quote other instances of a similar description, and he doubted
whether mere solution of nitrous ether in spirit would form the best sweet
spirit of nitre.

The Chairman asked if the old Edinburgh process for spirit of nitre was
not the best ?

BENEVOLENT FUND. 357

Professor Redwood said if the object was to get sweet spirit of nitre, he be¬
lieved the old London process wras the best.

Dr. Attfield thought it important that the composition of medicines should
be clearly defined, and although a pure solution of nitrous ether may not be
entitled to the name of sweet spirit of nitre so much as the old preparation, he
thought at least that its effects should be fairly tried, and therefore that they
should continue to seek an efficient means of producing it. The process of the
British Pharmacopoeia for the production of nitrite of soda had certainly failed,
but he thought it was still worth while to try whether some other means of
reducing the nitrate could not be devised. It would be well to try carbon in
different states and at different temperatures. He had found that wood char¬
coal would decompose nitrate of soda at a temperature below that at which de¬
flagration occurred. In operating on organic bodies it was found that particular
oxidizing agents acted better in one case than another, so that each substance
might be said to have a preference for a particular oxidizer, and it might be the
same with deoxidizers.

Mr. Roberts wished to express his obligation to Messrs. Fisher and Hasel-
den, in whose establishment he lived, for the opportunities and assistance af¬
forded him in carrying out his experiments.

The Chairman, at the conclusion of the meeting, drew attention to a “per¬
colator” which had been sent for exhibition by Mr. Thomas Kay, of Hillgate,
Stockport. He said it appeared to be a simple, cheap, and efficient form of
apparatus.

DONATIONS AND SUBSCRIPTIONS RECEIVED FOR THE BENEVOLENT

FUND DURING 1864.

Subscriptions.

£ s. d.

Abraham, John, Liverpool . 11 0

Aitken, William, Edinburgh ... 0 5 0
Allanson, Charles, Harrogate ... 0 5 0
Allchin, Alfred, Richmond Road,

Barnsbury . 0 10 6

Appleton, Thomas Cass, 45, Cur-

zon Street, May Fair . 0 10 6

Argles, Robt., 338, Oxford Street 0 5 0

Arnold, Edward, Norwich . 0 5 0

Attwood and Hugill, Messrs., 61,

Cannon Street . 1 1 0

Bagshaw, Wm., Oldham . 1 1 0

Baildon, Henry C., Edinburgh ... 110

Ballard, Edwin, Farringdon . 0 10 6

Balmer, John, 94, St. John’s

Street Road . 1 1 0

Barnard, John, 338, Oxford St. 0 10 6

Barnes, Jas. B., 1, Trevor Terrace,

Knightsbridge . 0 10. 6

Barron, Fred., Bush Lane . 11 11 0

Ditto ditto (1864) . 1 1 0

Bateson, Thomas, Kendal . 1 1 0

Baynes, James, Hull . 0 5 0

Benger, Fred. B., 338, Oxford St. 0 5 0

Betts, John, Woodbridge . 0 2 6

Bevan, Charles F., Harwich . 0 5 0

Bird, William L., 42, Castle St. 0 10 6

£ s. d.

Bird, Augustus, Kensington . 1 1 0

Bishop, Alfred, Mile End New

Town . 2 2 0

Bishop, Thomas, Woolwich . 0 10 6

Blake, Sandford, and Blake, 47,

Piccadilly . 110

Bland, John H., Stourbridge . 0 10 6

Blanshard, Raimes and Co., Edin¬
burgh . 1 1 0

| Bolton, Thos., Tenterden . 0 5 0

Bond, John, Yarmouth . 0 5 0

Bond, Charles, Kidderminster ... 0 5 0

; Bostock, Wm., Ashton-u.-Lyne 0 5 0

Bottle, Alexander, Dover . 1 1 0

Bourdas, Isaiah, 10, Pont Street 1 1 0

Bowerbank, J. and F., Cocker-

mouth . 110

j Boyce, John P., Chertsey . 0 5 0

Bradley, John, 21, Belgrave Rd. 0 10 6

Brailey, Charles, Heavitree . 0 5 0

Breton, Walter, Brighton . 0 10 6

Brown, Edward, Leeds . 0 10 6

Buck, Thos., Kingsland Green ... 0 10 6

Buckle, C. F., Gray’s Inn Road... 0 5 0

Butcher, Thomas, Cheltenham... 0 10 0

Butler, Samuel, Bristol . 0 10 0

Butt, Ed. N., 235, Oxford St. 0 10 6

358 BENEVOLENT FUND.

£

s.

d.

£

s.

Carmichael, Lauchlan, Edinburgh

0

5

0

Garle, John, Bromley, Kent .

1

1

Cartwright, Wm,, Newcastle-

Gedge, W. S., St. John Street ...

0

5

under- Lyne .

0

10

6

Gibbs, William, Ryde .

0

10

Christopher, Wm., Crickhowell...

0

5

0

Glass, John T., Cheltenham .

0

5

Clayton, H., Eastbourne .

0

5

0

Goodbarne, Thos., 13, Charles

Cocksedge.H.B., 20, Bucklersbury 0

5 '

0

Street, Hoxton .

0

10

Coles, J., Camberwell New Road

0

10

6

Goode, Thos , 47, Minories .

5

5

Cooke, Wm., Norwich .

0

5

0

Goodger, David, 31, Regent St.

0

10

Cooke, Jno., 171, Hoxton Old

Goodwin, John, Lower Clapton

0

10

Town .

0

5

0

Gristock, Thomas, 42, South St.,

Cooper, George, Exeter .

0

10

0

Manchester Square .

0

10

Cooper, W. T., Oxford Street ...

0

10

6

Groves, Thos. B., Weymouth ...

0

10

Cornish, William, Brighton .

0

5

0

Gudgen, Geo. B., Kimbolton ...

0

5

Coupland, Joseph, Harrogate ...

0

10

6

Gwatkin, James T., Brighton ...

0

10

Cupiss, Francis, Diss .

0

10

6

Haddock, George J., 338, Ox-

Darby and Gosden, 140, Leaden-

ford Street .

0

5

hall Street .

4

4

0

Hall, Henry R. F., Hull .

0

2

Davenport, John T., 33, Great

Halliday, William J., Manchester

0

10

Russell Street .

2

2

0

Ilamp, John, Wolverhampton ...

1

1

Davidson, John, Berwick .

0

10

0

Hardy, Samuel C., 338, Oxford

Davies, John L., Hay .

0

5

0

Street .

0

5

Davies, H. E., 43, Wood St., City 0

10

6

Harris, E. R., Brighton .

1

1

Dawe, Sampson, Monmouth .

0

10

0

Harvey and Reynolds, Leeds ...

1

1

Deane, Henry, Clapham .

1

1

0

Herrings and Co., 40, Aldersgate

Dinneford and Co., 172, New

Street .

9

w

2

Bond Street .

2

2

0

Hickley, Thos. P., 1 25, Edgeware

Down, Richard H., Torpoint .

0

5

0

Road .

0

10

Dyson, William B., 4, Gloucester

Hills, Thos. IL, 338, Oxfurd St.

1

1

Road, South Kensington .

0

10

6

Hodder, Henry, Bristol .

0

5

Eddy, Charles William, 30,

Hollier, Elliott, Dudley .

0

10

Crown Street, Finsbury .

1

1

0

Hooper, Bartlett, 43, King Wil-

Edwards, William, Hastings .

0

5

0

liam Street .

0

10

Edwards, Jno. Baker, Liverpool

1

1

0

Horncastle, John, 12, Stanhope

Edwards, William, Denbigh .

0

5

0

Terrace, Hyde Park .

0

10

Ellis, Richard, Thornbury .

0

5

0

Howell, Thomas, Camden Town

0

10

Evans, Jno. IL, 60, Bartholomew

Howell. Maurice, Peckham .

0

10

Close .

1

1

0

Hurst, Wm. F. IL, Gloucester...

0

5

Faulconer, Robert H., Keen’s

Hurst, John, Louth .

0

10

Row, Walworth .

1

1

0

Husband, Matthew, Exeter .

0

10

Fay, Julius Cicero, Kingsland ...

1

1

0

Hustwick, Thomas H., Hereford

0

5

Ferreira, Antonio Alves, Rio

Huxtable, John, 104, John Street

de Janeiro .

1

1

0

Road .

1

1

Fenn, John T., 83, Regent Street,

Jackson, Thomas, Manchester ...

0

10

Westminster .

0

5

0

Jenkins, Joseph, Nottingham ...

0

10

Fisher and Haselden, 18, Conduit

Johnson, Benjamin M., 70, Tot-

Street .

1

1

0

tenham Court Road .

0

5

Fletcher, Francis, Cheltenham...

0

5

0

Jones, Henry S., 139, Fulham Rd.

0

5

Fletcher, John, 338, Oxford St.

0

5

0

Jones, Humphrey, Llangollen ...

0

5

Foott, Richard R., Pimlico .

0

10

6

Jones, Ellis P., Rhyl .

1

1

Forrest, Richard, Celbridge Place,

Kemp, David, Portobello .

0

10

Westbourne Grove .-. .

0

10

G

Kent, T., 226, Blackfriars Road

0

10

Fox, William, 48, Church Street,

Kernot, George Chas., Poplar ...

0

10

Bethnal Green .

0

10

6

Large, John H., 2, Holt’s Place

0

10

Friend, A, per H. Deane .

1

1

0

Lindsay, Robert, Edinburgh .

0

10

Gadd, Charles, Vauxhall .

0

5

0

Linsley, Thomas, York .

0

5

Gale, Henry, Camden Town .

0 10

G

Macfarlan and Co., Edinburgh ..

1

1

Gale, Samuel, 338, Oxford Street

0

10

6

Mackay, John, Edinburgh .

1

1

Gardener, Ch., Tunbridge Wells

0

5

0

Mackray, William, 338, Oxford St. 0

5

Gardner & Ainslie, Edinburgh...

0

10

0

Madge, James C., Devizes .

0

5

d.

0

0

6

0

0

0

6

6

6

6

0

a

o

G

6

0

0

0

0

0

a

o

o

G

6

G

6

G

0

0

0

0

0

G

0

0

0-

0

o

0

6

G

6

0

a

o

a

o

o

BENEVOLENT FUND.

359

£ s. d.

Manifold, John J., Weaverham 0 10 6

May, John, Battersea . 0 10 G

Mercer, Nathan, Liverpool . 0 10 G

Merrell, James, 1, Queen’s Ter¬
race, Camden Villas . 0 10 G

Middleton, Francis, 338, Oxford

Street . , . 0 10 6

Miller, Frederick C., ditto . 0 5 0

Mitchell, John, 254, Upper Street,

Moore, Jas. L., 1, Craven Place 0 10 G

Morton, Henry, Ramsgate . 0 5 0

Morton, George, Stratford . 0 10 G

Mould, Samuel, 21, Moorgate St. 0 10 0

Muskett, James, Harleston . 0 5 0

Musson, T. G., Birmingham ... 0 10 0

Nicholson, Frederick, 216, Paul’s

Road, Highbury . 110

Nind, George, Wandsworth . 0 10 6

Noakes, Richard, Brighton . 0 10 G

Orridge, Benjamin B., 30, Buck-

lersbury . 110

Owles, Edward John, Aldeburgh . 0 10 6

Paine, Standen, 338, Oxford Street 0 5 0

Palk, John, Exeter . 0 10, 0

Palmer, Faithful, Cheltenham ... 0 5 0

Palmer, Robert, Ovington Square 110
Palmer, Charles F., Birmingham 0 10 6

Parkes, John C., Woolwich . 0 10 G

Parsons, William, Portsmouth ... 0 10 0

Patterson, George, Stamford . 0 10 0

Peat, Walter, Fareham . 0 5 0

Pedler, Geo. S., 199, Fleet Street 110
Peele, Henry A., 338, Oxford St. 0 5 0

Penrose, Arthur W., 7, Amwell

Street . 0 5 0

Picnot, Charles, Strood . 110

Pocklington, James, Sydenham 0 10 6

Pollock, T., 129, Fenchurch St. 1 1 0

Powell, John, Shaftesbury . 0 10 G

Pratt, John, Chichester . 0 10 G

Prior, George T., Oxford . 0 10 0

Prockter, Richd. E., Cheltenham 0 5 0

Proctor, W., Newcastle-on-Tyne 110
Randall and Son, Southampton 110
Rankin, Win., Kilmarnock . 1 1 0

Rastrick, Joseph L., Southsea ... 0 5 0

Rastrick, John Alfred, Woolwich 0 5 0

Redfern, Jn., Ashby-de-la-Zouch 110
Roberts, Albinus, St. Alban’s ... 1 0 0

Robertson, James, Edinburgh ... 1 1 0

Robinson, James M., Beverley ... 0 5 0

£ s. d.

Rogers, Wm., Maidstone . 0 5 0

Rogerson, Michael, Bradford,

Yorkshire . 2 2 0

Rook, Edward, Sittingbourne ... 0 10 6

Russell, C. J. L., Windsor . 0 5 0

Sagar, Henry, Leeds . 0 5 0

Saunders, Albert J., 338, Oxford

Street . 0 5 0

Savage, Wm. D., Brighton . 0 10 G

Shaw and Brook, Stockport . 1 1 0

Shirley, John G., Bayswater ... 0 10 G
Skoulding, Wm., Wymondham 0 5 0

Sims, John F., Barnsbury . 0 5 0

Sircom, Richard, Bristol . 0 5 0

Snape, Edward, Birmingham ... 0 5 0

I Southall, Son, and Dymond,

Birmingham . 1 1 0

Spearing, James, 3o8, Oxford St. 0 5 0

Spencer, Charles, Gravesend . 110

Smith, Nathaniel, Cheltenham... 0 5 0

Smith, Wm. F.r 12, Keen’s Row 0 10 G
Squire, Peter, 277, Oxford Street 110
Starkie, Richard S., 4, Strand ... 1 1 0

Stathers, John, 43, Norland

Road . 0 10 G

Stone, John, Exeter . 0 5 0

Stott, Wm., Sowerby Bridge ... 0 5 0

Strawson, Henry, Crewkerne ... 1 1 0

Street, Edward, Cheltenham ... 0 5 0

Sutton, Francis, Norwich . 1 1 0

Tanner, Nicholas W., Exeter ... 0 5 0

Thomas, John A., Harrogate ... 0 5 0

Thomas, James, Bridge . 0 5 0

Thomas, Rees, Merthyr Tydtil... 0 5 0

Thompson, John, Liverpool . 0 5 0

Tomlinson, Chas. K., Lincoln ... 0 5 0

Tucker, Charles, Bridport . 0 10 G

Umney, Chas., 40, Aldersgate St. 0 5 0
Vizer, Edwin B., Lupus Street 110

Waite, Joseph, Cheltenham . 0 5 0

Walsh, Edward, Manchester . 0 10 6

Warner, Charles H., Fore Street 110
White, Daniel, Park Terrace,

Regent’s Park . 110

Wigg, H. John, 338, Oxford St. 0 5 0
Wilkinson, William, Manchester 0 10 G
Wilson, Thos., Upper Holloway 0 10 G
Windle, Wm., 48, Portman Place 0 10 6

Wright and Francis, 11, Old Fish

Street . 1 1 0

Young, George, Millwall . 0 5 0

Donations.

Battley and Watts, 32, Whitecross Street

£ s. d.
10 10 0

Bristow, Robert A . 1 1 0

Flint, W. H . 1 1 0

Ker, Abiah . 1 1 0

360

BENEVOLENT FUND.

BENEVOLENT FUND ACCOUNT FOE THE YEAE 1864.

£ s. (I. £ s. d.

Grants to two Widows

£ £
40

a.

Subscriptions . 153 2 0

Donations . 13 13 0

• - 166 15 0

Dividends . 180 13 11

347 8 11

Invested in Consols, 31 Dec., 1863
Purchase of Consols as above .

„ to two distressed 1 rr
Members with families j
„ to Orphan Children 20

- 115 0 0

Purchase of £257 5 6 Consols 232 8 11

347 8 11

£6,182 19 10
257 5 6

- 6,440 5 4

REGULATIONS OF THE BENEVOLENT FUND OF THE
PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

Objects.

Election of
Pensioners.

Notice of Elec¬
tion.

Amount of
Pension.

Age of Candi¬
dates.

Restriction as
to Income.

Evidence of
Candidates’
eligibility.

Evidence of
the Widows’
eligibility.

Certificates of
four Members
or Voters ne¬
cessary.

1. The objects of this fund are : —

To provide pensions for distressed Members or Associates, or the
widows of distressed Members or Associates, of this Society.

To afford occasional grants of money to distressed Members or Asso¬
ciates, or their widows or orphan children.

To provide orphan children of Members or Associates (under urgent
or distressing circumstances) with a temporary home or with pecu¬
niary aid.

2. At the first Meeting of the Council after the Annual General
Meeting in every year, they will determine as to the expediency (finan¬
cially) of electing pensioners in the month of October following.

3. If the Council deem it discreet to elect pensioners, their decision
will be made known by advertisement in four of the London daily
papers and in the ensuing issue of the ‘ Pharmaceutical Journal and
Transactions,’ stating the number of cases to be elected.

4. The pensions shall not exceed the value of £45 yearly, payable
quarterly.

5. Candidates for election must be at least fifty years of age.

6. No person will be eligible as a candidate for the pension who pos¬
sesses an income of £30 per annum.

7. Members and Associates as petitioners for relief from this fund
shall produce a certificate of moral character, and such evidence of their
age as shall be satisfactory to the Council of the Society ; shall state the
time and place or places in which they have been engaged in business,
whether on their own account or otherwise, how their misfortunes ori¬
ginated and when, their present means of subsistence and from what
source it arises, and the number of those (if any) dependent upon them
for support.

8. Widows shall produce evidence of their age, the certificate of
marriage, and the certificate of the burial of the husband, or such evi¬
dence as shall satisfy the Council on these points ; the period during
which the husband was in business, and where; the cause of misfortune ;
the present means of subsistence, and from what source it arises ; the
number of children (if any) dependent on them for support.

9. In all petitions for assistance from this fund, the truth of the state¬
ments shall be certified by at least four Members of the Society or sub¬
scribers to the fund, two of whom are personally acquainted with the
facts of the case.

BENEVOLENT FUND.

361

10. The Council, after due investigation, if satisfied that the case is Council’s deei-
an eligible one, will decide whether the relief to be afforded shall be S10n'
temporary or annual, and, if the latter, the case shall be put on the list

of approved candidates for election.

11. As soon as the Council have decided upon the case, the petitioner Canvassing,
for annual relief will receive written information from the {Secretary.

No cards or canvassing letters are to be sent to the Members or Asso¬
ciates of the Society, or to the subscribers to the fund, until the appli¬
cant has received official notice of the acceptance of the petition by the
Council.

12. Pensions will be terminated by the Council in case of misconduct Cessation of
on the part of the recipient, or if the improved circumstances of the tension,
pensioner at any time disqualify him or her to receive the benefits of this

fund. In the case of Widows, the pension will cease if they marry again.

13. If at any time it shall become evident that the election of any Fraud,
case has been secured by fraud or by false representation, such election
shall be forthwith declared void by the Council.

14. In case of a candidate being unsuccessful at the first election, j° 130
credit shall be given for the number of votes at that and the four next ‘ 1 c on‘
succeeding elections, but not beyond that time.

15. At every election of cases, five scrutineers will be elected from the Scrutineers,
voters present to conduct the election, who shall report to the chairman

the number of votes polled for the respective candidates.

16. The chair at such elections will be taken by the President, Vice- Chairman.
President, or a Member of the Council for the time being.

17. The votes will be taken by polling papers (to be delivered in by Noting,
person or by proxy), which will be sent to every Member and Associate,

and to Life and Annual Subscribers entitled to votes under clauses 19,

20, 21, and 22.

IS. The polling papers of Members, Associates, and Subscribers whose Notes in avrear.
payments are in arrear and the privilege of voting will be withheld until
the same be duly paid.

19. Persons contributing half-a-guinea annually shall have one vote Annual Rub-
at each election of cases, and persons contributing one guinea annually bC11,jers-
shall have two votes, the right of voting at such elections being increased

in the same proportion by the same rate of contribution.

20. Persons contributing five guineas at one time shall have one vote Fife Sub-
for life at each election of cases, and persons contributing ten guineas scri!:,<?rs-
at one time shall have two votes, the right of voting at such elections

being increased in the same proportion by the same rate of contribu¬
tion.

21. Firms or corporations contributing five guineas at one time shall Notes of Firms,
have one vote at each election of cases for the period of ten years etc-

from the date of such contribution, and firms or corporations contri¬
buting ten guineas at one time shall have two votes at each election of
cases for the same period, the right of voting at such elections being
increased in the same proportion by the same rate of contribution.

22. One executor paying a legacy of fifty pounds will have five votes Totes of Exe-
for life at each election of cases, and if it exceed £100, every one of cutors-

the executors shall have the same privilege.

23. The polling-papers and tellers’ list shall not be open to the in- Inspection of

spectionof any person without permission from the Council. <iptib.

24. Should a scrutiny be demanded or any complaint made in refer- scrutiny,

once of the result of the poll, the same must be submitted to the consi¬
deration of the Council at their first subsequent meeting, and their
decision shall be final. f

25. Every Member of the Society not in the receipt of nor an ap-
plicant for relief out of the Benevolent Fund will be entitled to two dates.

VOL. VI. 2 D

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PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

Votes from
several sources.

Casting Vote.

Rejection of
Votes.

Orphans’ Appli¬
cation.

Home for Or¬
phans by Pur¬
chase.

votes, and every Associate not in the receipt of nor an applicant for
the like relief, to one vote.

26. Every person entitled to vote in more than one class of voters
will be entitled to the votes due to him from each ©f such sources.

27. In the event of an equality of votes, the chairman shall have the
casting vote.

28. Should any polling-paper not be properly filled up or signed, the
same shall be rejected by the scrutineers on their casting up the votes.

29. Applications on behalf of orphans shall state their age and afford
satisfactory evidence of the marriage and burial of the parents, and
whether any means of subsistence have been left them, if so, its amount
and the source from whence it arises, accompanied by a certificate signed
as required by Clause 9.

30. In the case of an orphan left under circumstances of urgent dis¬
tress, the Council may, if they think fit, provide a home by purchase in
one of the national asylums for orphans, never exceeding, however,
more than one case yearly until larger funds are in their possession.

PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

The first meeting for the present session was held in St. George’s Hall, George Street,
on Tuesday evening, 22nd November ; Mr. D. Kemp, President, in the chair. There was
a full attendance.

THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

Gentlemen, — On taking the chair for the first time, as President of the North British
branch of the Pharmaceutical Society, I have to thank you, very cordially, for the
honour of being elected to an office which has been held hitherto by some of the most
able and most respected members of our profession.

While I am not without doubt as to the propriety of your choice in my case, I desire
to assure you that no efforts will be wanting on my part to discharge the duties of the
office to the best of my ability, and to promote the interests of the Pharmaceutical So¬
ciety, which I believe to be identical with the interests not only of Pharmaceutists and
of Pharmaceutical Science, but of the public generally.

On commencing the labours of another session, I hope I need only remind you of the
importance of attending the meetings as numerously and regularly as possible, because
this tends very much to encourage those who address us, and to diffuse more widely the
benefits which our scientific papers and discussions are intended and well fitted to im¬
part.

I am glad to say that hitherto this branch of the Society has prospered, and that our
meetings have, upon the whole, been highly successful. For this, however, we have
been mainly indebted to external aid, to the efficient help we have received from gentle¬
men, distinguished for their attainments in various departments of knowledge, lovers of
science for its own sake, and warm friends of the Society, who have contributed to this
success, both by the attraction of their names and the value of their addresses.

At the same time, it is due to the Society that I should acknowledge the valuable as¬
sistance we have received from some of our own members, who have on several occasions
read excellent papers, on a variety of important and interesting subjects. These efforts,
however, although highly appreciated, have not been so numerous or general as it is de¬
sirable they should be. It would, I am sure, be a very gratifying sign of progress if we
were a little more self-sustaining in this respect.

I am aware that the responsible duties connected with our business require a large
portion of our time and attention, and afford very little leisure for extra study, or
preparing papers on the subjects and phenomena which sometimes attract our notice.
Still it is probable there are some who have occasional opportunities for such exercises,
whose habits and tastes tend more in that direction, and who therefore might do much

PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

363

to assist us, and in so doing secure no small benefit to themselves. Indeed, each of us
should feel that we are responsible, to some extent, for the success of our meetings ; and
that we ought, if it be at all possible, to do something to increase their usefulness and
keep up their interesting and attractive character.

Since our last session, we have had some additional experience of the British Pharma¬
copoeia, and we are now in a position to judge of it more impartially, and perhaps more
favourably, than we did on its first appearance. At that time there was considerable dis¬
appointment, on account of the unexpected omission of many useful and familiar pre¬
parations ; and the apparently unnecessary changes which had been made in others, the
only obvious effects of which were to deprive us, to a large extent, of the benefit of know¬
ledge and experience which had cost us years of labour to acquire, and send us back to
begin our Pharmacopoeial studies once more.

This feeling, I believe, is fast passing away. We are now in some measure reconciled
to the change, and alive to the duty of adopting the new formulas, so far as it is in our
power to do so. But, it must not be forgotten that this matter is not entirely in our own
hands.

There is one part of the new' instructions which it is fortunate we did not adopt, viz.
that w'e “ should alter or destroy all pharmaceutic preparations, made according to the
previous, and now' altered formulae,” for it is evident from the number of old prescrip¬
tions, and the aversion to change, on the part of many of the medical profession and
the public, that they must have been reproduced at great trouble and expense. Never¬
theless, the new preparations are rapidly displacing the old ones, and so soon as there is
reason to believe that prescribers desire it, the substitution will become general. It is
our desire and our interest that it should be so as speedily as possible, that we may at
once enjoy the advantages which the change was intended to secure.

The publication of the British Pharmacopoeia, must be regarded as a very important
event in the history of phai'macy in Great Britain, as a very decided evidence of progress,
and a great triumph over national and professional prejudices. It must have been a task
of no ordinary difficulty, to reconcile the conflicting opinions of the various parties
engaged in preparing the work. For this, no doubt, concessions had to be made on all
sides. But these are hardly to be regretted, if we look to the grand result — a national
Pharmacopoeia, a uniform standard for the whole of the United Kingdom; which, although
far from being perfect, will doubtless be improved from time to time, as new editions are
required.

It seems probable, from the reports of Dr. Taylor and the medical officer of the
Privy Council, on poisoning, and the dispensing, vending, and keeping of poisons, that
there will ere long be another legislative effort to regulate the sale of poisonous sub¬
stances, to determine the safest mode of keeping them, and who are to be entrusted with
the duty of dispensing and vending them to the public. In such circumstances, it is well
to know that our interests are safe in the hands of the Council of the Pharmaceutical
Society in London, who will not only be among the first to welcome such a measure,
but to give every assistance in their power so as to render it practicable and efficient,
without unnecessarily hampering or restricting our operations.

This is just one of many benefits which result from our association. It provides us
among other things, with an active and intelligent executive, whose duty it is to watch,
and if possible guide every movement in the direction indicated, so that it may be
thoroughly matured, and carefully adapted to the end in view, — to guard us against crude
and ill-digested legislation on such an important subject, and what would really be a
great misfortune, its being left in the hands of those who have no special qualification
for the task, or practical acquaintance with the requirements of the business and the
public.

We have been strikingly and painfully reminded by what has recently occurred in
another part of the kingdom, of the immense responsibility which lies on us, both as
principals and assistants, in connection with this subject, and of the necessity not only
for constant care and watchfulness on our part, but of having all uncertainty as to the
kind and degree of our liability in cases of accident removed.

While we readily admit that every means should be taken to prevent mistakes, and to
protect the public from their consequences when they do occur, we feel on the other
hand that something should be done to protect us from the arbitrary and ruinous penal¬
ties which the present state of the law in England at least seems to sanction. If it can be

2 D 2

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PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

shown by the druggist that proper arrangements have been made, that everything has been
done which the most careful forethought could devise, that rules have been laid down, and
as far as possible enforced, and that the dispenser is well qualified for his duties, — I
think that is all that can reasonably be expected of us, for it is sitnply impossible that
principals can see and know, much less superintend all that is done, even in a limited
establishment, and therefore it is very difficult to see the justice of making one indivi¬
dual responsible for the act of another, over which he had no control and could do no¬
thing to prevent.

I believe the public have no idea of the care and anxiety of chemists and druggist
general]}7-, not only to prevent dangerous mistakes, but even trifling errors, which at once
arouse the suspicion of the patient and the medical attendant, and not infrequently de¬
stroy the confidence of both, thereby causing an amount of pecuniary loss, which of
itself is a strong guarantee against them.

As an evidence of our solicitude for the safety of the public and the preservation of
our professional character, I think we may safely point to our general accuracy, and the
beautiful and correct system of labelling which we have devised and spontaneously
carried out at great labour and expense, and that too in face of no small opposition from
the public themselves, who sometimes manifest considerable impatience even at the brief
delay which the operation occasions.

There are many, however, who think that something more should be done, and accord¬
ingly we have had a variety of suggestions as to the subject generally, and particularly
as to the internal economy of our establishments, — some suggesting improvements in the
shape of the shop bottles, and others in the kind and style of the labelling, etc. But
while there might not be any harm in making some changes in these respects, I do not
anticipate any* great benefit from them, because it is only transferring the responsibility
from one sense to another, from the sight to the touch, which is just as likely to be put
off its guard by familiarity with the object as the other. Supposing the chemist to
understand his business, I think the safeguards which experience suggests as the best, are
to put dangerous articles as far as possible out of the way, and quite separate from others
similar in appearance, but comparatively harmless ; to read the label on the bottle care¬
fully, both before and after removing, the quantity of its contents required, and in every
instance to determine mentally whether the substance used be right or wrong.

But whatever may be the course which the anticipated legislation may take, or tho
nature of its provisions, it cannot be doubted that the claims of the Pharmaceutical
Society to recognition, as a body qualified to deal in poisons, will be admitted. It is
therefore desirable that all qualified chemists and druggists should come forward and join
the Society, the real object of which is, not to seek exclusive privileges, but to secure the
benefit of all. I am glad to say that there are very gratifying symptoms of a fuller ap¬
preciation of its objects and benefits, and of an increasing desire to become members,
he result of which has been a large addition to our number both by admission and
restoration.

It seems reasonable to expect that this desire will spread, now that the chief obstacles
with regard to the time and the nature of the examinations have been removed by the
wise resolution of the examiners in London, not only to have separate examinations for
those in business, but to make them more practical than technical.

No druggist then, who has a practical knowledge of his business, who is well acquainted
with the appearance, the uses, the doses, the composition, and the usual tests and modes
of preparation of the various substances used in Pharmacy, need fear the examination ;
and I am sure that every one who wishes to stand well with himself, the medical pro¬
fession, and the public, will prefer it to simple registration as a chemist and druggist,
without any test of qualification.

I have observed with great satisfaction that a Pharmaceutical Conference has been es¬
tablished, because it affords another pleasing evidence that the labours of the Society are
hearing substantial fruit. The annual discussion of those subjects in which we are most
interested will, no doubt, be of great service to us, and to the cause generally, by bringing
out more prominently the talents and researches of pharmaceutists, raising pharmacy to
its proper place as a science worthy of »special study, and affording scope for the exercise
of the most powerful and most cultivated minds, and at the same time attractive enough
to excite the interest, engage the attention, and relieve the toil of the humblest ap¬
prentice.

PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

365

One very successful meeting of the Conference has already been held; judging from
the spirit and talent displayed, we have good grounds for believing that it will be per¬
manent, and that it will take no mean place among the scientific institutions of the
country.

Let us hope that on the next occasion Scotland may be wrell represented, that some of
our friends on this side of the Tweed may find it convenient to be present, and lend a
helping hand to the cause of Pharmaceutical progress and elevation.

In drawing these observations to a close, I have to announce to you that several valu¬
able additions have been made to the library, and new arrangements entered into with
the curator, Mr. Hill, for the purpose of rendering it more accessible, and encouraging
individuals to use it more extensively.

Dr. Macadam, I am glad to say, is to open the session by a lecture on Pharmaceutical
Chemistry, a subject of great practical importance to us, and I have no doubt that as on
other occasions on which we had the pleasure of hearing him, he will be listened to with
attention, and with much profit to ourselves.

Dr. Macadam moved a vote of thanks to the President, which was seconded by Mr.
Mackay, and carried with acclamation.

Dr. Macadam then read the following paper on Pharmaceutical Chemistry : —

Mr. President and Gentlemen, — The opportunity which is generally afforded me
once at least every year, to meet the members of the Pharmaceutical Society, and to
aid, as far as lies in my power, the interest of the public meetings, invariably recalls
to my mind many pleasant recollections of the past. I can never forget that it was
in connection with the Pharmaceutical Society that I delivered my first course of
systematic lectures on Chemistry, and that much encouragement was afforded me in
those early years by the countenance of the Society in my maiden courses of lectures,
and by the energetic and disinterested counsel and kind sympathy of your excellent
secretary.

When, therefore, a request was tendered to me about five weeks ago that I should
occupy a part of this evening, I embraced the opportunity of being present with much
pleasurable anticipation of meeting old friends, and of discoursing to them on some sub¬
ject connected with Pharmaceutical Chemistry ; and on thinking and rethinking over
the subject matter of my discourse, my mind wandered to the great aim of all Pharmaceu¬
tical knowledge and all Pharmaceutical skill, and I saw that behind all the bottles and
the dispensing-table, and above all the tinctures and the infusions, there was the great
mission of all Pharmaceutical Chemistry, which was to minister to the sustainment of
the bodily frame of the man animal in a state of health. And looking still more deeply,
and seeing how, when the vitality of the man was ebbing from his mortal frame, the
Pharmaceutical preparation appeared to resuscitate the enfeebled constitution, and
how, when the vital activity wras running its course in a heedless and feverish state, the
Pharmaceutical compound checked the speed and reined in the display of vital force, —
I then thought that the scientific vocation of the Pharmaceutist was a noble one, and
that it was more closely related to individual and national prosperity than what it is
often supposed to be.

Moreover, knowing well that the preparation of Pharmaceutical compounds could be
more properly discussed by a professed Pharmaceutist ; that the more strictly chemical
properties could be more profitably alluded to in the lecture-room ; and that the more
immediate medical effects could be better discussed upon before you by one of our
enlightened practitioners, — it became evident to me that my province on this occasion
was to refer you to the relations which more immediately connect Pharmaceutical
Chemistry with the vitality of the bodily frame in health and in sickness. xVnd this de¬
partment of the subject forced itself upon my attention, alike from its being one which
I have had great personal delight in studying for some time past, and because it
appeared to me that it would afford matter of discourse which -would be novel to many
present here, and therefore command your earnest attention.

The connection which subsists between the food of the animal and its growth and
sustenance, has long been observed in a partial way, and the necessity of a supply of
food for the building up of the animal structure, and the repair of injury, has been
universally admitted. It has remained for more recent physiological researches, however,
to show conclusively that the food of the animal does not only minister to the increase of

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PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

its bulk and to the replenishment of the wear and tear, hut it also supplies a certain amount
of force, which the animal avails itself of when asleep and when awake, and on which it
relies for the bodily strength it possesses, and for the force it exerts in daily work for
daily bread. And it has become equally apparent that the Pharmaceutic preparation
performs its important functions in the animal economy, by directing and controlling
the animal functions, and assisting the vital powers to remove impediments which retard
the changes which are consistent with proper health. The animal frame is in a state of
incessant change, and demands not only that the vacancies in the structure should be
filled in, but that the useless decayed matter should be removed. Diminution of the
supply necessarily leads to impoverishment of blood and body, and delay in removal of
used up matter leads to contamination of blood and unhealthiness of body.

The numberless transformations which are daily occurring in the animal structure are
directed or controlled by vital activity or vitality, which is the pilot or helmsman which
guides the matter and force in their sojourn through the animal economy. Many of the
changes which occur in the bodily frame, which were a few years ago regarded as mys¬
terious, are now explained by physical and chemical laws, and much that still has
baffled the insight of man will undoubtedly be unveiled in years to come.

No man of intelligence believes it possible that human ingenuity will ever succeed to
grapple with dead matter and impart life to it, but it is undoubted that the vital
activity displayed by an animal when once created by the Designer and Upholder of the
universe, can be influenced materially by natural forces, and is much under the control
of outward circumstances. The forces which more or less influence vital activity are
heat, light, electricity, magnetism, and chemical affinity, and both externally and inter¬
nally they perform important functions, and must be regarded as necessary stimuli.

Heat is a most important force in relation to vital phenomena. The higher animals
are much influenced by sudden elevations or depressions in temperature. Birds which
have an average warmth of 110° Fahr., when reduced to about 80° Fahr. succumb to the
effects of the cold, and man and other mammalia which have a temperature ranging
from 98° to 102°, cannot generally be reduced below 70° Fahr. without fatal consequences
ensuing. The majority of the higher animals can conform to circumstances of external
heat and cold, and by the development of more or less internal heat counterbalance, to-
some extent at least, for the external variations in temperature. But where the supply
of combustible matter within the living structure is sparing in quantity, and starvation
\ ensues, the internal source of heat day by day decreases in amount, and correspondingly
the vital activity becomes less powerful, and dwindles away till the flame of life flickers
and then dies out. Before the last stage has been reached, artificial heat from external
sources may revive the vital activity for the time, but where the production of heat in¬
ternally has almost failed, the vitality of the animal sinks and sinks till it is extinguished.
There are some exceptions to the rule, that decrease in temperature for 30° below the
normal heat proves antagonistic to the sustainment of vitality. Thus the polar bear and
marmot, having laid up a store of fat or combustible matter, can pass into a hybernating
state — a condition of torpor or sleep, and live for months in a state of dormant vitality,,
where the pulsations decrease from 150 to 15 per minute, or -J^th of the whole, and the
respirations, which number in active life 500, fall to 14 per hour; whilst the temperature
of the body may be reduced to within 2° or 3° of the freezing-point of water. These
hybernating animals awake from their condition of dormant vitality when the tempera¬
ture of the air rises, and renew their vigour, having only lost during their long sleep the
store of fat which they formerly possessed. All animal functions proceed more or less
quickly as the temperature is increased to a reasonable extent; and the stimulus which
external heat imparts to animal vigour may be well illustrated in the Triton, or water
newt, which when it loses a limb cannot restore it at low or winter temperatures, but
in summer weather, when the temperature ranges from 58° to 75° Fahr., the Triton pro¬
ceeds to make a speedy restoration of the lost limb. Another illustration of the effect
of external heat in giving a stimulus to vital activity is observed in the hatching of
the eggs of birds as well as those of serpents, where at ordinary temperatures the vi¬
tality of the germ lies dormant, and is only stimulated to action by the continued in¬
fluence of a higher temperature.

Light also exerts its stimulating powers in vital activity. In the vegetable kingdom
the absence of light is denoted by a sickly growth and a blanched aspect, and by the
want of that solidity of structure and healthiness of stem and root which the plant ex-

PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

367

hibits where favoured by sunshine. The effect of light on the animal kingdom is not
less decided. Tadpoles, when they are excluded from light, and whilst they may be
supplied with abundance of proper food, and the water containing the air they require
for respiration is a constant running stream, do not in the absence of light deve-
lope themselves further into frogs, but remain tadpoles, increasing in size no doubt,
but still only tadpoles, — in fact they become merely monster frog babies. During the
hatching of the silkworms’ eggs, the influence of light is decided, as, in the dark, few
of the eggs are hatched as compared with the number brought out in good light. Even
human beings are influenced by light. The inhabitants of cellars and dark caves have
a tendency to deformity, and the lighter our rooms are, and the more we are exposed to
light, then there is the less liability to deformity. In the hospitals in London and St.
Petersburg, it has been observed that in the wards which are best lighted, and es¬
pecially those which have a southern exposure, there are more recoveries of the sick,
and these recoveries are more speedy than in the darker wards, including those having
a northerly exposure.

Electricity and magnetism likewise play an important relation in the animal king¬
dom. The electrical and magnetic changes in our atmosphere undoubtedly influence
all organic structures, and much of the depression or elevation of animal spirits from
day to day may be probably ascribed to such changes. The influence of electrical
storms in souring milk, beer, soup, and other organic substances is well known, and it
has been long observed that the passage of a lightning flash through the animal frame,
not only causes death, but renders the body more liable to putrefaction, and probably
also leads to the coagulation of the albumen of the blood and other juices and liquids.

The relations which subsist between the physical forces and the vital activity of the
animal, is only partly observable when we confine our attention to heat, light, and elec¬
tricity and other forces, as acting externally in the animal economy. It is only when
these and similar forces are recognized to be present in the food or medicine which are
partaken of internally, that a more full insight is gained into the dependence of vitality
upon the physical forces. And even then comparatively little can be known or observed
unless we carry along with us the important doctrines and conclusions derived from the
study of the mode in which one force can pass into another.

Modern scientific inquiry has done much to establish the two following points : —

1st. That the food of the animal not only supplies material to build up the structure
and to replenish waste, but that it also yields force which can be stored up in the animal
economy and used, as necessity may require, in the display of vital energy.

And 2nd. That all the physical forces — heat, light, electricity, motion, magnetism,
and chemical affinity — are transmutable one into the other, and that they can directly
and indirectly minister to the vital force of the animal.

It will conduce to perspicuity in the study of this intricate and highly philosophical
department of science if I refer first to the mutual convertibility of the physical forces,
and thereafter observe the mode in which these can operate to sustain the vital activity
of the animal. And I may state at once that the views held by scientific men on these
points at the present day are mainly due to the labours of Mayer and Helmholtz on the
Continent, and of Faraday, Grove, Jones, Thomson, and Tyndall in this country.

The forces which have specially been experimented upon so as to exhibit the trans¬
mutation of one force into the other, are motion, heat, electricity, light, magnetism, and
chemical affinity. Motion becomes heat when we rub or clap our hands ; when two
pieces of wood are rubbed against each other, as practised by uncivilized nations in order
to procure fire ; when the blacksmith strikes rapidly the rod of iron till it becomes
sensibly red-hot ; when a nail is held to a grindstone in motion till the nail becomes
unpleasantly warm, and when the badly greased axle of the railway carriage admits of
sufficient friction being exerted between the axle and its bearings so as to raise these to a
red-heat and set fire to the carriage. Motion becomes electricity when two pieces of white
sugar, or two quartz pebbles, are struck together in a darkened room, and a luminous
electrical glow is developed ; when two clouds rub against each other in the atmosphere,
giving rise to one form of the lightning or electrical flash, and when a glass rod cr
cylinder is subjected to the friction of silk, as in the ordinary frictional electrical ma.-
chine. Motion can pass into light when the heat of friction is sufficiently high to
appear as light.

Heat becomes motion, as may be evidenced during the fusing of the metals when the

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PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

motion of the particles is developed ; by the passage of ice into water and subsequently
into steam, when the molecular motion gives rise to much dilation, and by the expansion
of the liquid in the thermometer, which is a measurer of the intensity of heat, by the
motion of the particles of the fluid. Heat becomes electricity, as observed in the thermo¬
electric batteries, where the heating of two metals in contact with each other developes
electricity. Heat becomes light when it impinges upon a solid body, as by the introduction
of a piece of platinum or infusible fire-clay in the flame of hydrogen, when a brilliant light
is developed from the heat of the burning gas. Heat becomes chemical action, as in our
fires and gas-jets, the combustibles in which will not burn till a lighted taper is applied,
and the heat so brought in contact with them determines chemical affinity between the
combustible and the oxygen of the air ; and in the explosion of gunpowder by the
application of a heated rod, when the heat determines a new chemical arrangement of
the particles of the gunpowder.

Electricity becomes motion when the lightning flash strikes a house and dislodges
the stones. Electricity becomes heat when a powerful current is arrested in its course
by its passage along a thin wire, or when the lightning flash sets fire to combustible sub¬
stances. Electricity becomes light when it bridges over a short space between two char¬
coal points, and gives rise to the electric light. Electricity becomes magnetism when
the force conveying the current is wound round a piece of soft iron, which is immediately
converted into a powerful magnet.

Light becomes chemical action, as in the photographic processes, where it developes a
change in the chemical nature of the substances on the photographic plate ; and in the
formation and fading of natural and artificial colours. The sun’s heat and light, lying
dormant in the coal and wood, become chemical action during the combustion, which
then developes itself as heat and light once again.

Magnetism becomes motion when a magnet draws or moves towards itself the iron
keeper or nails which are placed in its vicinity, and the development of motion from
magnetism is most clearly evidenced in the electro-magnetic machines which revolve
with greater or less rapidity. Magnetism is ccnverted into electricity in the magneto¬
electric machines which are now so largely employed for electro-plating and electro¬
gilding, and for telegraphic communication.

Chemical affinity becomes motion during the combination and decomposition of sub¬
stances when there is a molecular rearrangement of the atoms. Chemical affinity
developes itself as heat in the operations which occur in our ordinary fireplaces, where
the chemical union of the oxygen of the air with the coal gives rise to heat. Chemical
affinity passing into electricity occurs in every kind of galvanic battery where the che¬
mical action of the acid liquid upon the zinc plates developes a sensible amount of elec¬
tricity. Chemical affinity becomes light, as evidenced in the burning of every candle
and gas jet, where the oxygen of the air enters into chemical union with the oil or gas,
and yields light.

The foregoing illustration of the correlation of the physical forces will suffice to show
that one form of force can pass into and become another form of force ; and that as there
is no loss of matter on the surface of the earth, there is likewise no loss or annihilation
of force. The sun, which is not only the centre and mainspring of our planetary sphere,
but is also the great reservoir of force for the planetary orbs, is unceasingly throwing
out force, and as unceasingly absorbing force from planetary space. The heat thrown
off from the surface of the sun is equal to what would be evolved by the combustion of
three-fifths of a ton of coal on each square foot of surface during each hour, and the
temperature is as much higher than our artificial sources as the light of the sun is above
all artificial sources of illumination. The heat evolved by the sun is so great, that a
cylinder of ice forty miles in diameter driven with the velocity of light, viz. 192,000
miles in a second, would be liquefied before it reached the sun ; and during every minute
the sun radiates forth heat sufficient to boil 12,000,000,000 of cubic miles of ice-cold
water. The proportion of the heat of the sun which falls the upon earth is less than
a 2,000,000,000th of the whole heat-force evolved from that great calorific luminary,
but this moiety is sufficient for the mighty physical changes which occur in this com¬
paratively pigmy world, but to us a great globe. The sun’s heat and light are absorbed
by every plant, and become stored up in the wood and food supplied by the vegetable
kingdom, so that when the wood is burned in our fireplaces, the heat and light of
the sun are evolved for economic purposes ; and when the food is partaken of by the

PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

369

animal, and the elements are burned within the animal frame, the sun force developes
the animal warmth, and becomes the motive agent which enables man and the other
animals to perform their allotted tasks. The coal is fossil-wood with its store of solar
force absorbed many ages ago, and the fat and muscle of the animal are aggregations
of atoms held together by solar force, and suitable for future use. The sun not only
guides our planet in space, but it raises water in vapour from the ground and surface
of the sea, and rains it down on upland districts, giving rise to streams, and sup¬
plying the running force which moves the water-wheel of the factory. The sun, too,
causes the motion among the particles of the air which gives rise to local and trade
winds which move our vessels from shore to shore, and drive our windmills ; and
influencing the waters of the ocean, the sun gives rise to the water-currents so well
instanced in the Gulf-stream, and to the tides directly and indirectly through the moon.
The solar orb directs the magnetic and electrical storms which more or less influence
the earth at all times, and which, probably in an intense degree, as developed within
the crust of the globe, give rise to earthquake action and volcanoes. In short, the
sun is the all-motive agency in the physical world.

We are now in a position to understand the remaining proposition, viz. that the
food of the animal not only supplies material to build up the living structure and
to replenish waste, but that it also yields force which can be stored up in the animal
economy, and used, as necessity may require, in the display of vital energy. In the
discussion of this subject, it matters little whether we regard life as the mode of activity
peculiar to certain organized beings, or as the special agency inherent in each organized
structure ; as in either case life cannot be considered as derivable from physical forces,
but must be acknowledged to be a mysterious agency implanted in the animal by an
all- wise Creator, and which directs or controls the matter and force which enter the animal
economy.

The physico-chemical conditions which minister as stimulants, have been stated to
be both external and internal, and the latter are supplied directly or indirectly by
plants. During its growth, the plant has built up in its structure not only matter, but
force in the form of chemical affinity, and when the plant is partaken of as food by the
animal, the matter and the force become available to the animal. Certain of the plant
elements go to form fatty tissue, which can be stored in the animal frame and form a
reservoir of fuel which can be burned at a future time ; and part is used directly as
fuel, so that by its combustion the animal warmth may be sustained. Certain of the
other compounds of plant matter are elaborated by the animal into muscular and nervous
tissue, and are stored up as force matter in the animal frame, whilst in other part they
rapidly undergo changes, and by their disintegration they yield the force exerted by
the animal.

These functions which the food of the animal fulfils, are very much the counterpart
of the processes which occur in an ordinary steam engine. A stock of coal is used in
the fireplace, which by its combustion supplies the requisite warmth, and a supply of
water is raised into steam, and gives rise to motive power ; so in the animal economy,
the elements of food which can form fatty tissue are burned in the animal structure so as
to supply animal warmth, and the compounds which form nervous and muscular tissue
are destroyed so as to yield force which is displayed as vital activity. Certain of the
food compounds undergo change in the blood, and there yield heat and force, whilst
others are stored up as fatty, nervous, and muscular tissue. In the building up or con¬
struction of those parts, heat and force are expended which can only be obtained by the
destruction of another portion, which may howevey be more or less supplemented by
external heat.

The animal system is in a state of incessant motion, and therefore there must be in¬
cessant change. The destruction of the animal tissue during the display of the nervous
and muscular functions, gives rise to the development of force in two ways : — first in the
passage of matter from the living to the dead state, when the force exerted by the plant
and the animal in the production of organized tissue is evolved ; and second, in the dis¬
integration and separation of the compound atoms of muscle from each other, and the
resolution of those compound atoms into more simple substances.

The motive force, therefore, which is exhibited by the animal, is obtained by the
destruction of muscular and nervous tissue, and the breaking up of similar compounds
which are flowing in the blood. Labour, which requires the strength of the arm, and

370

PHARMACEUTICAL

SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

thought, which is the work of the brain, alike necessitate the destruction of tissue and
the evolution of force.

The strict connection between the destruction of fatty and muscular tissue, and the
amount of work done — which is the vital activity displayed by the animal — has received
ample confirmation by the researches of Dr. Edward Smith. When the human body is in
a quiescent state, but not sleeping, the amount of carbon and hydrogen burned during
one hour evolves heat sufficient to raise the body or a similar weight of water 2b° Fahr.,
and one-half of this quantity is only produced when the body is asleep. During hard
work, as in ascending a hill at the rate of 1712 feet per hour, or in working a treadmill,
there are five times as much carbonic acid evolved, indicating that a five-fold destruction
of matter has been occurring in the animal economy. Of this increased amount, it is
known that one-fifth is alone required to be expended in the mechanical work of raising
the body to the height of 1712 feet in the hour, so that four-fifths of the whole heat
evolved during the hour have escaped as heat, and hence the cause of the perspira¬
tion which generally accompanies mountain rambles. There is apparently, therefore, in
the animal economy a loss of power in the form of heat, but in reality the available mo¬
tive power is greater than what can be obtained from the best constructed thermo-dynamic
engine, where only one-eighth of the force produced from the combustion of the car¬
bon and the hydrogen, is obtained as motive powrer, and the remaining seven-eighths
are lost in the form of heat. The animal body is therefore a more complete motor
machine than the steam engine, and it illustrates to us even more forcibly than an ordi¬
nary machine can do, that whilst there is a circulation in force, there is also a conserva¬
tion of force, and that there is no annihilation of power. The forces of heat and light
which the sun supplied to the plant during its growth, and which the plant stored up
in the chemical compounds it elaborated, have been handed over to the animal when
the plant was partaken of as food, and the animal in its turn has disposed of them as
heat and motor force, so that what the plant abstracted from nature has been restored
by the animal to nature ; and this statement applies equally to force and to matter.

The doctrine of perpetual motion is one which is justly scoffed at, so far as the pos¬
sibility of its being attained by human ingenuity or invention, but perpetual motion is
fully carried on in all the relations of the mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms, and
in the workings of this great universe.

In the numberless changes to which matter is subjected in the animal economy, let
one atom lose its place or be tardy in its movements, and the system becomes deranged,
and the Pharmaceutical compound is called upon to aid vitality in ridding the body of
the troublesome atom, and in establishing order again. Let the forces which are evolved
from the disintegration of the food compounds, whilst sojourning in the animal struc¬
ture, be slow in their evolution, and the system become debilitated, then the function of
the Pharmaceutical preparation is to nerve the sinking frame ; and if the forces arc
unduly exerted and the animal economy is running a heedless course, then the Pharma¬
ceutical preparation assists normal vitality in reducing the body to a quiescent state.

In all these processes, no doubt, there is much of a mysterious nature, and much which
we caqnot comprehend, and may never be able to do so. What vitality is in essence is
beyond our view. We can observe its mode of action — to some extent we can control its
mode of action by the administration of food and medicine, and by external forces, but
we can never originate it. We can create nothing, and when once life forsakes the plant
or the animal, all the cunning devices of man fail to influence its movements and are
powerless to restore it.

Certain it is that in the hands of the great Creator of the universe, the world rolls on
its course, and each plant and each animal ministers to our daily wants ; and possessing
apparently the same living powers, the wheat and the potato, the corn and the apple
yield us food ; and the poppy, cinchona, and nux vomica, yield us medicine ; whilst all,
in their relations of feeders of matter and of force to the animal structure, demon¬
strate, not only that we are fearfully and wonderfully made, but read us the lesson, how
marvellously well each part of nature performs its allotted task, and how nicely balanced
are all created things.

A vote of thanks, proposed by Mr. Blanchard, was cordially given to Dr. Macadam, for
his interesting paper.

A specimen of scannnony root, imported from Killis, in 'Asia Minor, by Mr. Ransom,
of Hitchin, was presented to the Society for the museum. Thanks voted.

PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

371

Howell’s new capsule for poison bottles was also submitted to the meeting. A long
discussion took place, and while the ingenuity of the application was admired, the pro¬
priety of securing any dispensing bottle, whether containing poisonous substances or not,
was much doubted, and ultimately the whole subject was remitted to a committee to
consider and report to a subsequent meeting.

The Secretary then read over a list of new books just purchased, and named the pre¬
sentation by Dr. Borland, of Kilmarnock, of the London Dispensatory of 1751, and the
Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia of 1752. Thanks were voted to Dr. Borland for his contri¬
bution.

The new arrangements in connection with the library for the present session were then
announced, and the meeting adjourned.

The second meeting of session ’G4-5, was held in St. George’s Hall, 119a, George
Street, on Tuesday evening, 13th December, at 9 o’clock ; Mr. Kemp, President, in the
chair.

Before the commencement of the business of the evening, Mr. Mackay made the fol¬
lowing remarks in presenting a bust of the late Jacob Bell : — •

I have now much pleasure in presenting to the Society here, a bust of our late lamented
friend and founder, Jacob Bell. It is the gift of Thomas H. Hills, Esq., of London.
Some time ago the original bust was executed in marble, at the expense of Mr. Hills,
who, in that liberal spirit which is so truly one of his leading characteristics, gave it as
a memorial to the Society in Bloomsbury Square, where it now stands in a very promi¬
nent position. All who have seen this original, or the copy now before you, pronounce
both to be very faithful representations of the expressive and intelligent countenance of
the late Mr. Bell. Many now present will, I doubt not, be able to add their testimony
to this statement. I am sure I speak the sentiments of those now hearing me, when I
say, that while to the present generation of Pharmaceutists no monument is required to
keep alive in them, either the memory or esteem of Jacob Bell; yet it cannot be doubted
so faithful a likeness as that now before us, will in no way lessen our appreciation or
admiration of so much departed worth, while to those who are to follow, its possession
cannot but prove a source of unmingled satisfaction.

After a few remarks from the President, as to the unwearied labours of the late Mr.
Bell, and the bright example he had left behind him, he proposed a cordial vote of thanks
to Mr. Hills for his kind and appropriate gift, which was seconded by Mr. Blanchard,
and carried with acclamation.

Professor Archer, of the Edinburgh Museum of Science and Art, then read the fol¬
lowing “ Notes on Brazilian Pharmacy,” which he illustrated with specimens of the dif¬
ferent articles named : —

Oil or Butter of Cacao. — Very few solid vegetable oils wrould have stronger recom¬
mendations to use in Pharmacy than this, if it were obtainable in sufficient quantities,
but the value of the nuts for making the diet drinks, cocoa and chocolate, prevents any
very considerable quantities being made. The Brazilians, however, make sufficient for
their own purposes, and small quantities are exported by them to Portugal, France, and
England, where its sweet and bland qualities have made it much valued for lip salves,
unguents for chapped hands, and for pomades, for which purposes it is eminently fitted
by its neutral properties. No vegetable fat is so devoid of odour, or so little liable to
rancidity. It is obtained by bruising or grinding the kernels of the nuts and boiling
them ; by this means the oil is easily separated and floats to the surface in a liquid state,
but solidifies on cooling, when it is taken off, remelted, and clarified. The nuts yield
nearly fifty per cent, of this fat. In the cocoa plantations the oil is used for burn¬
ing. The Brazilians have discovered a peculiar property in this oil, by which it can be
converted into a permanently fluid state, and its illuminating powers be very greatly in¬
creased. They distil from the liquid caoutchouc, or milk of india-rubber tree, a spirit
which they call caoutchouc ine, and a very small quantity of this added to the cacao butter
renders it very limpid, and increases its light-giving properties. If the demand for the
oil should ever be much increased in Europe, there is no doubt it might easily be ob¬
tained.

Andiroba , Carapa , Car ah, or Crab Oil. — Another vegetable butter, which is exten-

O iz

PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

sively used, not only in Brazil but in most parts of South America and the West Indies.
It is obtained from the kernels of carapa nuts, the fruit of Carapa guianensis, Natural
Order Meliciceaz. Wherever it is known, it has a great reputation as an external application
for rheumatic pains and as a vermifuge, besides which, notwithstanding its rather dis¬
agreeable odour, it is in great repute as a pomade, having the property of preventing pre¬
mature greyness and baldness. No proper analysis of this oil has been puhlished, but
its properties probably reside in some peculiar bitter principle, as the oil has a strong
bitter taste; besides its medicinal virtues if is much used for oiling steel and iron arti¬
cles, as it is held to be a remarkable preservative from rust. There is a liquid andiroba
oil, but how it is obtained or what its especial qualities are is not known.

Cumaru Oil. — This is obtained from the seeds called Tonquin or Tonka Beans, the
produce of the one- seeded legumes of Dipterix odorcita. It is of two kinds, one solid
and the other liquid. The former is obtained by crushing and boiling the seeds, by
which the oil is liberated, and when the water is cold it is removed in a solid state, re¬
melted and clarified. The liquid oil is procured by expressing the sesds ; both are used in
perfumery and for ulcerations of the mouth and lips ; but for the perfumer the liquid oil
is much the more valuable, as it contains most of the active principle of the seed, coumarin.
This peculiar organic principle is not confined to the Tonquin bean, but is found in the
Woodruff and Melilot, and gives its delicious odour to our hay-fields, through the
vernal grass Anthoxanthum odoratum. It is easily obtained from the Tonquin bean by
alcoholic digestion, and it is abundantly deposited in fine needle-shaped crystals in the
liquid oil ; its composition, according to Miller, is CISHG04, its melting-point is 122°,
and its boiling-point 518° ; if boiled with nitric acid, it forms first nitro-coumarin
C18tIrN0404, but if boiled too long it passes into carbazotic acid, HO,C12, H2N0403. If
boiled with a concentrated solution of hydrate of potash, it is converted into coumaric
acid combined with potash. This change is effected by its assimilation of the elements
of water in the hydrate.

Alligator Oil , Olio de Jacare. — This is expressed or melted from the adipose tissue of
the alligator. It has a strong nauseous smell. It is considered a powerful remedy,
used as a liniment in rheumatism ; its other uses in Brazil are for burning in common
lamps, and for mixing with hydraulic cement.

Mantega Oil or Turtle Oil , obtained from the eggs of the turtle called Emys
scabra, is procured in great abundance from the eggs deposited by the animals to be
hatched in the warm sands of the islands of the Amazon. The quantity yielded by each
annual turtle-egg harvest is estimated at from 25,000 to 30,000 gallons. Each collector
takes a boat to the haunts of the turtle, and the eggs as they are collected are thrown
into the boat and smashed by trampling on them. The heat of the sun soon causes
decomposition, and the oil separates and floats on the top of the putrescent and stinking
mass, from which it is skimmed off and filled into jars ; the chief use of the oil is for
cooking, instead of butter, by the poorer classes. But it is generally used as a cure for
rheumatism by external rubbing.

Oil of Sassafras. — This is a beautiful essential oil of the nature of turpentine, ob¬
tained from the bark and wood of Nectandra Cymbarum , it has an agreeable camphora-
ceous odour, and is much used as a rubefacient in rheumatic affections. It would be
very desirable to ascertain if it could be supplied to this country as a large article of
commerce during the present high price of turpentine, as it is even a better solvent of
many gums, and would be of great value to the painters and varnish- makers.

The Puchury nuts or Sassafras nuts used for flavouring chocolate, etc., are the cotyle¬
dons of the seeds of another species of Nectandra, N. Puchury.

A vote of thanks to Professor Archer, proposed by Mr. Aitken and seconded by Mr.
Stephenson, was enthusiastically passed.

Specimens of four varieties of dried flowers for scenting teas, from Canton, were
presented from the Society in London for the Museum in Edinburgh.

The Report of Committee appointed at last meeting, on the use of means to protect
poison-bottles in dispensing, was promised at the next meeting.

PROVINCIAL TRANSACTIONS.

LEEDS CHEMISTS’ ASSOCIATION.

The Second Meeting of the Session was held at the Library of the Association, on the
evening of November 1G, 1 864-, the President (Mr. Haigh) in the chair.

The President delivered the following address : —

I congratulate the Members and Associates of the Leeds Chemists’ Association upon
its having safely passed the critical period of the first two years of existence. This is
the surest guarantee that we shall hold together as a society, and continue to have these
pleasant meetings, which are so well calculated to confirm and strengthen the friendly
relations which exist among us, while, at the same time, by their means, we carry out
the primary objects of our association. It is a great advantage also, that by its means,
with very little delay, we can so readily meet together to express an opinion, in our col¬
lective capacity, on any matter affecting the trade, or upon any subject of general
interest, such as the Metrical System of Weights and Measures, Poison Bill, etc. This
is important, when it is borne in mind what a disposition there is in the present day — no
doubt with the praiseworthy object of improvement — to alter existing regulations of all
kinds. Praiseworthy this disposition is, to a certain extent, but, like every other good
thing, it may be carried too far. Most desirable it is that every practicable arrangement
which can be devised should be brought into operation, for the prevention of accidental
poisoning, and I hope that, at no distant date, the intelligence of the age will accomplish
this ; while, at the same time, powerful medicines shall be as readily procurable as at
present, in the constantly recurring cases of urgent necessity. I think there is no doubt
of the correctness of the opinion of our Committee in their last report, in which they
say, “ It is certain that the greatest attainable security to the public from accident, in
the use of poisons, can only be reached by raising the standard of character and education,
in those who deal in and dispense them.” It is this intelligence only that can deal with
another matter, which may be said to be in immediate connection, and which, I think,
no act of the Legislature could reach ; I refer to the class of articles which are dangerous
if improperly used, in fact, poisonous, but which are not. included in any list of poisons
that I have seen. In point of fact, to answer the question — What is a poison ? seems
to me more difficult than to answer the question of a late celebrated statesman, “What
is a pound?” Is Saltpetre a poison? Is Tartaric Acid a poison? I have known
instances of persons poisoned by both these articles, and yet it could never be considered
that these and similar articles should be included in a list of poisons ! I mention them,
more particularly because they bear upon another matter, respecting which, I think, a
word may not inappropriately come from me — I mean shop arrangement. I have seen
or read of two bottles of the same size, on the same shelf, labelled “ Sodas Tart.” and
“ Acid. Tart.” Half an ounce of the latter sent out in mistake for the former produced
death. I remember an instance of poisoning by half an ounce of Saltpetre being sent
out instead of Epsom Salts. I have seeu “ Mag. Sulph.” and “ Zinc. Sulph.” in the
same row of drawers, also “Hydrarg. Chlor.” and “ Hydrarg. Bichlor.” in the same row
of bottles. These few remarks will serve to draw our attention to the great importance
of careful shop-arrangement, and of its absolute necessity in respect to dangerous articles.
While I am on this subject I cannot refrain from saying, that if it were for no other
merit than the care and pains with which, month by month, the Editors of the 1 Phar¬
maceutical Journal ’ bring before the trade the various accidents and disasters occurring
from poisons and other matters, the conductors of that Journal would be entitled to our
thanks. I am satisfied that the good done in this way is incalculable. I will say here,
that for years past I have constantly looked through this report, and also been careful
to call the attention of my assistants to it. It cannot do otherwise than cause greater
care and thought, and I commend it, not only to the younger members of the trade, but
to all of us, how long soever our experience may be.

In an address like the present, it would seem an unaccountable omission, if I did not
make some reference to the British Pharmacopoeia, of which, there is no doubt, it may
be said, that it has not been favourably received by a portion of the medical profession
and others. It is a satisfaction to me publicly to state, that I do not participate in these

374

LEEDS CHEMISTS’ ASSOCIATION.

unfavourable views. No doubt it has faults, many faults, both of omission and com¬
mission. It would be a most extraordinary thing if it had not. It was a great work to
accomplish, under unfavourable circumstances, by a number of persons situated at con¬
siderable distances from each other, and having many difficulties and prejudices to com¬
bat with. I think injustice has been done to these gentlemen, and they have received
few thanks, although no body of men could be more properly entitled to them. By
their efforts, we have now one Pharmacopoeia for the whole of Great Britain. And,
although I should like to see some old formulae re-introduced, I trust, in a little while,
the portion of the public whom it more immediately concerns will regard it as entitled
to universal adoption, and that, like the British Constitution, it will never be subjected to
any revolutionary assaults, but only such well-considered and deliberate alterations and
amendments as the intelligence and science of future years may bring to bear upon it.

With respect to the practical, every-day operations of the shop, I will name one or
two things. The new Pharmacopoeia contains the wrell-known mode of preparing
Pilula Plummeri with castor oil. He must have been born a genius wffio invented this
mode of dealing with such a mass. I need hardly say that this article is now called by
the jaw-breaking name of Pilula Calomelanos Composita. Another little matter which
I will name is, that during the prevalence of influenza in this town, when, the older
portion of us will remember, there was such an unprecedented demand for Tinctura
Camphorse Composita that there was not time to prepare it in the ordinary way, the
remedy was sometimes made by ascertaining the amount of Opium required, which tvas
contained in Tinctura Opii, and by lessening the quantum of spirit accordingly the
article was prepared in a few minutes. Perhaps this might have been done with boiling
water, but I think not so well. I mention these little matters, in order that I may sub¬
mit for the consideration of our members and associates, the advisability of giving us
some papers during the ensuing monthly meetings, upon these ordinary, every-day,
practical manipulations, required in our business. I know' some members of our Society
who can give us valuable information on these matters, and I hope they will do so.

I am desirous, as your President, of referring to the interesting and clever papers
which were read to us by two associates, during the past year. I trust that they will
not only favour us again during the present year, but that their excellent example
will be followed by others of the young men connected with this association.

I also venture to express the wish that the example of our little association in Leeds,
which includes members of both the Pharmaceutical and United Society, could be
followed by a union of those societies. The progress and large amount of support which
the United Society has obtained throughout the length and breadth of the land, may,
I think, be regarded as proof that the object which the Pharmaceutical Society has
alw'ays had in view, namely, to unite in one society all the members of our business, is
in reality the object and wish of the entire trade. If any one will read the publications
of both societies, I defy him to come to any other conclusion, than that the object of
both societies, and the mode in which both societies would carry out that objeet, are
exactly and entirely identical. If such is the case, I ask, wffiat is there to prevent
the amalgamation of the two? In my judgment there is nothing. If a deputation
of two or three gentlemen from each society w'ere appointed to meet, who were really
wishful to effect this most desirable object, I am confident they would effect it, and
the more so, because I have not met, at any time, with any person in our business
who did not desire that it should take place.

The institution of the British Pharmaceutical Conference last year, one of the funda¬
mental objects of which is the promotion of friendly intercourse between all engaged in
the practice of Pharmacy, shows very clearly the feeling that exists in the minds of
the leading men among us upon this subject.

Mr. Harvey expressed the satisfaction with which he had listened to the address just
delivered. The probability that the subject of Poisons would be a matter for early
legislative interference, made it fitting that the President should have given it the pro¬
minence which he had done. He concurred most heartily with what had been said
about the importance of shop arrangements, and the necessity for separating those pre¬
parations whose proximity had been found by experience to lead to error. Surely the
sad case at Liverpool enforced this lesson more strongly than any other. It had for
many years been his practice to tie over the stoppers of bottles containing the more
dangerous drugs, and he was convinced of the utility of the plan.

LEEDS CHEMISTS’ ASSOCIATION.

375

With regard to what had been said about the desirability of union amongst all com¬
petent persons engaged in pharmacy, he agreed with those sentiments entirely. There
might be difference of opinion as to the way in which this important end should be ac¬
complished, but he was satisfied that it was perfectly feasible. Mr. H. concluded by
moving a vote of thanks to the President for his address.

Mr. G. Ward, F.C.S., seconded the resolution. He said that the address of the Pre¬
sident was just of the kind which the Association required. It was a thoroughly practi¬
cal address to a body of practical men. He was glad that allusion had been made to
the hard measure of criticism dealt out to the British Pharmacopoeia in many quarters.
It could not be denied that the work was a most important step in the right direction,
having substituted one authoritative code for three such, and having made the way for
future reforms comparatively easy. With three committees acting in three distant
places, a better result could hardly have been expected. Mr. W. congratulated the
.society upon the good attendance that evening.

The vote of thanks was passed by acclamation.

The Secretary, Mr. E. Yewdall, read a paper upon “ Liquor Ferri Perchloridi B. P.”
He commenced by alluding to the irregularity which had been found to exist in the
strength of Tinctura Ferri Sesquichlor., P. L., in consequence, to a great extent, of the
insolubility of much of the peroxide of iron of commerce.* With a view to correct this
uncertainty, the new formula was introduced. The author alluded to the criticisms of
various writers upon the subject, and said that he agreed with the statements that the
B. P. process might give a liquor of a dark, almost black colour, depositing basic per¬
chloride when mixed with spirit of wine. But this condition was not a necessary one ; it
was contingent upon the temperature at which the evaporation of the solution was con¬
ducted after the N05 had been added. The B. P. did not define this temperature. If
a low heat were used, the condition just described would occur. On the other hand, if
the solution is quickly heated to 190° or 200° Fahr., violent action occurs, binoxide of
nitrogen evolves, and the black turbid appearance of the solution is changed to a dark
bright red. Although a flask is best adapted for effecting the solution of the iron wire,
the second stage of the operation, in which N05 is heated with the solution, requires
the employment of an evaporating dish, or accident may occur.

He considered that more hydrochloric acid was desirable than was ordered by the
B. P. Instead of 10 fl. oz., he used 11| fl. oz., dissolving the iron in a flask stopped by
a cork, with a small exit tube. Pouring this solution into an evaporating-basin, it
was rapidly heated to 190° or 200 Fahr., and then gently evaporated to 10 fl. oz. This
solution answered in all respects to the tests given in the B. P. It had a specific
gravity of 1-339, and one fluid drachm precipitated by NH3, gave 15-6 grains of
FeoO;j after washing, drying, and incinerating. The tincture made from this liquor is
bright, free from any black colour, and does not deposit by keeping.

Since a solution of perchloride of iron gradually decomposes by the influence of light
into protochloride and free chlorine, it should be preserved in a dark place.

The paper was illustrated by specimens, showing both successful and faulty prepara¬
tions.

Mr. Abbott confirmed the statements of the author as to the possibility of preparing
the solution satisfactorily, if the precautions detailed were adopted. He did not even
consider that there was any necessity for increasing the quantity of H Cl.

Mr. Atkinson was not prepared to admit the necessity for a new formula, as he had
not found any difficulty in getting a peroxide of iron that was entirely soluble in II Cl.

Mr. Reynolds quoted Dr. Attfield’s statement that the B. P. gave a product contain¬
ing protochloride, perchloride, and pernitrate of iron with free nitric acid. Such being
the case, the composition of the medicine must be totally unconstant, and as uniformity
of composition must be paramount to methods of preparation, he felt justified in attain¬
ing the strength of the B. P. preparation by the old method of dissolving the peroxide.
He knew that some houses of great repute were doing the same.

The President quoted the preface to the late London Pharmacopoeia to the effect
that although certain methods of manufacture were directed for the guidance of those
engaged in pharmacy, the College did not forbid the employment of other means of
producing the same result. This showed that the end was more important than the

* Pharm. Journ. N. s. vol. iv. p. 490.

376

MEETING OF CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS, GLASGOW.

means , and since it could not be doubted that the end was to procure a pure and staple
solution of perchloride of iron, it became a duty if the case required it, to use more
hydrochloric acid, or attain the same object by some other means. He moved that the
thanks of the meeting were due to Mr. Yewdall, which was seconded by Mr. Atkinson
and carried.

MEETING OF CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS AT GLASGOW.

A Meeting of Chemists and Druggists was held in the Lesser Trades Hall, Glassford
Street, on Thursday, 24th November, to consider the proposed Bills of the Pharmaceutical
and United Societies ; copies of each Bill had been distributed amongst the profession
during the previous week, by the Chemists and Druggists’ Association.

During the preliminary arrangement for the meeting it was matter of discussion
whether it should be one of employers only, but seeing that the proposed Bills were
intended to affect all the profession, an invitation was in accordance issued to all.

A deputation from the Pharmaceutical Society, Edinburgh, was present, consisting of
the following gentlemen: — Mr. Kemp, President; Messrs. Brown, Ainslie, Blanchard,
Young, and Mr. John Mackay, Secretary.

Mr. C. Buott, Registrar of the United Society, was also present at the meeting.

Amongst the employers present were the following : — Messrs. Hugh Hart, John Currie,
James Murdock, John Jaap, Alexander Ivinninmont, John Black, Thomas D. Moffat,
John Campbell, James Taite, Peter Harrower, David P. Walker, Andrew Wylie, James
N. Shearer, J. White, James Sutherland, T. H. Schlater, Clark, Hatrick, Henderson,
Paterson, Taylor, Dr. Dobbie, Mr. Rait, of Partick ; Mr. MNaught, of Greenock ; Mr.
Ferguson, of Greenock, etc. etc. ; and a large number of assistants.

On the motion of Mr. John Campbell, seconded by Mr. Moffat, Mr. Hugh Hart was
called to the chair.

The Chairman then introduced to the meeting Mr. C. Buott, of the United Society of
Chemists and Druggists, who at great length reviewed the policy adopted by the Phar¬
maceutical Council; he used the term “ Council ” advisedly, because he was satisfied
that very many members of the Pharmaceutical Society did not homologate the policy
pursued by the Council. He contended that that policy had been inconsistent, antago¬
nistic to, and incompatible with the desires and wishes of the trade, — not a representative
policy, but one of exclusion, quite different, he was sure, from that which their founder,
and that great champion of pharmaceutical reform, the late Jacob Bell, contemplated ;
since his decease the Council had departed entirely from that plan which he originated,
and which was the one great effort of his life to perpetuate and maintain, viz. to “ unite
the chemists and druggists in one ostensible, recognised, and independent body.” He
asked, had this been the result of their labours, or rather inaction, for the last twenty
years ? No : and hence the society which he represented sprang into existence, deter¬
mined to carry out that great principle of the founder of the Pharmaceutical Society ;
and he was happy to state that their labours had not been in vain, upwards of 3000
members having joined the United Society, whose existence dated back only three years ;
this large body, which was steadily on the increase, was an “influence” and a “power
to be felt,” not certainly by abusing that “ power,” but by united action in the one great
and glorious cause. An overture, he said, had been made to the Pharmaceutical Council,
to effect a compromise, or rather friendly co-operation, but such was repulsed with that
discourtesy which he had always received at the hands of that body. After some other
severe strictures on the policy pursued by the Pharmaceutical Council, Mr. Buott apolo¬
gized to the meeting for having occupied so much of their time, and that he would
meantime postpone his remarks on the proposed Bills of the Pharmaceutical and United
Societies, so that any gentleman present might have an opportunity of replying to what
he had said.

Mr. John Mackay, of Edinburgh, then rose, and was received with much applause.
He said, before proceeding to combat the severe strictures denounced against the policy of
the Pharmaceutical Council by Mr. Buott, he might be allowed to express the pleasure
he, along with the deputation from Edinburgh, experienced on receiving an invitation
to take part in the business of the present meeting ; they had on several occasions an

MEETING OF CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS, GLASGOW.

377

opportunity of meeting several of their Glasgow brethren at their Annual Pharmaceutical
Dinner in Edinburgh, and he was sure that they would have a lively and pleasant recol¬
lection of the kindness which on these occasions was extended towards them ; he believed
-that this was the first time that a deputation from Edinburgh had visited their profes¬
sional brethren in this city, and he had no doubt they would return gratified with their
first visit. Mr. Mackay then proceeded to say, that he would not follow Mr. Buott
through that labyrinth of tirade and abuse he had heaped on the Pharmaceutical Council
and their endeavours ; he would confine himself to one or two points. He maintained
that the policy of the Council was one of consistent, continued, and laborious action,
aud none knew better than he the indefatigable, earnest, and constant attention which
the gentlemen composing that Council gave to the affairs of the Society ; he said the
names alone of these gentlemen was a sufficient guarantee that honesty of purpose, and
devotedness to the best interests of the Pharmaceutical Society was and could only be
their sole object. If there was a name above all others, in connection with the Phar¬
maceutical Society, which he honoured and loved, it was that of the late Jacob Bell ;
several years of his professional career had been passed under his superintendence, and
he was proud to say on all occasions when he visited Edinburgh he made his house his
home, he had therefore every opportunity of becoming thoroughly acquainted with his
views ; no man, he said, had more decided opinions, or expressed them more firmly on
the objects of the Pharmaceutical Society, than the late much lamented Jacob Bell ; his
was essentially an unwavering policy, and his oft-repeated assertion was, we have taken
up a certain stand-point, and it will never do to recede from that. Mr. Mackay went on
to dwell at considerable length in defence of the policy pursued by the Pharmaceutical
Council, contending that the Council had in no manner whatever deviated from that
steady purpose which originated with their founder, and which was their constant aim
and study to carry out in all its integrity. Mr. Mackay then entered into a comparison
and criticism of the proposed Bills of the Pharmaceutical and United Societies, and
while agreeing with the preamble of the latter, he characterized several of its clauses as
borrowed from the Pharmaceutical, and others, such as clauses six and seven, in reference
to poisons, he considered quite inoperative, and moreover a matter of impossibility to
draw a line in this very vexed question, where every medicine might be said to be a
poison in an overdose ; the clause regarding Lord Campbell’s Act, Mr. Mackay stated,
was not applicable to Scotland. Mr. Mackay very carefully aud considerately explained
the various clauses of the Bills as he went along, and at the conclusion claimed special
favour for the Pharmaceutical Society’s Bill, as being in every way the superior of the
two.

Mr. Buott then in general terms addressed the meeting, claiming its support on be¬
half of the United Society’s Bill, and as having already received the support of many
of the principal towns of England, where the Pharmaceutical Bill was considered to be
essentially unjust, and inadequate to the requirements of the trade.

At this stage of the proceedings the chairman called on Mr. Thomas D. Moffat, who
he understood had some opinions to express.

Mr. Moffat said he would confine his remarks to part of the first clause of the Phar¬
maceutical Bill, and to the fourteenth clause ; in the first clause we find, he said, “that it
shall not be lawful for any person to carry on the business of chemist and druggist, in
the keeping of open shop for the compounding of the prescriptions of duly qualified
medical practitioners in any part of Great Britain, unless such person shall be a Pharma¬
ceutical Chemist, or shall be duly registered as a chemist and druggist under this Act.”
In the fourteenth clause it is stated, “ that the several fees, payable under and by virtue
of this Act, shall be paid to the treasurer of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain,
for the purposes of the said Society.” Mr. Moffat continued, now if this Bill should be¬
come law, we may reasonably expect that a considerable number of chemists in Glasgow
will take their diploma as Pharmaceutical Chemists ; he said there were about eighty drug
shops in the Glasgow Directory, and leaving out the sums for registration which these
eighty druggists would require to pay, and taking no account of assistants at all, he
would reasonably expect the Society to gain an addition of forty members. Most of his
friends considered this too low' an estimate, but gianting it for the sake of argument, it would
give to the Pharmaceutical Society of London the annual amount of £42 sterling. Now
he was afraid that this w'as the point on which any Bill would receive the greatest oppo¬
sition in Scotland, — the sending of the money to London ; he believed that to be the

YOL. YI. 2 IS

378 MEETING OF CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS, GLASGOW.

cause of the unpopularity of the Pharmaceutical Society here, and a political blunder
on the part of the framers of the original Bill. A student of medicine can receive his
diploma as a medical practitioner in Edinburgh, Glasgow, or Aberdeen, without the fees
being sent to London, and whv should not a student of pharmacy receive his diploma as
a Pharmaceutical Chemist in the same towns on the same terms? In Scotland generally,
and Glasgow in particular, the services of professional lecturers can be had for a small
expenditure, and if the fees were retained in Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and other
towns, — if thought desirable, classes could be established and regularly kept up, local
boards for examination and general management could be instituted, and measures such
as exist in London and Edinburgh set on foot ; and the mere fact of money being re¬
tained in central and representative cities would give strength to the Society. This, he
trusted, would be carefully considered. He had no doubt objections could be urged against
this arrangement, but after a careful consideration of them all, he thought they could be
easily overcome. A common objection presents itself, what would you do in the case of the
large English towns? His answer to that question w'ould be nothing , let us deal with
Sco land alone. An apparently strong objection is, Edinburgh receives annually £50 from
London ; what arrangement would you make there ? Edinburgh, in my opinion, would be
better without it, were the fees retained, and would certainly be placed in a more indepen¬
dent position. During the present year, Edinburgh has transmitted to London Pit 7 4s. 6i .,
more than half of which was for examination fees, the remainder, annual subscriptions, —
moreover, the last grant of £50 to Edinburgh was given with a grudge ; there is no pro¬
vision for its continuance in the proposed Bill, and should this Bill become law, there is
nothing to prevent its being stopped, whenever the London executive may think lit.
The strongest objection of all is that the Pharmaceutical Society is not on the same
footing as the Scotch Universities, and that there must be some bond of union between
the London and Scotch chemists ; this he was willing to admit, and would not object to
the registration fees and annual subscriptions, to be used as the Board might deem ex¬
pedient, the surplus each year to be forwarded to London to be added to the Benevolent
Fund. This he thought would do no more perhaps than place us, so far as pecuniary
matters go, is as good a position as Edinburgh is at present, but with this important dif¬
ference, that it would be legally secured by us. Mr. Moffat, after these considerations,
begged to move the following, “ That as the Bills of the Pharmaceutical and United
Societies ignore and make no provision for the retaining of any part of the funds in
Scotland, it is the opinion of this meeting that it would be an act of injustice to pass a
resolution in favour of either, that both should be opposed, and the influence of this meet¬
ing be used with the Scotch Members of Parliament accordingly.”

Mr. John Campbell then rose, but before proceeding to express any opinion on the Bills
of both Societies, he begged to convey the very kind thanks of the Profession in the city
to the deputation from Edinburgh, for the handsome manner they had responded to the
invitation to take part in the proceedings of the evening ; he then said they had now be¬
fore them twyo Bills, very important measures indeed if allowed to pass into law; he could
not see bis way clear to support either Bills in their present shape, and in saying so, he
was sure he expressed the general opinion of the Profession in this city. That no allow¬
ance should be made in these Bills for retaining part of the moneys for educational pur¬
poses he considered was unfair, but Mr. Moffat had so thoroughly expressed his views,
that he considered it unnecessary to say more than that he cordially concurred in all that
he had said, and begged to second his motion, trusting that this meeting would give it
their entire support.

Mr. James Taite then moved the following amendment: — that legislative restriction
is necessary to the public safety, and that one of the Bills should therefore be supported ;
that the proposed Bill of the Pharmaceutical Society, not being based on any ground of
monopoly, is more likely to meet the sanction of our free-trade legislature, and as emana¬
ting from a Society already in existence, render a second society unnecessary.

Mr. Alexander Kinninmont then begged to second Mr. Taite’s amendment, and in
doing so paid a high compliment to the framers of the Pharmaceutical Bill ; he consi¬
dered the whole Bill as the production of men of thorough business habits, and in every
way superior to that of the United Society. At this juncture an unpleasant contre¬
temps occurred; the meeting being about to vote on the motion and amendment which
was before it, when Mr. Buott, in fairness demanded that the Bill of the United Society
should be put to the vote along with the Pharmaceutical Biil ; several gentlemen rose to

MEETING OF CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS AT LEICESTER. 379

order, some insisting Mr. Buott was quite in order, others that he was out of order ; at
last Mr. M'Naught, of Greenock, proposed that that the United Society’s Bill be put to
the vote of the meeting, on condition that a clause was inserted in accordance with Mr.
Moffat’s motion (Mr. Buott having previously expressed his willingness that such a pro¬
vision be included in the United Society’s Bill), seconded by Mr. Ferguson, of Greenock.
The chairman however ruled that the proceeding was not in order, and after a few sharp
exchanges the matter dropped.

The Chairman then put Mr. Taite’s amendment to the meeting, and afterwards Mr.
Moffat’s motion; when the latter was carried by a large majority. After a cordial vote
< f thanks to the chairman, and the same compliment being paid to the deputation from
Edinburgh, and Mr. Buott, of London, the meeting separated.

Hugh Hart, Chairman.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — My attention has been called to a statement of mine in the report of
the Glasgow Chemists’ meeting in the ‘ Chemist and Druggist’ of December
loth, viz. that a the last £50 was given to Edinburgh with a grudge.” This
is correctly reported to have been stated by me, but from what I have heard
Since the meeting, I believe such was not the case. By publishing the above
you will oblige

Yours respectfully,

Thomas D. Moffat.

3, Union Street , Glasgow , December 22nd, 1864.

MEETING OF CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS AT LEICESTER.

A meeting of the trade was held, on the 20th ulh, at the Three Crowns Hotel ;
Joseph Goddard, Esq., in the chair. Amongst those present we observed, Mr. Cooper,
Honorary Secretary ; Mr. Salisbury ; J. G. F. Richardson, F.C.S. ; Mr. F. Parsons ; Mr. .
O.ark ; Mr. Nettleship ; Mr. Merry weather ; Mr. Watson ; Mr. Berridge ; Mr. Butler;
Mr. Buzzard, etc. etc.

The Chairman observed that the objects of the meeting were well known, he would
therefore call upon the Honorary Secretary to read a letter which he had received from
the President.

Mr. Cooper then read the letter from the President, and the proposed Bill was after¬
wards read, each clause being discussed seriatim.

The Chairman then called upon Mr. Richardson to propose the first resolution.

Mr. Richardson said he had great pleasure in proposing the first resolution, — “ That
this meeting, having read the proposed Bill for regulating the qualifications of Chemists
and Druggists, published in the number of the ‘Pharmaceutical Journal’ for May, 1864,
does hereby express its opinion in favour of the said Bill, as being desirable in the public
interest, and in the interest of the body of chemists and druggists.” He felt assured
that, from the manner they had all received the Bill, it would not be necessary to detain
them with any lengthy arguments in its favour. That legislation was required was an
acknowledged fact, but a slight difference, as to who should carry out this boon, seemed
to threaten the unanimity of their purpose. Three Bills had he brought forward, that
of the Medical Council, the Pharmaceutical Society, and the one published in the
4 Chemist and Druggist.’ As regards the first, it had for the present been abandoned ;
and the latter was not for a moment recognized, as it did not emanate from any respon¬
sible body, nor must they view it as representing the opinion of the trade, but a factious
opposition, brought forward by some few individuals anxious for the emoluments of office.
He believed that the numerical strength of this new society had been greatly exaggerated,
and if they deducted the unpaid subscriptions for the past year, it would leave a very
different result than that so frequently boasted of. He believed that many had given
their five shillings as a donation, to get rid of the constant solicitations of some of its
ardent partisans, and were at once dubbed members ; he knew several gentlemen who

2 b 2

330

THE EXTENDED PHARMACY ACT.

had been so placed on the list, and repeated application had been made for their sub¬
scription. He had no doubt of the Bill of the Pharmaceutical Society, as it bad the
support of the medical profession and the trade, and had met with a most favourable
reception from the Gfovermnent. In conclusion, he would earnestly ask them to assist the
Council, for there would, he felt assured, be some opposition offered ; but with the
cordial aid and support of the trade it would not avail, and he had no doubt of the result.
They would, in a very short time, have to congratulate the executive of the Pharma¬
ceutical Society on having gained their object.

Mr. Berridge rose to second the resolution. Being an outsider, he begged it to be
understood that some, not of the Society, were not its enemies ; he believed the Council
had suffered much odium from the correspondence which was so copiously poured into
the columns of the organ of the D is- United Society; he had considerable pleasure,
therefore, in seconding the resolution.

Mr. Nettleship wished to support the resolution ; he hailed the Bill as a decided
boon to the trade, and believed it would have a most beneficial effect. As regards the
sale of dangerous drugs by unqualified persons, ho was happy to observe that young
men well qualified were setting up in large country villages, and the proper restriction
would materially benefit these village druggists, and not inconvenience the public, as the
simple remedies would still be vended as heretofore. As a deluded member therefore of
the United Society, for he had given them a donation of 5s., and they had at once
dubbed him a member, he had much pleasure in supporting the resolution.

The Chairman then put the motion, which was carried unanimously.

Mr. Watson, in proposing the next resolution, — a That this meeting pledges itself to
the active and earnest support of the Pharmaceutical Council in their endeavours to ob¬
tain the said Pharmacy Bill, and will adopt such means for that purpose as may be
considered most advisable, — said he had much pleasure in attending this meeting, and
hoped that a branch society might be established in Leicester, for their mutual advan¬
tage, and to render assistance to the executive at Bloomsbury Square on all necessary
occasions.

Mr. F. Parsons, in seconding the above resolution, said that at the present he was an
outsider, but considered the proposed Bill so thoroughly equitable and advantageous to the
whole trade, that it deserved the warm support of all who wished for its welfare and
advancement. As soon as business arrangements would allow, it was his intention to
become, by examination, a member of the Pharmaceutical Society.

The motion was then put and carried unanimously.

The Chairman wished, ere they separated, to submit the plan he had adopted in his
establishment for the keeping of poisons ; it consisted in painting the neck of each
bottle and the top of the stopper with a solution of red sealing-'wax in spirits of wine,
which formed a bright red, distinctive mark, and at once arrested the attention of the
dispenser, as he could not fail to observe it ; it was simple, might be applied to all ex¬
isting bottles, easily replaced in case of breakage, and economical.

Mr. Richardson expressed his warmest approbation of the plan. He hoped the
iChairman would send a specimen to be exhibited at the next meeting of the Society, as
the Council were always glad to receive suggestions for the safe keeping of dangerous
medicines.

Mr. Salisbury, Mr. Merryweather, and Mr. Nettleship all expressed their approval of
the scheme.

Mr. Merryweather rose to propose a vote of thanks to the Chairman, which was
seconded by Mr. Salisbury, and the Chairman having briefly responded, the meeting
separated.

ORIGINAL AND EXTRACTED ARTICLES.

THE EXTENDED PHARMACY ACT.

In considering the desirability of further legislation in relation to Phar¬
macy, we may concisely render ihe several inquiries which naturally arise in

THE EXTENDED PHARMACY ACT.

381

tlie minds of those who would he interested in it into two or three definite
questions, viz. : —

1st. What is really wanted ?

2nd. By whom is the want felt ?

And lastly. How far will the proposed extension of the Pharmacy Act
supply the existing want ?

in reply to the first query, what is wanted ? we may reply, knowledge is
wanted.; for it is an object patent to the observation of all that many persons
undertake the grave responsibility of dispensing powerful drugs to the public
who are equally ignorant of their poisonous character and of their own in-
competency to conduct such a business. The qualification for such service to
the public was formerly secured by the Apothecaries Act; but that body
of dispensers having become absorbed into the ranks of the medical profes¬
sion, the public have now no protection against that kind of ignorance which
is more pretentious than true knowledge, and which obtains (unfortunately)
fey appealing to the ignorance of the public a false and meretricious reward.
It is true that the present Pharmacy Act throws the responsibility of the
choice between ignorance and knowledge upon the public, but those who have
conducted such a business know well that the exercise of such discrimination
is restricted to the educated class of customers, and that the public, as a
whole, is incompetent to make such distinction. Something more therefore
than knowledge and ignorance in open competition is wanted, viz. a guaranteed
standard of qualification upon which the public as a whole may rely.

Sndlyi By whom is the want felt P

Firstly, by the medical bodies generally , as expressed by thp Medical Coun¬
cil and endorsed by almost every practitioner, especially when be leaves the
local circle of known dispensers and writes his prescription not knowing into
whose hands it may fall. Secondty, by the patient who rather than trust to
a local and unknown compounder, sends an order to his chemist in town for
his usual remedies (if he can afford to pay for this extra insurance of exacti¬
tude) ; but the general public have no such guarantee, and feel still more
urgently the want of a responsible and qualified dispenser in every open
chemist’s shop. Thirdly, by the wholesale dealer in drugs and chemicals, who
feels that his best customer is the man who understands his business, and one
who knows and appreciates good quality in drugs and purity in chemicals,
but whose daily worry consists in the ignorance of so many dealers who know
little beyond the names of the many articles in which they trafiic, and whose
merit as shopkeepers lies in their chaffering ability to “ buy in the cheapest,
sell in the dearest market.5’

jSior is the want unfelt by the honest, struggling, and intelligent trades¬
man, who having entered the business under fair auspices, has found no op¬
portunity of embracing the advantages of a voluntary education and exami¬
nation, although he recognizes their value and would fain confer these benefits
upon his sons. How many of these are to be found both within and without
the ranks of the Pharmaceutical Society! men who have never seen their
opportunity of coming forward to take educational honours, and find in the
unfair and cheap competition of ignorance around them a perpetual source of
annoyance and degradation. How can he be justly paid for care, attention,
and incessant conscientious discharge of his duty to an ignorant public, if he
has to compete with ignorant and pretentious dealers on equal terms? He
wants, therefore, to have his education and knowledge recognized as the first
and fair charge upon liis goods.

Lastly, let us endeavour to see how far the proposed extension will meet
the existing want. In the first place, by making education and character the
key -stone of the arch. This we have in the existing Pharmaceutical Society,

382

ALCOHOL AS A TEST FOR CROTON OIL.

composed of men who have for many years occupied a foremost position in
the confidence of the medical profession and the public, and of those younger
members who have passed the ordeals of examination, and who, after due con¬
sideration, prefer to rank themselves among the pioneers of a profession, rather
than the average of a trade.

It is essential to the character of such a nucleus, that it should be volun¬
tary and self-supporting, and the wide and liberal character of its basis is best
shown by the fact that its representative Council and Board of Examiners is
replenished by kindred spirits from all parts of Great Britain. Around this
nucleus are gathered men of simple educational status, who rank as Pharma¬
ceutical Chemists, and who may rest on this legal and professional basis alone,
outside the volunteer corps constituting the Society proper. Then we pro¬
pose to add another grade of registered chemists and druggists, who by this
association may derive the advantage of registration and consolidation into a
compact body without any further claims on their purse or co-operation than
an examination and registration fee, paid once for all; who, if they choose,
may connect themselves as Associates with the parent Society, but who en¬
joy a legal status and an independent position if they prefer to decline to join
the Society. This is, we think, a fair balance of existing claims and of future
position, and it will be for the benefit of all, that co-operation and co-regis¬
tration should bind all parties together; while the volunteers are left united
in the ranks of their own society to advance Pharmacy and protect the com¬
mon interest of all. On the other band division is defeat. Rival societies
produce “Disunited States,” and a fratricidal war is an inevitable consequence.
The disadvantage attending rival constitutions has been sufficiently exem¬
plified in the long struggle for union on the part of various medical bodies.
Let us not try the effect of such a dislocation, but by a long pull, a strong
pull, and a pull altogether, obtain “ in things essential unity, in things doubt¬
ful liberty, in all things charity.” E.

ON THE USE OF ALCOHOL AS A TEST FOB THE PURITY

OF CROTON OIL.

BY ROBERT WARINGTON, F.R.S., F.C.S.

The College of Physicians of Edinburgh in their Pharmacopoeia of 1839,
under the article u Croton Oil,” contained in the Materia Medina, gave the
following directions for testing its purity: — u When agitated with its own vo¬
lume of pure alcohol and gently heated, it separates on standing, without hav¬
ing undergone any apparent diminution .” The alcohol is ordered to be prepared
from rectified spirit by well- burnt lime, and the density should not exceed *796.
This test has been transcribed verbatim into various works on Materia Medina,
dispensatories, etc., and is repeated in the Pharmaceutical Journal for July, 1S44,
vol. iv. p. 47, and December, 1849, vol. ix. p. 296, in answer to correspondents.
In the latter volume, however, at a later date, May, 1850, vol. ix. p. 499, a
very valuable paper, by the late Dr. Pereira, was published on the subject, enti¬
tled, “ On the Alcohol Test of the Purity of Castor and Croton Oils, ny Jona¬
than Pereira, M.D., F.R.S.” As it is only with the experiments and deductions
concerning croton oil that we have to deal, I shall only allude to those parts of
the paper which relate to it, and that as briefly as the nature of the subject will
ad.iiit.

“ Experiment 2. — Eight volumes of pale or amber- coloured East India croton
oil were mixed with eight volumes of alcohol, specific gravity -796, and gently
heated. In two days a separation had taken place, the oil now measured 8|

ALCOHOL AS A TEST FOR CROTON OIL.

883

volumes , while the alcohol measured only 7 5 volumes (or 10 volumes oil -f- 10 vo¬
lumes alcohol = 10 *94 oil -j- 9-0G alcohol). In this case the croton oil hod
taken up three-quarters of a volume of alcohol .” I)r. Pereira considers that
these fluids exert a mutual solvent action on each other, similar to that of ether
and water. This mutual action, however, he states, “ is not uniform, but varies
with the samples of oil. At first,” he says, 11 1 was inclined to ascribe this varia¬
tion to differences of purity in the several samples of oil examined, but I am
now convinced this is not the case, and that they depend on other circum¬
stances.”

“ Experiment 6. — One volume of dark-coloured English-expressed croton oil
was mixed with one volume of alcohol, sp. gr. -796, by shaking, without any
additional heat, a uniform transparent mixture was obtained ; and no sepa¬
ration took place on standing for several weeks.” Upon which Dr. Pereira
naturally asks, “On what does this difference depend? Does it arise from
differences in the qualities of the seeds pressed, or from differences in the mode
of preparing the oil?” He then, after acknowledging himself , indebted to
Mr. Redwood for his first information of these facts, quotes the test of the
Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, and adds, “ I have never been able to verify this
statement;’1 and then repeats the results of experiment 6, and proceeds, “ Mr.
Redwood has verified the same fact with various samples of genuine croton
oil,” “ and he finds that no subsequent separation takes place unless the mix¬
ture be subjected to artificial cold;" “in that case, the oil is found to have
slightly increased in bulk, and the alcohol to have suffered a corresponding
diminution of volume. I presume, however, that the statement of the Edin¬
burgh ColDere is intended to apply to the amber-coloured East India croton
oil,” and alludes to the results of experiment 2.

Dr. Pereira then mentions “ a very interesting and important fact,” that
“ croton oil enables other fixed oils to dissolve in alcohol',’1 and gives an illus¬
tration in “ Experiment 17. — Two volumes of English expressed croton oil,
one volume of olive oil, and three volumes of alcohol, were mixed together.
By shaking, a homogeneous mixture was obtained.” He then states that he
considers “these various facts to be best explained by supposing that croton oil
contains some principle which confers the power of dissolving in alcohol , and that
this principle does not exist in all samples in the same proportional quantity,
and hence their unequal solubility in alcohol.” If “ the quantity of this solvent
principle in croton seeds increases the longer the seeds are kept, we should have a
ready explanation of the greater solubility of croton oil expressed in England from
seeds brought from India , and which are often musty, than of those oils ex¬
pressed in India from fresh seeds .”

Such, then, was the extent of our knowledge on this subject in 1850.

In January, 1864, the British Pharmacopoeia was published, and in the Ma¬
teria Medica, under the head of “ Oleum Croton is. The oil expressed from seeds
in England,” we find as follows: “Test. — Agitated with its own volume of alco¬
hol, and gently heated, it forms a clear solution, from which about three- fourths of
the oil separate on cooling.” This test has been severely criticized, and in rather
strong terms , in the numbers of the Pharmaceutical Journal for February and
April, 1864, vol. v. 2nd ser. pp. 363 and 485. In the first of these, in a paper
entitled “ Explanatory and Critical Notes on the British Pharmacopoeia,” we
read, “ This test is about true as regards East Indian croton oil , but it is trot
true with English croton oil , which is wholly and readily soluble in alcohol , and
the solution thus formed is permanent at ordinary temperatures.” In the se¬
cond, under Lecture II., “ On the Organic Materia Medica of the British
Pharmacopoeia,” delivered before the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain,
on the 23rd March, 1864, we read, “ this is a mistake, the framers of the Phar¬
macopoeia having given the test for East India croton oil instead of that for

384

alcohol as a test for croton oil.

English oil ; hence the test is true as regards the former, but is not correct as
regards the latter , or officinal oil , which is wholly and readily soluble in alcohol ,
and the solution thus formed is permanent at ordinary temperatures .”

Now I presume that these statements, from their general context, are derived
from the results published by l)r. Pereira in 1850. But if it is so, how is it
that they are not concordant with those results? In Dr. Pereira we read ‘‘Ex¬
periment 2. — Eight volumes of East India croton oil and eight volumes of
alcohol (sp. gr. -796) gave 8'75 volumes of oil, or ten of oil gave 10’94, being
an increase of 0'75 volume, or nearly one-tenth.” But the British Pharma¬
copoeia states that ten volumes of English-expressed croton oil and ten volumes
of alcohol gave about 7-5 volumes of oil, or a decrease of 2-| volumes, or
nearly one-fourth. Is this “ about true as regards East Indian croton oil''?
Is this “ a mistake ”? Have “ the framers of the Pharmacopoeia given the test
for East Indian croton oil ”? The mistake , I believe, lies with the critic , as
must be evident. Such statements should surely have been carefully examined
into before they were put in print. But I think I have said enough to remedy the
error. It is: also to be regretted that the experiments conducted on English
expressed croton oil of 1850 had not been repeated on genuine samples of oil,
expressed from seed in England in 1863, before such strong assertions as to their
truth were published.

It may be asked, and very properly, how does this subject interest me? and
how come I to take it up ? The case stands thus : — In the month of November ,

1863, at the time the sheets of the British Pharmacopceia were passing through
the press, Dr. Frederick Farre, the London editor, requested me to try the
test for the purity of croton oil given by the Edinburgh College in 1850,
before introducing it into the text of the forthcoming volume. This was done
with an oil taken from our own stock, and the result published in January,

1864, in the Pharmacopceia. This croton oil had been purchased in July, 1863,
of Messrs. Horner, who, it is well known, press their own seed in London. The
volume of oil which separated may have been stated a trifle lower than what it
should have been, owing to the graduations at that part of the tube employed
not being perfectly accurate. It will be seen, however, that this error was only
of small amount, and does not affect the general statement.

On finding the published test, deduced from this experiment, so warmly
criticized before the Pharmaceutical Society by one of their own professors, and
the truth of my result so strongly questioned, I lost no time in repeating the
trial, in order to satisfy my own mini on the subject. This has led me to the
conclusion that the use of alcohol as a test for the purity of croton oil was really
of no value, and not to be relied on in any way. Between the buyer and seller
this becomes a matter of importance, and, as such, I considered it worthy of
publication. The sample of oil first tried was also purchased from Messrs.
Horner, in May, 1864 ; the experiments having been commenced in June. For
the purpose of more easy comparison, the volume of oil taken in each case is
estimated at ten measures, and 1 have noted against Dr. Pereira’s experiments
above the results calculated on the same quantity.

Experiment 1. — Ten volumes of English-pressed croton oil (Messrs. Horner’s)
and ten volumes of alcohol were mixed, and agitated together ; but, on stand¬
ing, they soon separated. They were again shaken, and gently warmed ; a
perfectly clear solution was obtained, which was set aside, and, in the course
of a few hours, had separated into two layers, — the under, or oily one, indicat¬
ing 9*5 volumes ; the upper, or alcoholic one, measuring 105 volumes. The
alcohol had become of an ordinary sherry tint, from the solution of some part of
the oil.

About this time a parcel of foreign croton oil was notified on the drug
lists for sale, of which Mr. Quincey very kindly forwarded me a sample, ac-

ALCOHOL AS A TEST FOE. CROTON OIL.

385

companied also by one of croton oil expressed from seed in this country about
fourteen years since. The sample of imported oil was marked u ex Earl of
Auckland v. Rotterdam in transit from Batavia.”

Experiment 2. — Ten volumes of imported oil were mixed, as before, with ten
volumes of alcohol, and briskly agitated. It soon separated, and was then
again shaken and gently warmed ; perfect solution followed, and the tube was
set aside. In a few hours the contents had separated into two layers, the oil
measuring 11*5 volumes, and the alcohol 8 '5 ; also coloured, from solution of
part of the oil. This result shows a slight increase on that obtained by Dr.
Pereira from East Indian croton oil, which was, from experiment No. 2, 10*94
volumes of oil, after separation.

Experiment 3. — Ten volumes of the old English-expressed oil were mixed
with ten volumes of alcohol, as before, only as they seemed to unite immediately
no agitation was required ; the mixture was very turbid, but exhibited no signs
of separation. On being warmed, it became transparent and remained per¬
manently dissolved. Here then was a case corresponding exactly with the
results published by Dr. Pereira in experiment 6. This old oil was very thick,
and when the cold weather commenced became slightly crystallized.

In consequence of this result, I procured a sample of croton oil from Messrs.
Hodgkinson, Tonge, and Co., and also another specimen of the imported oil. Ex¬
periment 4. — Ten volumes of croton oil (Messrs. Hodgkinson, Tonge, & Co.) +
ten volumes of alcohol were gently mixed, and then agitated briskly ; separation
soon occurred; the mixture was then warmed, when it formed a clear solution,
which, by standing a few hours, separated into 9 volumes of oil and 11 of
alcohol, the latter being much coloured, as in experiment 1.

Experiment 5. — Ten volumes of imported oil (specimen No. 2) -f- ten volumes
of alcohol treated as before, yielded the same results as experiment 2.

In consequence of the alcohol in all these experiments becoming nearly as
dark- coloured as the oil itself, the whole were put aside in a bottle for future
experiment. When the result of experiment 3 was poured in, to my great
surprise, the results from experiments Nos. 1 and 2 instantly formed a clear
solution, and this also occurred on the addition of the separated materials
from numbers 4 and 5. So that we have here the presence of 10 volumes of old
oil causing 40 volumes of croton oil (composed of 20 volumes of English-ex¬
pressed, and 20 volumes of imported oil) which would not dissolve in alcohol,
to enter into perfect solution, and this without any application of warmth. I
shall have occasion to refer to this again presently.

From these results, I was induced to try the solvent action of rectified spirit
upon some of the specimens of croton oil. Experiment 6. — Ten volumes of
English-expressed oil -(- ten volumes of rectified spirit, sp. gr. 838, were mixed as
before, and well shaken together, but without solution ; the mixture warmed, but
still no evidence of solubility. Mechanical admixture only took place, and this
was followed by rapid subsidence of the oil.

Experiment 7. — Ten volumes of the English- expressed, fourteen -years-old oil,
+ ten volumes of rectified spirit, were mixed together and did not separate ;
though turbid, the solution appeared to be perfect on the following morning,
however, it was found that it had divided into two strata.

I have mentioned that these experiments were commenced in June, and the
temperature of the air at that time was seldom below 70° Fahr. day or night.
On the night of this last experiment, however, it was observed that the ther¬
mometer had fallen a few degrees lower. For the moment the separation of
the oil was not attributed to the influence of this slight diminution of tempe¬
rature, and the experiment was therefore repeated exactly as before ; no solu¬
tion, however, could be obtained by simple admixture, and when this was
effected by a gentle heat, separation took place in a few hours by standing It

S 86

ALCOHOL AS A TEST FOR CROTON OIL.

was then found that as long as the temperature of the room was above 70°,
the oil remained permanently dissolved, but that as soon as the thermometer
had sunk three or four degrees lower, separation rapidly took place. So also
with the mixed results of experiments 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, as long as the tempera¬
ture was at 68°, or above that, so long the solutiou was perfect ; but below
that point, namely at 66°, separation gradually occurred. In consequence of
these interferences from the effects of a few degrees differences of heat, 1 resolved
to repeat these experiments when the temperature of the atmosphere was lower
and more equable.

November, 1864. Experiment 9. — Ten volumes of English -expressed croton
oil (from Messrs. Hodgkinson and Tonge) + ten volumes of alcohol gave by agi¬
tation an emulsion which separated by standing into 8*3 measures of oil -f- 11 *7
of alcohol. It was again agitated and warmed ; it readily dissolved, but in a few
hours separated into 8*2 volumes of oil and 11 -8 of alcohol. The temperature
of the air was about 50°.

Experiment 10. — The imported oil from Batavia (No. 1) gave by cold admix¬
ture 10-2 oil -f- 9-8 alcohol ; by warmth and subsequent deposit, 10*1 oil -j- 9-9
alcohol.

Experiment 11. — Imported oil (No. 2 sample) gave by agitation without heat
10*2 oil -f- 9-8 alcohol ; after heating and separation, 10*1 oil -f- 9*9 alcohol, being
the same as experiment 10 on No. 1.

Experiment 12. — -The specimen of old oil from Mr. Quincey yielded by agi¬
tation an opalescent or milky solution, which did not exhibit any signs of
separation.

Experiment 13. — The English expressed oil from Messrs. Horner, by cold ad¬
mixture and standing gave 9 of oil 11 alcohol ; after solution by warmth and
repose 8 9 oil -j- 11*1 alcohol. The temperature in this case was about 60°.

I then made a few experiments with alcohol of *794 sp. gr., with the following
results : —

Experiment 14. — The imported oil from Batavia gave, by agitation, without
heat, 9*3 volumes oil -j- 10*7 alcohol. After solution by warmth and subsequent
deposit 9*4 oil -f- 10*6 alcohol. Temperature 56°.

Experiment 15. — Horner’s English expressed oil, by cold agitation, yielded 8*8
of oil + 11*2 alcohol. After dissolving by heat and standing, 8*7 oil -f- 11*3
alcohol.

Experiment 16. — The imported oil was again tried, but increasing the volumes
acted upon to double their previous quantity, when it gave by the cold operation
9*9 of oil + 10*1 of alcohol ; after solution by heat and separation, 9*9 oil -j- 10*1
alcohol. Temperature 58°.

The results, from the experiments Nos. 14 and 16, were placed in the same
bottle, and it was found that the oil entered into perfect solution at 75° Fahr.
At 70° the solution became opalescent, but without any separation. But at
67° a complete deposition of the oil took place.

What conclusions now can we deduce from these results ? My own opinion
is that freshly expressed croton oil, or rather, I should say, oil expressed from
fresh seeds , either abroad or in this country, does not dissolve in alcohol having
a specific gravity from *794 to *796, to a greater extent than twenty per cent,
at the temperature of 50° ; but that if croton oil has undergone a chemical
change, such as resinification or oxidation by time and exposure to the air, as in
the old oil of the above experiments, or has been freshly expressed from seeds
which have become changed in the same manner, then the oil is dissolved freely
by the alcohol, as shown above and in the experiments of Dr. Pereira, which [
consider therefore must have been made with croton oil, freshly expressed it
is true, but from seeds which had undergone a chemical change ; and this ac¬
cords with his own deductions from his experiments. At the same time I can-

ALCOHOL AS A TEST EOR CROTON OIL.

OC7

oo7

not but consider that a test which is open to so many weighty objections, both
from the influence of small fluctuations of temperature, and for indicating the
purity of a material liable to such marked differences from the effects of such
natural and in some cases inevitable chemical changes, is perfectly useless as a
reliable indication of purity.

NOTE ON MR. WARINGTON’S PAPER, ENTITLED “ ON THE
USE OF ALCOHOL AS A TEST FOR THE PURITY OF CRO¬
TON OIL.”

BY PROFESSOR BENTLEY.

In the above paper I am accused of having in the ‘Pharmaceutical Journal ’
severely criticized in rather strong terms , the “test ” given in the ‘ British Phar¬
macopoeia,’ for “ English Croton Oil.” What the author means by severely
criticized in rather strong terms , I am at a loss to conceive, as I simply stated
the results which had been obtained by experiment (at least, in all their essen¬
tial particulars) by Pereira and Redwood, and which were commonly received
by scientific men, and published in all works treating of Materia Medica up to
the publication of the ‘British Pharmacopoeia,’ in January, 1864.

The test given in the ‘ British Pharmacopoeia’ for “Croton Oil expressed from
seeds in England” is, as follows : — “ Agitated with its own volume of alcohol,
and gently heated, it forms a clear solution, from which about three-fourths of
the oil separates on cooling.” In commenting upon this test, I stated in the
numbers of the ‘Pharmaceutical Journal ’ for February and April last, that “This
test is about true as regards East Indian croton oil, but it is not true with
English croton oil, which is wholly and readily soluble in alcohol, and the so¬
lution thus formed is permanent at ordinary temperatures.” In remarking upon
this criticism, Mr. Warington says, “I presume that these statements, from their
general context, are derived from the results published by Dr. Pereira in 1850.
But if it is so, how is it that they are not concordant with those results /”
and he afterwards adds, “such statements should surely have been carefully ex¬
amined into before they were put into print.''1 Mr. Warington then quotes some
experiments of Dr. Pereira’s which indicate, that when equal volumes of alcohol
and East Indian croton oil are agitated with a gentle heat, the resulting mix¬
ture after being allowed to stand for two days, showed the oil had increased
nearly one-tenth in volume. Now it is quite true that my remarks were
founded, to a great extent, upon the results obtained by Dr. Pereira, but not
wholly so, for during the last twelve years I have examined several specimens
of East Indian croton oil, and have always found them to vary in their rela¬
tions to alcohol. Indeed, Dr. Pereira himself states in his ‘ Materia Medica ’ that
“ according to Dr. Maclagan, only ninety-six per cent, of the oil separates. It is
obvious, therefore, that commercial croton oils believed to be genuine, are not
uniform in their relation to alcohol.” When such conflicting results are obtained
from operating upon different specimens of East Indian croton oils, I can¬
not admit that I was much in error in the statement I made in the ‘ Phar¬
maceutical Journal,’ but, on the contrary, I believe that an extended series of
experiments with ordinary commercial specimens of East Indian croton oil ex¬
amined without reference to age or temperature, will show that the term em¬
ployed “ about true ” is practically correct. I would further ask, is the bo¬
tanical source of all specimens of East Indian croton oils so absolutely certain as
to enable us to say positively that they have all a common origin, and hence
accordingly to be expected to yield similar results with alcohol ?

But the question as regards the relations of East Indian croton oil to alcohol,

388

ALCOHOL AS A TEST FOR CROTON OIL.

whether true or not, is altogether unimportant, so far as the test of the British
Pharmacopoeia is concerned, for my criticisms were not intended to supply a
test for a nou-officinal croton oil, but essentially to indicate that the test for the
officinal “ English croton oil ” given in the British Pharmacopoeia was incorrect
according to the investigations of Pereira and Itedwood. I may add also, as
Mr. Waring ton regrets that I did not repeat the experiments, that the test was
not in accordance with the results obtained by myself.

In reference to this test we will now quote Mr. Warington, as follows : — “It
may be asked, and very properly (he says), how does this subject interest me? and
how come I to take it up? The case stands thus : — In the month of November ,
1863, at the time the sheets of the British Pharmacopoeia were passing through
the press, Dr. Frederick Farre, the London editor, requested me to try the test
for the purity of croton oil given by the Edinburgh College in 1850, before in¬
troducing it into the text of the forthcoming volume. This was done with an
oil taken from our own stock, and the result published in January, 1864, in the
Pharmacopoeia. This croton oil had been purchased in July, 1863, of Messrs.
Horner, who, it is well known, press their own seed in London.”

Mr. W arington here admits that from a single experiment upon one sample of
oil only, and when the results obtained by him were entirely opposed to those
previously published by Pereira and Redwood, the test for English croton oil was
upon his authority and recommendation inserted in the British Pharmacopoeia.
With how much more care Dr. Pereira proceeded before he published the
opposite results to those obtained by Mr. Warington will appear from the fol¬
lowing extract from his k Materia Medica : ’ — “This fact, which was mentioned
to me by Mr. Redwood, he has verified with various samples of croton oil ex¬
pressed respectively by himself, by Mr. Morson, by Messrs. Herrings, and by
Messrs. May and Co. 1 have verified it with a sample expressed by Messrs.
Herrings.”

Mr. Warington then adds, — “ On finding the published test, deduced from
this experiment, so warmly criticised before the Pharmaceutical Society by one
of their own professors, and the truth of my result so strongly questioned, I
lost no time in repeating the trial, in order to satisfy my own mind on the sub¬
ject.” Mr. Warington then performed a number of carefully conducted ex¬
periments, and obtained the valuable results which he has given in his paper ;
these all tend to show that the solubility of English croton oil is liable to
fluctuations, according to the length of time the oil has been expressed and the
temperature at the time the experiments are performed ; and he concludes as
follows : — “ I cannot but consider that a test which is open to so many weighty
objections, both from the influence of small fluctuations of temperature, and
for indicating the purity of a material liable to such marked differences from
the effects of such natural and in some cases inevitable chemical changes, is per¬
fectly useless as a reliable indication of purity.”

It is much to be regretted that Mr. W arington did not try a similar series of
experiments before he recommended the introduction of a test into the British
Pharmacopoeia, which he now admits is perfectly useless as a reliable indication
of purity, rather than afterwards. “ On finding the published test, so warmly
criticized before the Pharmaceutical Society by one of their own professors.” I
will conclude by asking, who has made the mistake with regard to the test? Is
it the critic who first called attention to its being entirely opposed to the pub¬
lished results of Pereira and Redwood? or is it the criticiser of the critic who
recommended its insertion into the British Pharmacopoeia on the strength of a
solitary experiment? and who now upon further investigation admits that it is
perfectly useless as a reliable indication of purity?

339

THE METIIYLIC ALCOHOL .TEST.

■

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — In the number of your Journal for December 1st, I see a letter from
Mr. John Tuck, in which he ingeniously attempts to throw doubt on my state ¬
ments regarding priority of publication of the mercurial test for “ wood-spirit.”
In any previous communication I avoided making any special comments on the
wholesale manner in which Mr. John Tuck has evidently appropriated the re¬
sults of my previous investigation ; nor did I at the time deem it necessary to
do more than state a general case, without specially indicating the several dates
of publication of my paper in the different periodicals. Mr. Tuck now lays
hold of the latter point, and implies that since my paper on u wood-spirit” did
not appear (in extenso ) in the Pharmaceutical Journal until a month after
he had sent his answer to the Conference, that, therefore, his claims to priority
are at once proved. Unfortunately for JVIr. Tuck, however, stubborn facts stand
in the way of this hypothesis. The first is, that just eight months prior to No¬
vember, 1863, my method of detecting wood-spirit was described and commented
on in the pages of the ‘ Pharmaceutical Journal ’ ; and the second, that on the
31st of January, 1863, a very full abstract was published in the ‘ Chemical News.’
The paper appeared in extenso in July, 1863, in the 1 Journal of the Royal Dublin
Society’ and in the ‘ Dublin Quarterly Journal of Science’ for the same month,
and in December, 1863., in the Pharmaceutical Journal. Surely this is proof
enough.

I may observe here that the strictures which Mr. Tuck passes in his letter on
the practical working of the test for wood-spirit described by me, apply with
twofold force to his own slight modification of my principal test, since I em¬
ploy two corroborative reactions, which he could scarcely have introduced in his
paper on the subject without leaving him peculiarly open to remark.
r Sufficient evidence has now been brought forward to substantiate the state-
ments previously made by me ; the aspect of the whole matter, therefore, re¬
mains the same as it was prior to the publication of Mr. John Tuck’s elaborate
report.

I am, Sir, yours respectfully,

Emerson J. Reynolds.

Laboratory, Ledwich School of Medicine and Surgery,

Lublin, Lecember 19, 1864.

POISON PREVENTIVES.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — For a long time a discussion has been going forward relative to the
protection of the public from mistakes in the administration of poisons, and
numerous devices have been submitted to the Council, and chemists in general,
for inspection, with more or less success; but by such proceedings do we not
defeat our own ends?

I read in this month’s Journal that a deputation of our most influential men
waited upon Sir George Grey, in reference to a u Bill for Regulating the Quali¬
fications of Chemists and Druggists,” “ as far as possible to enlist the interests
of the Government in its favour and, a little further, I see that in public
meeting assembled, the Vice-President as Chairman, brought under most dis¬
tinguished notice an invention of Mr. Howell, for preventing accidental poi¬
sonings.

390

THE NEW PHARMACY BILL.

If after examination a mechanical preventive for mistakes is required, what
need of examination at att? The touch of the bottle, be the contents whatsoever
they may, ought instantly to evoke a train of thoughts as to the composition,
properties, dose, etc., of the medicine; and it not only makes business a plea¬
sure, but strengthens the mind for further exercise, requiring a ready know¬
ledge of our art. He must have a shallow mind indeed who simply pursues
the business of a chemist for the profit derivable therefrom, or, in its stud}'',
does not feel himself elevated above the mass, as he views with the eyes of a
philosopher the wonders that crowd round his vocation.

It may be a small matter to some to serve an ounce of salts, but what an
amount of instruction is that ounce of salts capable of affording ! Discovered
nearly two hundred years ago at Epsom, whence its name, and its nature not
fully explained till the middle of the last century, it is now manufactured by
hundreds of tons yearly. Its crystalline formation, its solubility, its decompo¬
sition by potash, soda, lime, etc., illustrating the great laws of Bertkollet, the
fact that there are two cases of poisoning by this salt on record, and that,
strange to relate, no purging occurred in one, — all tend to make this trivial cir¬
cumstance the subject of deep thought.

Accidental poisoning arises either through carelessness or incompetency. If
a man can be careless in dispensing when a fellow-creature’s life depends upon
his careful manipulation, is it not making him more thoughtless still by placing
within his reach some fancied securit y ? A man is not supposed to dispense as
if in a dream, but to concentrate all his energies upon the business in hand.
These remarks are equally applicable to mistakes over the counter, as the sub¬
stitution of oxalic acid for salts ; and the cure is to be found not in a rough
wrapper or a pricking cork, but in the elevation of the man. This is to be
accomplished mainly by the master instructing his apprentice, not in the “ dull
routine” of business alone, as is too often the case, but in the scientific part of
his calling as well, and as the young man is trained to observation and exact¬
ness, so will the seeds of carelessness be early eradicated, and with the individual
advancement the body collective will progress.

Some prefer an assistant unconnected with the Society, but such notions as
cause this preference are fast dying out before the acknowledged superiority of
its members. They imagine that by keeping his mind solely upon the pounds,
shillings, and pence, he makes a much better man of business ; but in such
cases there is simply a business, and nothing more ; they dispense with the
same indifference as a grocer weighs his tea, — it is nothing more than their
trade. We have all a tendency to fall into this dilemma, but it is science that
saves us, and tells us from every “ bottle of physic there is a lesson to be gained
as well. as a remuneration.” Much more might be said upon this subject, but
with the hint I leave the matter in abler hands.

I am, Sir, your obedient servant,

E. W. Barnett.

THE NEW PHARMACY BILL.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — I have received a copy of the Pharmacy Act, 1865, and as Local Secre¬
tary have obtained the signatures of all the druggists in the locality, -with one
exception, to the epistle, recommendatory. I like the Bill in many respects, but
I think it should specify the kind of examination to be passed by future drug¬
gists. The tendency of a board of examiners in London or other large town,
elected principally by retail druggists, would be twofold: — First, to make the
examination as stringent as possible, so as to reduce the number of druggists ;

MISCELLANEA.

391

and second, to render a lengthened period of study in London or elsewhere im¬
perative, under the pretence of keeping up Schools of Pharmacy.

Now, unless the first is guarded against, the Legislature will hardly pass the
Bill. I should like to see some specification as to what really will be required
of future druggists, and that nothing be included therein which will not tend
immediately to ensure proficiency in pharmacy. All we want is to have those
as druggists who can read prescriptions, dispense, make, and identify the Phar¬
maceutical preparations, detect adulterations, and have a knowledge of the doses
and effects of the articles they deal in. These things can be stated, and they
are such as the Legislature will be likely to grant.

Then, as to the second. Centralization would tend to the injury of country
druggists: those, be it observed, from whom the principal support of the Phar¬
maceutical Society is obtained. Now, many a druggist looks forward anxiously
to the time when he will have a vacancy for another apprentice, so as to receive
the premium, and the training he can give him has been hitherto sufficient to
enable the youth to start in business. But should it be found by-and-by that
further study and attendance at lectures is required, those who are in the neigh¬
bourhood of such schools will have a mighty advantage with parents and
guardians over others less favourably situated. It would be suicidal for country
druggists to advocate such a scheme. But make the examination such that an
ordinary druggist can, if he takes the trouble, prepare his apprentice to pass it,
and I think the Bill will deserve and secure the support of all.

I am, Sir, yours obediently,

Weymouth , December 8, 1831. Thomas Barling.

[Our correspondent in the above letter seems to have overlooked the second
clause of the proposed Bill, wherein it is provided that those who pass the exa¬
mination (the “ Minor”), which entitles them to be registered as “ Assistants ”
under the Pharmacy Act, shall be also entitled to be registered as Chemists and
Druggists under this Act. The subjects of that examination are stated in the
Pharmacy Act, and the regulations of the Board of Examiners are in the hands
of every member of the Society ; they so completely coincide with — neither
falling short of nor exceeding — Mr. Barling’s requirements, that we think they
must have his entire approval. — Ed. Piiarm. Journ.]

Alleged Poisoning by Strychnia. — The case of alleged poisoning by strychnia,
at York, mentioned in our last number, turns out to be no mistake at all on the part of
Mr. Hardman’s porter, but merely the result of an excessive dose of morphia. Dr.
Porter made a post-mortem examination and an anatysis of the contents of the stomach,
and the result was that no poison was found, excepting morphia, which, as was well
known, the deceased had been in the habit of taking in large doses. The verdict was,
that death was caused by fatty degeneration of the heart, accelerated by an overdose of
morphia, taken voluntarily.

Fatal Explosion of Oxygen Gas. — On Saturday night, December 17th, in Man¬
chester, the bursting of a retort in which oxygen gas was beiug generated killed the
operator and his son, aged two years, severely injured his wife, and destroyed the room
and its contents in which the explosion occurred. Mr. Samuel Crowther, formerly and
for some years property-master at the Theatre Royal, Peter Street, carried on business
as a photographic artist, and dealt largely in gases used for the production of the oxy-
hydrogen light. On this occasion the gas was being made from chlorate of potash and
binoxide of manganese; and these materials, it appears, were obtained from Mr. Hughes,
chemist, Cateaton Street. An inquest on Mr. Crowther and his son was held on Tues¬
day, December 20th. Professor Roscoe examined the manganese, which contained
twenty-five per cent, of pulverized coal or soot, which, he said, would render it, when
mixed with chlorate of potash, as dangerous as gunpowder. The jury returned a verdict
of “Manslaughter” against Mr. Hughes, who was committed for trial, but afterwards
admitted to bail.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

BOOKS RECEIVED.

The Philosophy of Health ; or, an Exposition of the Physiological and Sani¬
tary Conditions Conducive 10 Human Longevity and Happiness. By South-
wood Smith, M.D. Eleventh edition, revised and enlarged. London : Longman.
Green, Longman, Roberts, and Green. 8vo. pp. 895. 1865. (From the Publishers.)

Therapeutics and Materia Medica. A systematic treatise on the action and uses of
medicinal agents, including their description and history. By Alfred Stille, M.D.,
etc. etc. Second edition, revised and enlarged. In 2 vols. 8vo. Philadelphia :
Blanchard and Lea. Triibner and Co., Paternoster Row.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

Proposed Revision of the Medical Act. — “We (‘Lancet’) have authority for
stating that it is the intention of the Medical Council to undertake a complete revision
of the Medical Act.”

Persons having seceded from the Society may be restored to their former status on
payment of arrears of subscription and the registration fee for the current year.

Those who were Associates before the 1st of July, 1842, are privileged (as Founders
of the Society) to become Members without examination.

Wanted. — Copies of the ‘ Pharmaceutical Journal ’ for May, June, July, and
August, 1852 : full publishing price given. Address, Mr. Bremridge, 17, Bloomsbury
Square, W.C.

Pemb. — Yes, the two preparations are identical.

Howell’s Safety Poison Capsule. — We are requested to state that the “Safety Poison
Capsule,” referred to in our last number, is the invention of Mr. Thomas Howell, of
High Street, Camden Town.

W. X. Y. (Pembroke Dock). — The subject is not within our province.

II. V. (Dorking). — Of the formulae sent to us, “ No. 1 ” should form a bright solution.
In “ No. 2,” the phosphate of zinc is only partly dissolved, the remaining portion subsiding
when the mixture is allowed to stand for a short time.

A Birmingham Associate will find from the pages of this Journal, that an Association
at Birmingham, similar to the one proposed, was maintained for several years, but was
allowed to fall into abeyance. In 1860 an unsuccessful attempt was made to revive it.
Should the attempt again be made with the “ will and determination ” alluded to by
our correspondent, we hope for a better result.

S. J. F. (Bradford). — The languages of India are as numerous and distinct as those
of Europe. We cannot tell what book will meet your wants.

A Young Student (Brighton). — Bentley’s ‘ Manual of Botany.’ The Lectures on
Systematic Botany will be commenced about the middle of May.

Pharmaceutist (Liverpool). — See papers “ On New American Remedies,” by Professor
Bentley, in the last three volumes of the Pharmaceutical Journal. Papers will shortly
appear on “ Leptandra,” “Veratrum vinde,” etc. These have been unavoidably post¬
poned, from the great press upon our space, arising principally from the appearance of
the British Pharmacopoeia.

Mr. Whitfield (Scarborough) and Mr. Iloiloway (Sydenham) are thanked for their
communications.

Erratum. — Vol. YI. p. 21, line 20 from bottom, for “two fluid ounces,” read two

fluid drachms.

Instructions from Members and Associates respecting the transmission of the
.Journal before the 25th of the month, to Elias Bremridge, Secretary, 17.
Bloomsbury Square, W.C.

Advertisements (not later than the 23rd) to Messrs. Churchill, New Bur¬
lington Street. Other communications to the Editors, 17, Bloomsbury Square.

THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

SECOND SERIES.

YOL. VI.— No. VIII. — FEBRUARY 1st, 1865.

PROGRESS MADE WITH REVERENCE TO PHARMACEUTICAL

LEGISLATION.

We alluded last month to the satisfactory progress then made in testing
the opinions of chemists and druggists throughout the country with reference
to the proposed new Pharmacy Bill of the Pharmaceutical Society, and the
additional returns which have since been obtained enable us now to give
a tolerably accurate indication of the feelings of the trade on the subject of
pharmaceutical legislation. It could not be expected that any measure, likely
to be sanctioned by the Legislature, would meet the views of all the members of
a body such as we represent. The unanimous expression of a favourable opinion
might in such a case be ascribed to indifference rather than the exercise of
intelligent thought, and the formation of a settled judgment. That differences
of opinion are expressed proves at least that attention is given to the subject ;
and the warmth sometimes manifested in discussion, and even the firmness with
which views are maintained that do not coincide with those of the majority,
may be favourable symptoms of the existence of a deep interest in the cause at
issue, and of the exercise of vigorous intellect in its prosecution.

The “ Bill for Regulating the Qualification of Chemists and Druggists,”
which has been drawn and proposed by the Council of the Pharmaceutical
Society, has of course received the assent of that body ; but it is not to be
inferred from this that it comprises all that might be desired by those even who
are its promoters and warmest advocates. In going to Parliament, it is necessary
to consider what is practicable as well as what is desirable ; moreover, in our
case, it was necessary to consider the influence of the proposed measure upon
those immediately and most sensibly affected by it, and to cause among such as
little alarm and opposition as possible.

The result of canvassing the trade in all the principal towns shows most
clearly that the Council have acted with much judgment in the construction of
their Bill, as a very large majority of those to whom the appeal has been made
have signed the declaration in its favour. We referred last month to Canter¬
bury, where the declaration was signed by every chemist in the place. We may
now add to the list of places where all have signed, Berwick, Forfar, Richmond
in Surrey, Kilmarnock, Thirsk, Narberth, Gloucester, Warminster, Rugby,
Leominster, Dover, Sandwich, Deal, Walmer, Barnsley, Bedford, Whitehaven,
Ruthin, Leighton, Gosport, Salisbury. Then, at the following places, all but
one have signed : — Nottingham (68 signatures), Oldham, Darlington, Torquay,
Ashton-under-Lyne, Stourbridge, Margate, Poole. In the following all have
signed but two : — Swansea, Ramsgate, Rochester, Reigate, Norwich, Birken¬
head, Stroud, Cardiff. At Halifax, 22 have signed out of 25 ; at Southampton,

VOL. VI. 2 F

394

PHARMACEUTICAL LEGISLATION.

13 out of 19 ; at Ipswich, 11 out of 1G ; at Bath, 20 out of 30. From Hull
the final return is not yet received, but the Local Secretary says that he has
already obtained thirty signatures and will have many more. The Local
Secretary at Liverpool states that he has already obtained 180 signatures, and
expects about 25 more ; while the whole number of druggists in the place, after
deducting widows, absentees, etc., does not much exceed 220. We might add
a further considerable list of places where the majority have signed, and we
have, on the other hand, but a small number of places where the majority have
refused to sign. In these latter instances the reasons given for such refusal are
often founded upon a misapprehension of the effects the Bill would produce
if passed into law. Some think the Bill would legislate only in favour of
London druggists, and ask why druggists in the country are to be injured, as
they would be, if village shopkeepers were prevented from selling medicines in
common use. Of course, we can only say, in answer to these objections, that we
are not aware of any provisions in the Bill that would operate more favourably
for those living in London than for those in the country, and there certainly is
nothing that would prevent country shopkeepers from selling ordinary domestic
medicines, "which we are aware are frequently supplied to them for that pur¬
pose by chemists in the neighbouring towns. A free discussion of the subject
will tend to dispel such erroneous notions as these, and to remove prejudices
which are found to prevail in certain localities, and to militate against the ex¬
pression of the favourable opinion which in most other instances appears to be
entertained.

Among those who have carefully analysed the Bill and well considered its
provisions, there are two classes of objectors ; those, on the one hand, who think
it is not sufficiently liberal, and who would propose to put all existing druggists
upon an equal footing, cutting off at once from the Pharmaceutical Chemist the
advantage he derives from his past exertions and present position ; and those, on
the other hand, who think it is not sufficiently restrictive, because it leaves the
sale of drugs and medicines that are not compounded from the prescriptions
of medical practitioners just as it exists at present. The Council, happily
have taken the middle course between these two extremes, and this appears to
Lave met the views of a large majority of the members of the trade ; for it must
be observed that the appeal has been made, not merely to Pharmaceutical Che¬
mists, but to the whole body of chemists and druggists. We have much pleasure
in referring to the reports — which will be found elsewhere — of meetings of the
trade at Edinburgh, Liverpool, Nottingham, Southampton, etc. The statements
made at these meetings, coupled with the returns to which we have just alluded,
and those to which we referred last month, must surely convince the most scep¬
tical that the Council of the Pharmaceutical Society, in the course they are
pursuing with reference to this subject, have the confidence and support, not
only of their own constituents, but of the bulk of chemists and druggists
throughout the country. They have proposed a measure which it is believed is
sufficiently stringent to effect what is contemplated in the elevation of the body
of chemists and druggists to a standard of adequate qualification, and is at the
same time free from any tendency to exclusiveness that would operate unjustly
towards existing interests or in any way to the prejudice of the public. That
the Council are actuated by a feeling of liberality towards those of their brethren
who have hitherto held themselves aloof from the association with which the
Bdl originates, may be inferred from the resolution — which will be found else¬
where — rehting to the examination of chemists who have been for some years
established in business. The Council have surely done all that could be desired
in justification of their impartiality ; nor can we think that any further conces¬
sions could be made in the direction of liberality without detriment to the
'Cause. But in some instances objections are urged against the Bill because it

TRANSACTIONS OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

395

leaves the sale of drugs, even of dangerously poisonous drugs, unrestricted. We
are even told that the restriction with reference to the dispensing of prescriptions
is not sufficiently stringent, and that the objects of the Bill may be evaded by
keeping a sort of Medical Hall, and having a dispensary at the back, so that a pre¬
scription presented in the front shop may be translated there, and the translation
taken to the back shop to be dispensed. It is assumed that this might be done by
an unregistered dealer in drugs, without violating the proposed law, which we do
not for one moment credit ; but even supposing that it were so, is the practice of
pharmacy so lucrative, or does it in any way present such powerful inducements
to its pursuit, that men would be found resorting to a despicable subterfuge to
enable them to enjoy the benefits which legally- qualified pharmaceutists have some
difficulty in appreciating ? W e do not even believe that the retail sale of drugs
could be profitably conducted if separated from dispensing, unless it be under
quite exceptional circumstances ; but it is deserving of consideration whether
this part of the Bill might not be improved by restricting the sale of a limited
number of dangerous medicines which are applied exclusively to therapeutical
purposes to the class of qualified men who are entrusted with the dispensing of
prescriptions. This and some other questions relating to the sale of poisons
may be expected to be fully discussed before the Bill is passed, if not before its
introduction into Parliament. It was important in framing the Bill and sub¬
mitting it in a tangible form to those who will be most immediately affected by
it, and whose expressed opinions will have much weight with the Legislature,
that it should contain as few debatable points as possible, and in this we think
the Council have been eminently successful. If the body of chemists and drug¬
gists can agree, as we believe the majority do agree, to the provisions contained
in this Bill, a great point in that respect is gained ; and we are sure the Council
is open to any feasible propositions for improvement that can be shown to be
equally popular with the trade at large, and not less likely to be sanctioned by
the Legislature.

TRANSACTIONS

OF

THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

AT A MEETING OF THE COUNCIL, January Uli, 1865,

Present — Messrs. Bird, Davenport, Deane, Haselden, Hills, Morson, Reynolds, Sand*
ford, Savage, Squire, and Waugh.

The following Pharmaceutical Chemists were elected

MEMBERS.

Birmingham .

Bishopweannouth
Bootle, near Liverpool

Chester . .

Gateacre, near Liverpool

Glasgow .

Hendon . .

Hirwain .

Howden .

Huddersfield .

London .

?) .

. *

.

Lucas, Joseph.

Dobinson, William Lewis.
Walker, Joseph.

Grindley, William.
Holgate, Walter.

Taite, James.

Goldfinch, George.

Sims, Joseph.

Saville, John.

King, William.

Davies, William.

Hickey, Evan Lewis.
Hickman, William.

Jones, William.

Preston, Richard.

Rhind, William Waddell.

2 f 2

396

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

Merthyr Tydvil . . Rees, Thomas.

Nottingham . FitzHugh, Richard.

„ . Shepperley, George.

Oxford . Upjohn, Henry C.

Pembroke Dock . Saer, David Protheroe.

Rochdale . Mercer, Thomas William.

Southsea . Rastrick, Robert Joseph.

Stowmarket . Simpson, Arthur Lankester.

Resolved — That in the opinion of this Council it is desirable to continue the separate
examinations for persons already in business, irrespective of the proposed extension of
the Pharmacy Act.

EXAMINATION, January 25th, 1865.

(Registered as Pharmaceutical Chemists.)

Booth, Samuel . London.

Guest, Edward Percival . Brentwood.

Holt, William Henry . Altrincham.

Hyslop, John Cahill . London.

Salman, Thomas . London.

Sloggett, Thomas Chubb . Plymouth.

Smith, Edward . London.

REGISTERED APPRENTICES.

Name. Residing with Address.

Davies, James’ . Mr. Wade . Oldham

Farries, Thomas . Mr. Forge . Driffield.

French, John . Mr. French . Chatham.

Limb, Thomas . Mr. Patterson . Stamford.

Marrison, George 0. L . Mr. Marrison . Launceston, Tasmania,

Mepsted, Edward J . Mr. Chignell . Wingham.

Smith, John . Mr. Williamson . Scarborough.

Tate, Alfred Hornby . Mr. Williamson ... . Scarborough.

Taylor, William Gee . Mr. Chaundy . Oxford.

Wilcox, William . Mr. Dring . St. Neot’s.

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

Wednesday, January 4 th , 1865.

MR. SANDFORD, PRESIDENT, IN THE CHAIR.

The following papers were read : —

NOTES ON THE CHLORIDES OE IRON AND THE METHODS
OF MAKING SOLUTION OF PERCIiLORIDE OF IRON OF
CONSTANT STRENGTH.

BY J. ATTFIELD, PH.D., F.C.S.,

DIRECTOR OP THE LABORATORIES OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY

OP GREAT BRITAIN.

Aqueous and spirituous solutions of perchloride of iron have long been, and
still are, much used in medicine. But the processes commonly employed for
the preparation of them have been stated to yield products of inconstant quali¬
ties, — products too weak, too strong, too acid, too basic, unstable or impure. I
have therefore experimentally reviewed the various methods, and this paper is
descriptive of the results obtained.

First Method.

Theoretically, the simplest method of forming a chloride of iron would be to
bring together chlorine and iron, the two elements of which it is composed.

NOTES ON THE CHLORIDES OF IRON.

4

397

Practically, also, this is the simplest process, if a pure, crystalline, anhydrous,
solid chloride be required ; for iron is inexpensive, and can always be had in
the convenient form of nails, wire, etc. ; and chlorine is easily made by any one
having a slight acquaintance with chemical manipulation. The two elements
attack each other even in the cold, but if the iron be made hot, combination
proceeds with great rapidity, the result being protochloride of iron, if the iron
be in large and the chlorine in small quantity, or percliloride of iron, otherwise
known as sesquichloride of iron, if a continuous current of chlorine be supplied.
On the small scale, the following arrangement of apparatus may be employed : —
Generate chlorine by gradually heating a mixture of hydrochloric acid and
binoxide of manganese in a clean Florence flask, dry it by conveying the gas
through a glass tube to the bottom of a wash-bottle containing strong sulphuric
acid ; from this bottle let it flow through another glass-tube to the bottom of a
second Florence flask one-tliird filled with small iron nails, and kept at a heat ap¬
proaching redness by a spirit or gas-flame placed beneath. Under these con¬
ditions the percliloride of iron sublimes, and adheres to the upper part of the
flask. If the operation be discontinued when about half or two-thirds of the
nails have been acted on, the residual iron will be found to be compacted to¬
gether by small micaceous crystals of protochloride of iron. The colour of the
latter is yellowish- white, soon changing to light-brown in the air, while the
percliloride forms dark-green iridescent scales. The temperature required
for the volatilization of the protochloride is far higher than that for the per-
chloride, hence the condensation of the two salts at different parts of the flask,
a circumstance which enables the operator to separate the one from the other by
merely cracking off the bottom of the flask on which the iron and protochloride
rest. This process is a demonstration of the facts that protochloride of iron is
formed whenever iron and chlorine are brought into contact, and that perchlo-
ride of iron is produced by the action of chlorine on protocliloride of iron. The
apparatus is not the best that could be devised if the protochloride only were
required, but is well suited for the production of percliloride. In the latter case
it is not necessary to continue the current of chlorine until all the iron has dis¬
appeared, for the nails that are furthest from the end of the delivery-tube are
not so rapidly attacked as those nearer, and hence towards the close of the ope¬
ration there is a free space in the neighbourhood of the delivery -tube, and some
of the chlorine escapes without acting on the iron. This circumstance, how¬
ever, ensures the presence of free chlorine in the upper part of the flask, and
consequently the freedom of the percliloride there from the least trace of proto¬
chloride. From half a pound to a pound of pure perchloride of iron can in this
way be made in a Florence flask. Much larger quantities are produced with
facility in a similar manner in more capacious vessels.

Properties of the Chlorides of Iron. — Perchloride of iron is seldom used in the
anhydrous solid state either by the pharmaceutist, chemist, or medical practi¬
tioner ; it is usually at once obtained in a state of solution. Unless, however,
the characters of the pure substance be studied, especially its behaviour with
solvents, we cannot form a correct estimate of the efficiency of the processes for
the preparation of the solutions. I shall, therefore, briefly notice some of the
properties of the perchloride and also a few of those of the protochloride, as
some of the processes for the preparation of solutions of the former involve the
previous preparation of solutions of the latter.

Properties of the Perchloride. — Anhydrous perchloride of iron absorbs mois¬
ture from the air very rapidly. If a few crystals be exposed on paper they be¬
come liquid in a few minutes. Once dissolved in water, however, it yields a
liquid which will probably remain unimpaired for any length of time, for I have
specimens a year old, containing 40| per cent, of the salt, — similar, in fact, in
strength to the solution of perchloride of iron of the British Pharmacopoeia, —

398

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

and they are still unaltered. The statement made to the Pharmaceutical So¬
ciety by Mr. Richard Phillips, jun., at the evening meeting of October 9th,
1844, and recorded in the ‘ Pharmaceutical Journal,’ vol. iv. p. 208, that solu¬
tions of the anhydrous perchloride of iron in water readily decompose on expo¬
sure to air, is obviously incorrect ; solutions of the protochloride do so decom¬
pose, and I can only account for Mr. Phillips’s statement by supposing that pro¬
tochloride was present in the liquids on which he experimented. When
anhydrous perchloride of iron is dissolved in water to form a solution of the'
officinal strength just referred to, it has a specific gravity of 1*432 and contains
40*5 per cent, of the salt, or 58 parts of solid perchloride in 100 fluid parts of
the solution. This statement of the strength was confirmed by several experi¬
ments and by quantitative analysis ; it is very different to that given in the
British Pharmacopoeia. In order, however, to compare this pure solution
with others of similar strength, but which are impure, and therefore differing in
specific gravity and consequently in percentage composition, it may be conve¬
niently described as a solution containing two ounces of metallic iron in ten fluid
ounces, or twenty solid parts of iron in one hundred fluid parts of the solution.
Solution of perchloride of iron is decomposed when boiled, hydrochloric acid being
evolved. This is true whatever be the strength of the solution, and should be
remembered by the chemist in using a neutral solution as a reagent in analysis,
and by the pharmaceutist in evaporating the liquid with a view to concentra¬
tion. Sometimes the oxide first precipitated again dissolves as the solution cools
this only occurs when much perchloride is still undecomposed, and is due to the
solubility of oxide of iron in solution of the chloride. Anhydrous perchloride of
iron is also readily soluble in ether and in spirit of wine, but the solutions are
not stable ; in the course of a week or so they become opalescent and some basic
chloride of iron is deposited. The ethereal solution undergoes the same decompo¬
sition in a few minutes if it be boiled ; and the alcoholic solution also, if it be
heated under pressure. I find that a few drops of hydrochloric acid per ounce will
prevent this decomposition. But perchlorideof iron and alcohol or ether decompose
each other in another way when long exposed to the influence of light, and the
reaction occurs whether the alcoholic solution be pure or contain water. Un¬
der these circumstances two-thirds of the chlorine in the salt remain with the
iron, forming protochloride of iron, while the remaining third combines with
the carbon and hydrogen of the alcohol or ether to form a volatile liquid of
pleasant taste and odour, and which probably contains chloride of ethyl and
possibly chloride of ethylene (C4II4,,C12) and chlorinated derivatives of those
bodies. The resulting almost colourless liquids were formerly officinal in the
Pharmacopoeias of North Germany, under the name of “ Ethereal Spirit of
Chloride of Iron ” and synonymous titles. It would seem that this reaction
commences when the mixture of perchloride of iron and spirit or ether is made,
as the solutions soon acquire the odour alluded to. The only other fact con¬
cerning solution of perchloride of iron to which I would now draw attention is
that it is entirely converted into solution of pernitrate of iron if long boiled
with excess of nitric acid ; it is also important to observe that solution of per¬
nitrate of iron is similarly decomposed if long boiled with hydrochloric acid.

Properties of Protochloride of Iron. — Protochloride of iron also is soluble in
water, alcohol, or ether, but the solutions are unstable in the air ; they rapidly
absorb oxygen, and yield a turbid mixture of perchloride and peroxide of iron.
Aqueous solution of protochloride of iron is also partially decomposed on boil¬
ing, some hydrochloric acid escaping and oxide of iron remaining. But in addi¬
tion to this action, I find that the protochloride itself volatilizes, in an unde¬
composed state, in the vapour of water during the evaporation of its solution ;
and does so to an extent that precludes the possibility of preparing a solution of
definite strength if ebullition occur during manipulation. Finally, protochloride
of iron is far less soluble in strong hydrochloric acid than in water.

NOTES ON THE CIILOllIDES OF IRON.

399-

Properties of a semi- spirituous Solution of Per chloride of Iron. — Wlien the pure
solution of perchloride above described is mixed with three times its volume of
spirit of wine, a clear liquid of rich brown colour is obtained, similar in per¬
centage of iron, water, and spirit, to the fluid dignified by the name of tincture
of perchloride of iron in the British and other Pharmacopoeias and in pharmacy
generally. This aquo-spirituous solution of perchloride of iron is very unstable,,
the spirit exerting exactly the opposite influence to that it always should and
generally does exert in tinctures. Alcohol is generally added to liquids to retard
or prevent change, or is used as a solvent for substances insoluble or only par¬
tially soluble in water. Now perchloride of iron is perfectly soluble in water,
and the solution is stable ; for these reasons the addition of alcohol to such a so¬
lution when it is to be used in medicines is entirely unnecessary and should not
therefore be practised. But when, in addition to these reasons for its exclusion,
it is known that in the course of a few days it and the perchloride of iron so re¬
act on each other that the solution becomes turbid, deposits much iron, and is
unfit for use in medicine, its exclusion becomes imperative. Compounders of
medicine have hitherto made a mistake in placing a spirituous solution in the
hands of prescribers of medicine. They should now prepare an aqueous solu¬
tion of similar strength, and induce the latter to discontinue the use of the
spirituous. Meanwhile, 3 ust as the rotten supports of a bridge may be strengthened
by spurs and trusses, so the breaking up of tincture of perchloride of iron, due
to the presence of the body which should itself prevent decomposition, may be
prevented by the addition of certain chemical supports. The simplest and least
objectionable of these is hydrochloric acid. As a result of many experiments,
which I need not describe, I find that if not less than four drops of the ordi¬
nary hydrochloric acid be added to every ounce of this semi-spirituous solution
of pure perchloride of iron, no decomposition occurs ; at least I find no evident
change after keeping such a solution for six months, though, doubtless, the
other decomposition to which I have referred, namely, the formation of proto¬
salt and a chlorinated ethereal body, has progressed to some extent.

I do not recommend this method of making a tolerably stable tincture of
perchloride of iron ; for a spirituous solution ought never to be used in phar¬
macy. I simply refer to it as indicative of the cause of that failure or success
which most persons have experienced in attempting to make the tincture, and
offer it as indicative of the object to be aimed at in preparing the tincture so
long as medical practitioners continue to prescribe that liquid.*

Second Method.

With a knowledge of these properties of the chlorides of iron and their solu¬
tions, we may now examine other processes for making solutions of perchloride
of iron of definite strength. The strengths to which I more especially allude
are those already mentioned, namely, an aqueous solution, one hundred fluid
parts of which contain twenty solid parts of metallic iron, and a spirituous so¬
lution, one hundred fluid parts of which contain five solid parts of iron. These
are, respectively, Liquor' Ferri Berchloridi and Tinctura Ferri Perchloridi of the
British Pharmacopoeia.

In the above method of making perchloride of iron from its elements, the
chlorine was obtained from hydrochloric acid by the agency of binoxide of

* Since the above was written I find that at King’s College Hospital the tincture has for
many years been discarded in favour of an aqueous solution of similar strength. Dr.
Lionel Beale, F.R.S., says (Med. Times and Gaz., Jan. 14, 1865), “The composition of this
solution is just the same as that of the tincture, except that water is used instead of spirit.
It has been in constant use in our hospital for the last eight or nine years.” Correspon¬
dents of the £ Lancet ’ have also, lately, advocated the employment of aqueous rather than
spirituous solutions of perchloride of iron.

400

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

manganese and heat. If, however, the salt be required in solution only, two-
thirds of the chlorine can be obtained from the hydrochloric acid without either
heat or binoxide of manganese, and two-tliirds of the necessary labour, as well
as of the heat and manganese, are thereby saved. In this case the iron is at
once placed in two-thirds of the total amount of hydrochloric acid required ; in
a few hours the hydrogen of the acid has been wholly displaced by the iron, and
has bubbled or effervesced out of the liquid, escaping, in the gaseous state, into
the air. The result is a solution of proto- chloride of iron ; beyond this point
iron will not decompose hydrochloric acid. The other third portion of the
hydrochloric acid is then made to yield its chlorine as before, by heating with
binoxide of manganese, and this chlorine, conducted into the solution of proto¬
chloride already formed directly from the acid, converts the protosalt into a
pure solution of perchloride of iron. To make this solution of the officinal
strength, rather more than two ounces of fine iron binding- wire are placed in a
mixture of six-and-a-half fluid ounces of hydrochloric of sp. gr. T17, andthree-
and-a-half ounces of water (or seven fl. oz. of acid of sp. gr. 1T6 and three oz.
of water), and the whole placed in a flask or bottle, or some other vessel from
which gas can escape, without the solution being unduly exposed to the air. In
the summer time decomposition is complete in less than a day, in winter the
vessel must be set in a warm place ; for this is an action in which the chemical
force is much influenced by the force of heat. The carbonaceous residue of the
iron and the iron not dissolved must now be separated as quickly as possible, by
filtering the solution into a bottle, and then chlorine gas be passed into the
liquid until the protochloride of iron is entirely converted into perchloride. This
is ascertained by placing a drop of the solution in thirty or forty drops of water,
and adding solution of ferridcyanide of potassium, which gives a dark precipi¬
tate of Prussian blue with protosalts, but only darkens the colour of the liquid
if persalt alone is present : when, therefore, a dark-blue precipitate ceases to be
formed, the reaction is complete. Towards the end of the operation the de¬
livery-tube must be removed, the stopper placed in the bottle, and the contents
well shaken occasionally, in order to aid the contact of the chlorine with the
last portions of protochloride. More chlorine is required in this operation than
is theoretically necessary, as a portion of each bubble passes up through the
liquid and escapes before it and the protochloride have time to attack each other.
Finally, excess of chlorine dissolved in the solution is got rid of by boiling the
liquid. Here, however, the process breaks down. The last traces of chlorine
are not removed till the ten ounces of solution have been reduced to eight, and
during the ebullition much hydrochloric acid is lost. In appearance the pro¬
duct is excellent, but it is of course very basic.

Third, Method.

The third process for preparing perchloride of iron to which I shall refer, is a
slight modification of the one already described. It is that adopted by the com¬
pilers of the British Pharmacopoeia. As in all the other processes, so in this, the
required chlorine is obtained from hydrochloric acid. But the hydrogen of the
acid is not removed either wholly, as in the first-named process, nor partially,
as in the second, by the agency of binoxide of manganese and heat, but by
nitric acid. Iron is dissolved in the requisite quantity of hydrochloric acid, two-
thirds of which, as already described, loses its hydrogen in the gaseous state, and
protochloride of iron is formed : —

Fe2 + 3HCl = 2FeCl + HCl + H2.

On the addition of nitric acid, the third portion of hydrochloric acid loses its
hydrogen by the action of some of the oxygen in the nitric acid, and the libe¬
rated chlorine then combines with the protochloride of iron to form perchloride : —

HC1 + 0 = H0 + C1;
then 2FeCl -j- Cl = Fe2C]3.

NOTES ON THE CHLORIDES OF IRON.

401

Three-fifths only of the oxygen in the nitric acid perforin this work, the other
two still remaining with the nitrogen, and ultimately escaping in the gaseous
form of binoxide of nitrogen from the vessels used in the operation. The whole
reaction may be thus expressed : —

Fe6 + 9HCl-fN06 = 3Fe2Cl3 + 3H0+N02.

The binoxide of nitrogen arising from the portions of nitric acid first decom¬
posed, dissolve in that part of the protochloride of iron not yet acted on, and
orm a compound of dark colour ; but when the solution is evaporated to a par¬
ticular degree of concentration, or excess of some kind of acid is added, the
black compound is decomposed, and the whole of the binoxide of nitrogen
escapes. I may here state that I have satisfied myself that this is a true expla¬
nation of the chemical reactions which occur in the process. Yet the process
will not yield, or only by chance yield a pure product. In the first place, an
exact amount of hydrochloric acid must be used. Now, hydrochloric acid is a
body which, chiefly from its character as a gas, cannot be conveniently em¬
ployed in the pure state ; it is always met with in commerce in the state of so¬
lution in water, and the strength of the solution is determined by the specific
gravity ; and if the specific gravity is not exactly what it should be, the result¬
ing solution of perchloride of iron will be acid or basic to an unknown extent.
This circumstance, however, may interfere with any process for the preparation
of perchloride of iron, or indeed with any other operation in which a given bulk
of aqueous hydrochloric acid is used. In short, the liquid commonly known as
hydrochloric acid should never be employed in making solutions of exact
strength, unless its specific gravity be previously ascertained, — a fact that very
well serves to show how the simplest operations in Pharmacy require an amount
of chemical knowledge and skill such as is not always possessed by the followers
of that calling in the present state of the law of this country. Supposing, how¬
ever, the acid to be of known strength, and the requisite amount for a given
quantity of iron to have been correctly calculated, it must be diluted with
water, and that water subsequently removed by evaporation. It must be
diluted, or the iron will not wholly dissolve in the cold ; the first portions of
protochloride of iron formed, being only slightly soluble in the hydrochloric
acid, crystallize on the iron, and thus prevent the acid from coming into contact
with the metal ; and the solution must not be heated, or protochloride of iron
escapes. The amount of water necessary to keep the protochloride in solution is
about half the volume of acid used, if that acid be of the sp. gr. 1T6 or I'll.
But the water having performed its office, must now be removed, for the action
of the nitric acid on the hydrochloric acid and protosalt is only complete when
the mixture is so concentrated that it has about the bulk of the hydrochloric
acid originally employed : the black compound, otherwise so fugitive, is com¬
paratively stable in neutral or only slightly acid solutions, and the binoxide of
nitrogen which causes it only escapes from such solutions when they are concen¬
trated to a syrupy condition. To get rid of this water, heat must of course be
used ; the liquid must be boiled. But, as we have already seen, solution of
perchloride of iron is decomposed when evaporated at a boiling temperature.
Here again, therefore, the process fails. The only means of preventing such a
decomposition is to add more hydrochloric acid, a proceeding which has the
additional advantage of facilitating the breaking up of the black compound, and
thus of more speedily causing the total evolution of the binoxide of nitrogen.
But we cannot know what amount to add. Slight differences in the rate or
extent of evaporation greatly influence the evolution of hydrochloric acid from
the hydrated perchloride of iron, and whether much or little acid must be added
to make up the loss, we have no ready means of ascertaining. Nor can the
solution of the iron in two-tliirds of the hydrochloric acid and water be evapo¬
rated before the other third and the nitric acid are added ; for in that case proto-

402

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

chloride of iron escapes with the steam, and the resulting solution is weakened
to a corresponding extent. In short, the process is practically a failure as a
method of preparing a pure solution of perchloride of iron. If the presence of
free hydrochloric acid in the solution is of no consequence, then the process is
as good as any other ; in that case it is only necessary to add, say, one-fourth to
one-sixth more hydrochloric acid than is necessary for the reaction ; the black
compound is then easily decomposed, so also is any nitrate of iron that may have
been formed ; excess of nitric acid is also got rid of, and, excepting the presence
of free hydrochloric acid, the solution is all that could be wished. Such a solu¬
tion must, of course, be termed “ acid solution of perchloride of iron,” and its
acidity will be variable in amount. It would surely be better that the officinal
solution should be pure ; prescribers could then order the addition of any quan¬
tity of acid they might desire or have no free acid present, — an alternative that
could not be enjoyed if this or any other faulty process for the preparation of
solution of perchloride of iron were permanently adopted.

Liquor Ferri Perchloridi , B. P. — Before leaving this, the third of the pro¬
cesses that I have alluded to for the preparation of perchloride of iron, it will be
as well to notice the adaptation of it given in the British Pharmacopoeia. To
2 ounces of annealed iron wire, or binding wire, a mixture of 10 fluid ounces of
aqueous hydrochloric acid (of sp. gr. 1T7) and 5 fluid ounces of water is to be
added in successive portions, the resulting evolution of hydrogen gas being
assisted by the application of “a gentle heat.” Assuming that the words “ a
gentle heat ” have their usual meaning, namely, a temperature entirely at the
discretion of the operator, and disregarding the injunction to add the diluted
acid “in successive portions,” the metal is simply placed in the liquid, and the
whole set aside anywhere in the summer time, or in a warm place (say at a tem¬
perature of 80° to 100° F.) in the winter, until the whole of the iron is dissolved.
The operation will generally occupy less than a day. The solution must now be
filtered, to separate the carbon set free from the iron wire ; it is small in quan¬
tity by weight, but rather bulky, and if not removed would give the final pro¬
duct a dark- coloured appearance. By the wTay, the direction to filter has been
omitted from the Pharmacopoeia description of the process. A mixture of 6 fluid
drachms of nitric acid (of sp. gr. 1*5), diluted with 2 fluid ounces of water, is then
added to the solution of iron, and the Avhole reduced by evaporation from its bulk
of about 18 fluid ounces to 10 fluid ounces. Now, contrary to what has been
stated by several operators, this method of working has yielded in my hands a
clear, stable solution of the proper rich brown colour, and containing no proto¬
salt. I can only suppose that others have used weak acids or have applied too
much heat in the first stage of the process, and thus lost acid. But, as I stated
in the lectures which I had the pleasure of delivering before the members of the
Pharmaceutical Society in the early part of last year, the resulting solution con¬
tains pernitrate of iron. Moreover, it is deficient in acid ; hydrochloric acid has
been lost from some of the hydrated perchloride of iron during evaporation, and
though the peroxide of iron formed may not be in sufficient amount to remain as
a permanent precipitate, but is dissolved in the residual perchloride of iron, the
solution, from the absence of free acid, soon reacts on the spirit of wine it may
be mixed with to form the so-called tincture, and a solid basic compound of per¬
chloride of iron separates, and, from its lightness, remains suspended in the
liquid ; in short, the tincture is spoiled. With regard to the pernitrate of iron,
its presence is due to the employment of more nitric acid than is necessary.
Theoretically, 2 ounces of iron, or 875 grains, require 1711 grains of anhydrous
hydrochloric acid and 281 grains of anhydrous nitric acid (NOs). 1711 grains
of anhydrous hydrochloric acid are contained in 9 fluid ounces and 6 fluid
drachms of aqueous hydrochloric acid of sp. gr. 1T7 ; and 281 grains of the body
N05 are contained in 4 fluid drachms and 18 minims of aqueous nitric acid of

NOTES ON THE CHLORIDES OF IRON.

403

sp. gr. T5.* So, then, the Pharmacopoeia directions include the use of a slight
excess of hydrochloric acid, and nearly half as much more nitric acid as is theore¬
tically necessary. The excess, and more too, of the hydrochloric acid escapes when
the solution of perchloride of iron is concentrated by evaporation, and its place is
supplied to some extent by the superfluous nitric acid. If, however, the excess
of nitric acid were omitted, and its place not supplied by additional hydro¬
chloric acid, the amount of peroxide of iron formed during ebullition would be
too large for resolution in the residual perchloride. As before remarked, the Phar¬
macopoeia adaptation of the nitro-hydrochloric process of preparing perchloride of
iron is a failure, in so far as the production of an aqueous solution of pure perchlo¬
ride of iron is concerned. I may state that by using the theoretical quantity of
nitric acid and about an ounce more hydrochloric acid than is theoretically ne¬
cessary, I have succeeded in producing solutions of perchloride of iron of the
officinal strength, containing no nitric acid, but varying in the amount of hy¬
drochloric in the products, and consequently producing, when mixed with spirit
of wine, liquids* which may or may not be stable. The action of the excess of
acid is, as already indicated, to replace hydrochloric acid lost by evaporation,
and to decompose excess of nitric acid.

Fourth Method.

The fourth process for preparing solution of perchloride of iron to which I
shall refer is that of dissolving peroxide of iron in hydrochloric acid. This pro¬
cess has been extolled for its simplicity. Gentlemen knowing nothing of che¬
mical manipulation could dissolve the oxide in the acid, much as they would
dissolve sugar in water, and enjoy the self-satisfaction of having made their own
preparation ; forgetting that the peroxide had probably to be prepared from a per-
salt, and that the persalt had to be made from a protosalt by the agency of nitric
acid, and that the process was therefore not very different from apparently more,
but really less complicated processes. I should advise such persons to go one step
further than getting their wholesale chemist to thus perform half the process for
them, and they complete it ; I should advise them to let the manufacturer per¬
form the ■whole operation. For if manipulators should never attempt to make
any hydrochloric solutions of definite strength unless they can ascertain for
themselves the strength of the aqueous acid by taking its specific gravity, surely
they should not endeavour to prepare perchloride of iron from two substances,
of which aqueous hydrochloric acid is one, and the other a body of equally in¬
constant qualities, namely, the so-called peroxide of iron. If a purchased speci¬
men of peroxide of iron be only what its name indicates, it will most likely be
in such a physical state as to be insoluble, or only partially soluble, in hydro¬
chloric acid. And if it be readily soluble in the acid, it will probably be a hy¬
drated oxide of iron, containing an inconstant amount of water.f In adopting
this process, therefore, an inexperienced manipulator is more likely to make
errors than in any other. lie will probably fail in making his solution of per¬
chloride of iron, or, if succeeding, his product will probably either be so basic as
decompose a few days after mixing with spirit, or so acid as to mislead or be
condemned by the prescriber. Of course an operator having knowledge and

* Data. Fe = 28 ; N05 = 54 ; II Cl = 36’5. Aqueous hydrochloric acid of sp. gr. 1T7 contains
34'25 per cent, of anhydrous acid (Ure). Aqueous nitric acid of sp. gr. 1*5 contains 79‘7 per¬
cent. of NOs (Ure) ; 1 fl. oz. = 437’5 grains; 1 fl. drachm = 54*6875 grains; 1 minim = -9114583
grain. The presence of carbon in the iron is not taken into account, an experiment showing
it to exist only in the proportion of ‘25 per cent.

f The last sample supplied to me for laboratory use by one of the most respectable of the
London manufacturers, contained only 67 instead of 90 per cent, of oxide, the remainder being
sulphate of ammonia and water. Even this badly washed and dried specimen was not wholly
soluble in hydrochloric acid.

404

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

skill would produce a perfectly pure solution of perchloride of iron of definite
strength from peroxide of iron and hydrochloric acid, for he would use only the
hydrated peroxide, ascertaining its value by igniting a weighed quantity, and
weighing the residue, and from these data calculating the amount of anhydrous
peroxide in it ; would determine the strength of the acid by its specific gravity ;
and finally, would mix the oxide and acid in such proportions as to ensure neu¬
trality and exact percentage composition.* But even under those circumstances
the solution could not be made of the officinal strength, for the requisite quan¬
tity of peroxide of iron increases the bulk of the strongest hydrochloric acid to
an extent that necessitates subsequent concentration, and then, of course, hy¬
drochloric acid is lost, the resulting solution is basic and decomposes on being
mixed with three times its bulk of spirit to form the tincture. Obviously this is
a difficulty that would not occur if a more dilute solution were required, — a solu¬
tion, for example, of one-fourth the strength — of the strength, in fact, of the
officinal tincture. Under any circumstances, however, the operator must make
his own hydrated peroxide ; so that, altogether, he would probably prefer the
direct and, to him, less troublesome process of preparing his solution from the
anhydrous perchloride.

Other Methods.

There are other methods by which it is possible to produce perchloride of
iron, but they are of theoretical interest only, and therefore need not be
noticed.

The process of the United States Pharmacopoeia is similar to that of the
British Pharmacopoeia, except that an indefinite quantity of nitric is ordered ;
the nitric acid is to be added to the hot acid solution of protochloride of iron,
until effervescence is no longer produced. The product will consequently con¬
tain much free nitric acid, for the black compound of binoxide of nitrogen and
protochloride of iron is not decomposed in a neutral or only slightly acid solu¬
tion.

Crystallized hydrated perchloride of iron, containing twelve atoms of water of
crystallization, is sometimes ordered in prescriptions. It occurs in yellow
masses having a crystalline structure, and is formed when solution of perchloride
of iron is concentrated to a thick syrup, and set aside to cool. It is seldom pure,
containing excess of acid or base, and varying somewhat in the amount of water
it may contain. Being itself indefinite, it cannot be used in forming a definite
solution.

Conclusion.

In conclusion, let me briefly recapitulate the chief points in the chemistry of
the chlorides of iron to which I wish to draw attention. First, cold aqueous solu¬
tions of pure perchloride of iron are perfectly stable, and can be prepared of defi¬
nite strength. Second, spirituous solutions, either wholly alcoholic or containing
water, are unstable, and soon lose their definite character. Third, the presence
of hydrochloric acid retards the decomposing reaction of perchloride of iron and
alcohol. Fourth, no process for the preparation of pure solution of perchloride
of iron is so simple as to be capable of performance without chemical knowledge
and skill. Fifth, solutions of either of the chlorides of iron are partially decom¬
posed on evaporation, and protochloride of iron is volatile in the vapour of
water. Sixth, neither the process of the British Pharmacopoeia nor that of the
London Pharmacopoeia yields a pure solution of perchloride of iron. Seventh,
the method of producing solution of perchloride of iron by saturating hydro¬
chloric with iron, and passing excess of chlorine through the resulting liquid,
is faulty, because the excess of chlorine cannot practically be removed ex-

* See a paper by Davenport, Pliarm. Journ. 2nd ser. vol. iv. p. 362.

OINTMENT OF STAVES ACRE.

405

cept by ebullition, and ebullition causes decomposition of the solution of per¬
chloride. Eighth, the only method of producing pure solution of perchloride of
iron of officinal strength is to dissolve the anhydrous perchloride in water : say
5£ ounces added to water, so that the solution shall measure 10 fluid ounces, and
this solution then diluted to 40 ounces to form a solution of the strength of the
tincture.

I beg to recommend the adoption of the last-mentioned process for the prepa¬
ration of aqueous solution of perchloride of iron. It is perhaps the most ex¬
pensive, requires a considerable amount of manipulative skill, and can only be
performed in the open air or with appliances for carrying off the chlorine which
escapes during the operation. Moreover, the great affinity of the salt for
moisture must always be remembered and counteracted, either by packing it
in bottles as soon as made, in quantities just sufficient to make half a pint, a
pint, etc., of solution, or by dissolving it as soon as made (by adding it to
water, not water to it), and making the solution, rather than the solid, the
commercial form of the preparation.* All these circumstances are unfavour¬
able to the adoption of the process, but it is the only one which will give a pure
preparation. Finally, I distinctly deprecate the employment of a spirituous so¬
lution of perchloride of iron — the so-called tincture. It is true, as I have
shown, that the tincture suffers no immediate and apparent decomposition if
excess of acid be present, and there may be those who are of opinion that an
acid spirituous solution of perchloride of iron is preferable to a mere aqueous
one of similar strength, because, on keeping, a pleasant odour and flavour are
produced. With such opinions I have no sympathy whatever. The therapeu¬
tist can employ chalybeates, acids, and flavouring bodies if he needs them, but,
under the definite chemical name of one of them, do not give him all three. The
art of healing can never make satisfactory progress until compounders of medi¬
cines place pure definite preparations in the hands of prescribers.

ON A NEW FORM OF OINTMENT OF STAYESACRE AND
ITS APPLICATION IN CERTAIN CUTANEOUS DISEASES.

BY BALMANNO SQUIRE, M.B., F.L.S.

In the course of some researches into the pathology and treatment of the
diseases of the skin, in which I have for some time been engaged, I have
devoted especial attention to the investigation of one of the severest and most
intractable of these affections, — one known as Prurigo senilis, or the “old
man’s itch.” After having carefully examined a large number of cases of this
disease, I arrived at the conclusion that it was essentially dependent on the
presence of the pediculus corporis on the surface of the skin, and that all the
phenomena of the disease were dependent on the irritation set up by the pre¬
sence of this parasite. This coloured photograph, which I had taken from a
case of Prurigo senilis lately under my care, conveys a fair idea of the general
appearance presented by this disease. Up to that time Prurigo senilis had been
supposed to be dependent, in some cases, on derangements of the digestive
organs, in others, on disordered innervation of the skin. In such instances of
the disease as had been noticed to be accompanied by the pediculus corporis,
this parasite was supposed to be an accidental complication, in no way concerned

* This readiness to absorb moisture is greatly influenced by the state of aggregation. In
the condition of powder or single crystals it certainly does take up water most greedily.
But if after manufacture it be removed in lumps or masses of crystals, so that as little
surface is exposed as possible, the rate of absorption is much reduced. 900 grains placed
in an open wide-mouth bottle on a damp day only absorbed three grains ot water in an
hour. This amount was, however, sufficient to make the lumps look wot and spoil their
iridescent appearance.

406

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

in the production of the disease. Having ascertained thus much, I from that
time confined my treatment of the disease to the local application of the various
substances known to be destructive to the lower forms of animal life. These
are sufficiently numerous, but to a large number of them serious objections
may be raised. Thus, without referring to more than two, —

Since the disease is spread most commonly over the greater part of the surface
of the body, the use of mercurial ointment is not to be recommended.

Again, the nauseating odour and the irritating properties of turpentine ren¬
der it equally ineligible.

In brief, I found the seeds of the Delphinium Staphysaejria the safest, the
pleasantest, and the most effectual remedy of many that I employed.

Even in cases where the disease had lasted for six or eight years, and the
irritation occasioned by it had at length become so severe as entirely to deprive
the patient of sleep for nights together, this remedy would cause it to dis¬
appear altogether, and that frequently in less than a week.

I mention thus much about the disease, in order to show the importance of
what might else appear to be a very trivial question — the question of what is the
best method of preparing Stavesacre for employment as an external application.

A way in which it is sometimes used is the sprinkling of the powdered seeds
over the skin ; this, however, I found a much less efficacious plan than its em¬
ployment in the form of ointment.

The ointment that I had made for me was, however, a by no means satis¬
factory preparation.* You will observe that it has a measly, spotted appear¬
ance, that is anything but inviting ; I thought this proceeded from carelessness
in powdering the seeds, but was told they could be powdered no finer. On
removing the bung of a bottle containing some of the powder, it was noticed
that the paper that covered the cork was stained with grease spots, and this at
once suggested the reason why the seeds would not powder any finer than the
coarse meal-like substance that you see. The seeds evidently contained a con¬
siderable quantity of oil.

With a view of making a more elegant-looking ointment, I had all the oily
matter extracted from a given quantity, by means of ether ; and after this
process, the meal-like matter was pounded afresh,' — it readily broke into a much
finer powder, this is some of it. And this powder, as might be expected, made
a much more presentable ointment. Here is a specimen. But on employing
this ointment in the treatment of the disease, I found that what I had gained
in appearance I had lost in efficiency ; the ointment so made was powerless
as a therapeutical agent.

I then betook myself to the constituent that had been extracted in this pro¬
cess, viz. the oil, which amounted to as much as the half (by weight) of the
seeds, and had an ointment made of this, adding a little white wax to it to
preserve its consistency. The oil is a dark yellow, tolerabl3r bland fluid ; this
made an ointment which, as this sample shows, is preferable in appearance even
to the last. On employing this last ointment, I found it much more efficacious
even than the one I had first used.

Another mode and a cheaper one of coming at nearly the same result, is to
digest the crushed seeds in hot lard ; this produces an ointment scarcely less
efficacious than the one last described, but it has, as you may see, the disadvan¬
tage of being stained of a brown colour. I should not conclude this com¬
munication without mentioning that there is another disease of the skin, be¬
sides the one which first led me to this ointment, in which the same remedy
may be most advantageously employed, and that is the disease known as Sca¬
bies, or the Itch, the coloured photograph of which now before you will give
those who may not be familiar with its appearance a fair idea of it.

* Specimens of the differently prepared ointments were exhibited at the meeting.

407

DISCOVERY OE THEINE IN’ KOLA. NUTS.

Professor Bentley said that he had been requested by Dr. Daniell to announce
to the meeting that evening the important and interesting discovery of Theine
in the Kola nuts of commerce (Sterculia acuminata). Dr. Daniell had written to
him as follows: — “My attention was directed to the peculiar stimulant effects
resulting from taking a decoction of the seeds, in the permanent loss of sleep,
which led me to infer from physiological induction that these seeds contained
an alkaloid analogous to theine, and on a chemical examination with a view to
the discovery of that substance, I obtained a number of small, silky, needle-like
crystals, which proved to be that alkaloid. On my arrival in England, I placed
in the hands of Dr. Attfield samples of the fragments of the nuts, stating that
they produced theine, and wished him to test the validity of my conclusions.
I am happy to state he has fully confirmed my discovery.” Professor Bentley
added that Dr. Daniell ; would read a paper on the subject at the next Pharma¬
ceutical meeting, and also that Dr. Attfield would at the same time give the
details of his analysis of Kola nuts. Professor Bentley thought it probable that
the alkaloid thus obtained, from the near botanical affinity of the genus producing
it to that from which cocoa and chocolate were obtained, might be theobromine
instead of theine, although the appearance of the crystals, it must be admitted,
was more that of theine.

ON THE PURIFICATION OF ESSENTIAL OIL OF ALMONDS.

BY WILLIAM A. TILDEN,

DEMONSTRATOR IN THE LABORATORY OE THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

Among the numerous processes that have been suggested for the purification
of essential oil of almonds from the prussic acid that it invariably contains, I
believe there are none that are completely satisfactory, and some short time ago I
was induced to make a few experiments in a new direction, with a view to finding
a process for the purification of this essential oil that should not be subject to the
objections to which the others are liable. Although I believe I have been to a
certain extent successful, I wish merely to present some suggestions in order that
some one who may have opportunities of working on a larger scale may, if so
minded, repeat my experiments.

I have several times made use of a process founded upon a long-known reac¬
tion, and which consists in splitting up the hydrocyanic acid into formic acid
and ammonia with the assistance of the elements of water, —

II C2 N + 2 II2 02 = N H3 + C2 H2 04,
this change being effected by the action of a strong mineral acid.

Now when this decomposition is brought about in the presence of hydride of
benzoyl, the formic acid is not set at liberty, but unites with the elements of the
hydride, producing a conjugate acid, to which the name formo-benzoylic acid has
been applied.

Its composition is represented by the following formula : — C14IIG02, C2H2Q4.
This body is easily formed by boiling a mixture of the distilled water of bitter
almonds and hydrochloric acid, sal-ammoniac being, of course, at the same time
produced according to this equation —

Ci4Hg O, + II C2 N + HC1 + 2 H2 02 = N II4 Cl + C14 IIG 02 , C2 H2 04.

I imagined that if the formation of this substance, this acid, which of course takes
a large proportion of hydride of benzoyl, could be prevented or diminished, this
might prove a practicable process for the destruction of the hydrocyanic acid in
the essence of almonds. I have not succeeded, by any means that I have tried,
in preventing altogether the loss of hydride of benzoyl in this form, but I think
it'may be effected to a considerable extent. The method I have pursued is as

408

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

follows : — The essential oil is mixed in a flask with about three times its bulk of
ordinary hydrochloric acid diluted with a small quantity of water, a condenser
attached, and distillation started. As soon as the oil begins to come over pretty
freely, a quantity of water is added and distillation proceeded with. The oil is
afterwards separated from the aqueous portion of the distillate ; it is slightly
acid, and to remove this a little piece of quicklime is put into it, which at the
same time helps to dry the oil. If hydrate of lime be used for this purpose,
the essence becomes slightly discoloured.

Supposing the change represented in the equation above to take place strictly
as there shown, a proportion of hydrocyanic acid in the oil amounting to 8 per
cent would cause a loss of no less than 31 '4 per cent, of the hydride, in the
form of the acid described ; 5 per cent, of hydrocyanic acid would remove 19 '6
per cent, of hydride. Such a deficiency would be, of course, out of the question ;
but I have made in the manner described two rough quantitative experiments,
and believe that the loss on the large scale would not amount to more than
from 15 to 17 per cent., which would include hydrocyanic acid, benzoic acid,
benzoine, and all the other impurities of the essence.

I now wish to describe another method, which was suggested at a meeting of
the Chemical Discussion Association by my friend Mr. Broughton, and which
had also occurred to myself, but at that time I had no opportunity of making
the experiment.

Chemists have found that all the aldehycls with which we are acquainted form
definite crystalline compounds with the alkaline bisulphites ; hydride of benzoyl,
possessing as it does the characters of an aldehyd, being, in fact, the aldehyd
of the benzoyl series, is no exception to this rule.

If therefore the crude essence of almonds be shaken up with three or four
times its volume of a tolerably strong solution of bisulphite of soda and then
allowed to rest, the mixture becomes warm and the hydride of benzoyl is all con¬
verted into a crystalline mass, having the composition represented by the fol ¬
lowing formula, — C14II5Na02, S204,o Aq. These crystals removed from the
mother-liquor, which should be preserved, drained, and^dried at a very gentle
heat and then dissolved in water, carbonate of soda in excess added, and the
mixture distilled, yield hydride of benzoyl in a condition of absolute purity.
By this plan, theoretically speaking, there is no loss beyond the actual impuri¬
ties of the crude substance. This is certainly a recommendation, but a little
trouble is involved in the double operation of preparing the crystals and their
subsequent decomposition.

Having obtained the purified essence of almonds by any process that is most
efficient, another desideratum is felt in the difficulty of preserving it from under¬
going that oxidation and change with which every one is familiar. By exposure
to the air, as every one knows, absorption of oxygen occurs and the liquid hy¬
dride is converted into crystalline benzoic acid,—

Ci4II602 + 02 ^ C14H604,

and this change proceeds much more rapidly with the purified than with the
unpurified oil.

For this defect there is a simple remedy, which I think is as efficient as any¬
thing of the kind can ever be expected to be. It is well known that in the pre¬
sence of moisture oxidation is effected with infinitely greater facility than other¬
wise. Numerous examples of this may be easily adduced, but I can remember
none more striking than the formation of rust upon the surface of iron. If,
then, the purified essence of almonds be perfectly dried by a lump of chloride of
calcium introduced into it, the oxidation is retarded in a very marked degree.
I cannot say that the^essence attains the degree of permanence enjoyed by the
crude substance, but certainly the improvement is of the most decided character.

PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH. 409

Professor Redwood had been much interested in this communication, as it
related to a subject on which he had himself worked, but with less satisfactory
results than Mr. Tilden appeared to have obtained. It was easy to remove the
prussic acid by means of oxide of mercury, and he had suggested this method
some years ago ; but a less expensive and more productive method was wanted,
so that the purified oil might be supplied to the public at a price not much higher
than that of the crude oil. It was also important, if possible, that the purified
oil should be made as little subject to oxidation as the crude oil. It appeared
that Mr. Tilden had been successful, to some extent, in the attainment of both
these objects. His process for the purification of the oil was certainly a very
promising one, and was likely to be generally adopted. Mr. Tilden seemed also
to think that, by rendering the purified oil anhydrous, its tendency to oxida¬
tion was sufficiently lessened to remove the practical objection on this point ;
but it must be recollected that it was generally used as a flavouring agent in the
form of essence, in which the oil was dissolved in spirit of wine, and, as the
spirit contained water, this would probably destroy the effect of the previous
drying. The more permanent character of the crude oil had been accounted
for by supposing that part of the hydrocyanic acid, or cyanogen, existed in the
crude oil in some state of combination with the oil ; and if this be the case,
probably hydrochloric acid or chlorine could be substituted, so as to produce an
innocuous compound that would be equally permanent.

Mr. Tilden remarked that the hydrocyanic acid which reappeared in oil of
almonds, from which all the free hydrocyanic acid had been removed, was pro¬
bably furnished by a decomposition of benzamide, which contains not cyanogen
but its elements, and in this case the suggested remedy would not apply.

Mr. Allchin thought that one of the most important points in connection
with this subject was to devise an efficient method of preventing the purified oil
from becoming oxidized, and thus losing its peculiar almond flavour. He had
found this change to take place very rapidly in the spirituous solution, so that
customers objected to purchase it when made with the purified oil.

Mr. Haselden was glad to find that so valuable a practical paper as this
appeared to be was, like others they had received, a contribution from the class
of Associates of the Society, and also that it emanated from that very useful
association of young men called the Chemical Discussion Association, which met
there once a month for the discussion of subjects relating to pharmacy, and the
promotion of scientific research. He thought this association deserved to be more
generally encouraged than it had hitherto been.

PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

A meeting was held in St. George’s Hall, on Tuesday evening, 17th January at
9 o’clock ; Mr. Kemp, President, in the chair.

After a few introductory remarks by the Chairman, the following paper was read : —
“ On the Present Position of Pharmacy in the United Kingdom, and on the teaching of
'Pharmacy in Edinburgh,” by R. E. Scoresby- Jackson, M.D., F.R.S.E., P.R.C.P., Lecturer
on Materia Medica, and Therapeutics at Surgeons’ Hall.

Mr. President and Gentlemen,— I have much pleasure in availing myself of the op¬
portunity you have afforded me of addressing you at one of your evening meetings. A
lecture at this late hour, after the ordinary business of the day is closed, should be ad¬
dressed, perhaps, to more than one of the drowsy senses, and I might have chosen for
this occasion a subject that would have allowed of some display either by means of
chemical manipulations, diagrams, or the exhibition of attractive specimens, so that by
seeing and handling, as well as by hearing, a triple stimulus might be applied to the toil-
worn brain. But I shall venture, without such aids, to ask your attention to a few
simple but practical observations, the embodiment of thoughts which have for some
VOL. VI. 2 G

410

PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

time occupied my mind. [For the sake of the younger students of pharmacy now
present, I shall endeavour, in the first place, to show, in as few words as possible, the re¬
lation of their profession and trade to the physician* and the public ; to show them what
has been done by their predecessors for the advancement of pharmacy, and what is ex¬
pected of them if they would improve the position already obtained for them. In the
second place, I shall ask the attention of the senior members of the Society to a question,
as it seems to me, of great practical importance relative to the teaching of pharmacy in
Edinburgh. I shall be as brief as I possibly can in order to allow of time for discussion,
and I hope the Society will gain far more advantage from the remarks which I trust will
follow from some of the able Pharmaceutical Chemists, than could be expected from the
reading of a single paper, however elaborate.

The physician and the pharmaceutist have a common interest in many things ; and
whatever tends to the development of the science and art of pharmacy, whilst it relieves
the physician of many unnecessary cares, renders the practice of his profession at once
more gratifying to himself and more profitable to the sick. The soldier is none the
less brave or active because he does not forge his own weapons, but all the more formi¬
dable in the ratio of the excellence of his outfit. Nor is the physician less skilful because
he does not prepare the materials essential to the pursuit of war against disease. The
physician of the present day is far too heavily loaded with his multifarious ’ologies to
desire the old encumbrance of pharmacy. Not an encumbrance in the sense of an anti¬
quated and useless piece of machinery, — quite the contrary ; for whilst the physician has
been burying himself deeper and deeper in the mysteries of physiology, pathology, and
therapeutics, the science and art of pharmacy, under the fostering influence of another
school, has gradually advanced, and now presents itself in a form so intricate, and alto¬
gether so different from the operations and results of the quondam apothecary’s shop,
that the physician, when he compares the elegant and all-powerful materials now placed
at his disposal, with the clumsy preparations of former days, is ready to admit that in
point of scientific investigation as well as practical detail, pharmacy has passed beyond
his reach. In truth, the physician and the pharmaceutist, although digging in the same
mine, are working in opposite directions, and the more assiduously they toil, the further
they get away from one another ; but in the end they bring the results of their indepen¬
dent labours to a common level at the surface of practical application, and the patient
gets the double benefit.

The pharmaceutist is the physician’s best friend. There is nothing antagonistic between
them. The old suit of Dispensing Physician v. Prescribing Druggist has worn itself out.
The apothecary, in whom the two functions were united, has fallen into the past, and the
general practitioner, sprung from the ashes of the former, ‘\has virtually conceded the rights
and privileges, together with the labour and anxiety of pharmacy, to the scientific and
practical Pharmaceutical Chemist. There are many physicians, it is true, who find it
necessary or convenient to supply the medicines which they prescribe. But they merely
obtain from the Pharmaceutical Chemist a sufficiency of drugs to answer the demands of
a great number of prescriptions, instead of sending each prescription to the pharmaceu¬
tical laboratory. It is in the matter of dispensing , not of the preparation of drugs, that
the relations of the physician and the pharmaceutist differ. In country districts, the
physician must keep a stock of medicines ; in towns the practice is not essential and is
falling into disuse. But in all cases the chemicals , and in most cases the galenicals also,
are in the first instance supplied by the Pharmaceutical Chemist, and often down to the
very simplest formulae.

It is now nearly a quarter of a century since British pharmacy assumed a respectable
and responsive position. In the year 1841, a few of the leading chemists and druggists, '
in London and some of the provincial towns, realizing at once the general backwardness
and helplessness of the disunited representatives of pharmacy, seized upon the floating
reins of office, and by a firm but temperate hand gathered into one the disjointed
members, and organized the now prosperous body known as the Pharmaceutical
Society.

Before that period, it is true, pharmacy had been diligently studied, both as a science
and art, by many talented and thoroughly competent individuals ; and perhaps the real

* I use the word physician throughout, simply for the sake of avoiding the longer terms
“ Medical Man,” “Medical Practitioner,” “General Practitioner,” etc.

PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

411

difference between the pharmacy of the United Kingdom and that of Continental Europe
and America lay rather in the systematic progress of the one and the individual and
spasmodic efforts of the other, than in the aggregate knowledge of the subject as belong¬
ing to the several civilized nations.

Be that as it may, British pharmacy suffered by comparison, and it was not until, by
the generous exertions of Jacob Bell and his able coadjutors, a union of the whole
pharmaceutical strength of the country was effected, resulting in the publication of the
Pharmaceutical Journal , and the establishment of a School of Pharmacy in London, that
the pharmaceutists of this country could presume to stretch their hands across the Chan¬
nel and the Atlantic to offer an interchange of ideas.

If before the incorporation of the Pharmaceutical Society, pharmacy struggled to
maintain a position, and that with a measure of success, how much more rapidly has it
since advanced ! It cannot be pretended that the wonderful progress of pharmacy during
the last twenty-four years is entirely due to the Pharmaceutical Society. Were there no
other factor in the cause, the remarkable development of organic chemistry would alone
demand a large share of the merit. But to a very considerable extent in its scientific
and still more in its practical aspect, the present position of pharmacy in this country
must be attributed to the Pharmaceutical Society. And who I’eaps the benefit?

First , the Pharmaceutical Chemist himself. Formerly , the druggist offered to the public no
guarantee of respectability, whether in point of attainments or moral integrity. Some of
them, we know, were men of science, chemists and druggists in the true sense of the terms,
dispensers of trustworthy medicines. Of the rest, they professed to be chemists and drug¬
gists, but beyond the circle of their personal friends their intrinsic worth was unknown.
Now, the Pharmaceutical Chemist holds a recognized position independently of his personal
friends. He is guaranteed by a diploma conferred by the Society after a deliberate ex¬
amination of the candidate’s qualifications, — an examination rendered from time to time
more searching in accordance with the multiplying facilities of education. He has risen
through the grades of apprentice and associate to the rank of member ; he has acquired
a general knowledge of the sciences upon which pharmacy is founded, and has made
himself familiar with the practical details of his art, and the commercial relations of his
business. He is a man of unblemished reputation, holding a just balance between the
physician and the public, neither presuming to fulfil the functions of the former, nor
compromising his good faith by the character of the materials supplied to the latter.

Second, — The Physician. Taking for granted that the physician depends upon the *
pharmaceutist, if not in all cases for the dispensing of his prescriptions, at least in all for
the preparation of his drugs, what an immense advantage accrues to him from whatever
tends to improve the status and exalt the character of the Pharmaceutical Chemist! Can
we imagine any disaster more appalling than deaths resulting through the inactivity of
medicinal agents ? When two trains come into collision, the crash is terrible and the
cause obvious ; when a gunpowder magazine explodes, devastating a whole district of
country, the cause and effect are easily put in apposition ; when a flaw in one of the many
implements of war causes distress in its own instead of destruction in the enemy’s camp,
the cause is at once referred to the responsible manufacturer. In all these cases the mis¬
carriage is patent to everybody, and the cause is seldom very obscure. And how easily
do such accidents occur! so readily, indeed, that we often find them due to a poor under¬
paid wretched creature, who, when discovered, scarcely seems to be worthy of censure.
But it is different with the preparation and administration of medicines, — a flaw in them
it is not easy to detect. The constitution of the drug is often so complex, so little indi¬
cated by its physical characters, and so difficult to ascertain by chemical appliances, even
if time and opportunity offered the means, that the physician is fain to hope without
assurance that his instructions are faithfully carried out. The thousand-and-one agencies
operating within and around the patient divide the responsibility with the dispenser of
the prescription. And if the patient die, who shall determine whether the alkaloid, the
extract, the pill or powder that might have saved him, was worth more than its weight of
bread-crumb, if so much ? Pharmaceutists know that it is the easiest thing in the world
to spoil an alkaloid, or an extract, or a powder, or a juice in the preparation. One care¬
less act, raising the temperature a little too high, or something as apparently trifling, will
convert a pan-full of extract into a medicinally inert mass. And where is the physician’s
guarantee against these accidents, if not in the moral integrity and educational attain¬
ments of the pharmaceutist ?

2 G 2

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PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

Third , — The Public. The safety of the public is to be found in the respectability of
the pharmaceutist. The value of the drugs dispensed will vary according to the stan¬
dard of character assumed by the vender. But I am not dealing with the question of
morality, and therefore I need not refer to the abominable practice of adulteration, of
dispensing old and useless, cheap and inert substances. I suppose it will be readily
admitted that there are shops — for all druggists are not Pharmaceutical Chemists even
now — where such trash is sold. It is said that the public refuses to pay remunerating
prices, and that custom goes by cheapness ; and this is held to be a sufficient excuse for
fraud. Fraud is inexcusable. Pharmaceutical Chemists will surely deny this impudent
assertion ; they know that in a prosperous country the public will pay for the best of
everything, and that it will pay for the best of drugs. The drug trade is doubtless
undermined by ignorant and unscrupulous dealers, as much as the medical profession is
by quackery, and it is very difficult to get rid of such mischievous parasites. Hitherto
there has been no legislative measure capable of destroying them, nor is there likely to
be any, for they are too wily and slippery to be easily held down by law. The remedy
for both is in the hands of the physician and the pharmaceutist. Make a wide gap
between respectability and knavery, so wide that the public can see the interval without
spectacles, and depend upon it the public will discern and turn to the right side. It is
sad to think how much the poor are cheated in more things than drugs, — heavy rents,
dear and bad food, dear and scanty clothing. They pay a high rate for every comfort,
or rather for every discomfort ; and they often add to their misery, no doubt, by lavish¬
ing their slender means on useless physic. And yet they, if preference is to be given,
should have the best of everything in their times of sickness, because with them time is
capital, and whilst they are prostrate their business stands still. Hospitals are a great
boon to them, and have a strong claim upon those who are able to support them.

From the highest to the lowest, then, the public reaps the advantages arising from
the advancement of pharmacy, and it is no less the duty of the public than of the me¬
dical profession to second the untiring efforts of the Pharmaceutical Society. An
opportunity now presents itself. The “Bill for Regulating the Qualifications of Che¬
mists and Druggists ” is to be presented to Parliament in the coming session. From
the date of its operation, if it pass, as is to be hoped, no person will be allowed to com¬
mence business as a chemist and druggist for the dispensing of the prescriptions of
medical practitioners without having passed an examination ; or, in the words of the
preamble : — “ Whereas it is expedient for the safety of the public that persons carrying
on the business of a chemist and druggist by retail, in the keeping of open shop for the
compounding of the prescriptions of duly qualified medical practitioners, should possess
a competent practical knowledge of such business, and to that end, th at from and after the
date herein named, all persons, before commencing such business, should be duly ex¬
amined as to their skill and knowledge, and that a register should be established and
kept of all such persons,” etc. This measure the public, in its own interest, should sup¬
port. That the medical profession will give weight to it is most likely. The ‘ Lancet,’
in its opening article of the new year, points to this Bill as one of the prominent features
of the medical year : — “ The new year promises to bring forth a useful attempt at legis¬
lation in respect to pharmacy. The Bill originated by the Pharmaceutical Society de¬
serves the support of the profession, and seems likely to meet with favour at the hands
of the Government.”

The present position of pharmacy in the United Kingdom may perhaps, then, be
briefly stated thus: — first, that as a science it has rapidly advanced, and is now attaining
a highly honourable rank in the circle of medical sciences ; second, that as an art, it is
remarkable for the elegance and utility of its productions, as compared with those of
the earlier part of the present century ; third, that with respect to those engaged in the
study and practice of pharmacy, there is in the Pharmaceutical Society a combination of
power capable of realizing the ultimate desires of the most ardent lovers of their profes¬
sion ; fourth, that with respect to the future of pharmacy, it is a matter of deep regret
that there seems to be no prospect of the Government offering such facilities and en¬
couragement for its prosecution as have been followed by most gratifying results in
foreign countries.

If, then, the Pharmaceutical Chemist himself, the physician, and the public are all
interested in the progress of pharmacy, they must be also interested in the means of its
advancement, and especially in the question : — How is the standard of excellence, so

PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

413

essential to the reputation of the pharmaceutist, to the assistance of the physician, and
to the safety of the public, to he attained ? And the inevitable reply is, By suitable
Education.

The cultivation of the pharmaceutical mind may be divided into three stages : — first,
the education of the apprentice ; second, the improvement of the associate ; third, the
maturing of the member ; for, like physicians, pharmaceutists are but students at the
close of their career, and through life those of equal advantages differ only in the expe¬
rience of age.

I have only to deal with the first stage of education, that of the apprentice. One of
the more prominent features in the operation of the Pharmaceutical Society is the en¬
couragement given to the younger students of pharmacy. It is sometimes urged as an
objection to pharmaceutical education, or rather as a plea for ignorance, that the office
of a Pharmaceutical Chemist is merely to vend drugs already prepared by the wholesale
dealers, and to dispense physicians’ prescriptions, and that consequently, except for the
few, many of the details of scientific and practical pharmacy would be an unnecessary
tax on the mind as well as the pocket of the student. This is not the advice given by
the Pharmaceutical Society ; every now and then we read able addresses by the seniors
to the juniors of the Society, urging them to prepare themselves by diligent study for
assuming the functions and responsibilities of their calling, and for attaining that high
position which merit alone can claim. It is not to be forgotten that pharmacy is a
science as well as an art, or at least that it is an art founded upon several important
sciences, and that the prosecution of pharmacy is a profession as well as a trade. The
Pharmacien is a man of no mean position, and if the Pharmaceutist of this country
has not yet attained the same parallel, it is all the more desirable that those who are
now entering upon their calling should be so educated as to entitle them to it. It seems
to me that there are few fields open to young men in which there are so many laurels
to be gained. Those who have gone before, and many of those who are still occupying
prominent and honourable positions in pharmacy, have been striving against the diffi¬
culty which attends all founders and reformers ; they have had to dig through a surface
of prejudice and apathy to seek a suitable foundation. But those who are now following
in their footsteps will make their start in life from a higher platform, and it is for them to
remember that although they have missed the privilege of working at the foundation of
the building, it is still open to them to place the crown upon its summit.

And this brings me to the consideration of the teaching of pharmacy in Edinburgh.
My remarks will apply equally, perhaps, to other large towns having medical schools ;
but I speak of Edinburgh more particularly, because, from the reputation of its medical
school, the fact of its having in reality no school of pharmacy at all is somewhat re¬
markable.

Now, although it would be utterly impossible for the physician engaged in practice
to pursue the study of pharmacy to such an extent as would keep that science and art
au courant with the progress of the day, nevertheless it is essential to the due perform¬
ance of his functions that he be generally well-informed concerning it ; and in order
that he may be able with facility to adopt the enlightened views of those who devote
themselves entirely to the study of pharmacy, it is important that he should, during the
period of his medical education, enjoy the opportunity of making himself acquainted
with the subject. And such opportunity is, I think, fairly afforded. But the educa¬
tion that is sufficient for one who is subsequently to depend greatly upon others for his
information, is scarcely enough for him who is to work out his own knowledge. . If the
medical profession is to relax its grasp of pharmacy, and let it fall entirely into the
hands of the Pharmaceutical Chemist, it can only be on the distinct understanding that
not only by opportunity in after life, but also by education, he is better endowed for
the undertaking. The present teaching of pharmacy may be sufficient for the medical
student, but I submit that it is inadequate to the wants of the pharmaceutical student; and
I have no doubt whatever that, overwhelmed as he appears to be by strictly medical sub¬
jects, if an opportunity were offered of obtaining a higher knowledge of pharmacy, the
medical student would also embrace it.

The art of pharmacy rests upon several sciences, the chief 'of which are chemistry and
botany, not to mention zoology and mineralogy, which are of minor importance ; and
it is to be supposed that the student of pharmacy has enjoyed the advantages of a liberal
scholastic education, including somewhat of natural philosophy. Materia Medica is an

414

PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

indefinite term, and instruction in that subject differs widely, according to the views of
the teacher with respect to the relative value of the matters associated in his lectures.
Sometimes pharmacy is the prominent f eature in a course of lectures on materia medica,
sometimes therapeutics, sometimes the physiological action, the modus operandi of me¬
dicines is dwelt upon, and sometimes dietetics and hygiene occupy a considerable share
of the course ; but chiefly these lectures treat of the drugs themselves, their origin, and
their appearance and constitution, together with their actions and uses. Practical
pharmacy is taught in the shops of Pharmaceutical Chemists and in the laboratories of
our public dispensaries. I have now enumerated the sources from which the medical
and pharmaceutical students draw their education, so far as it is common to both ; but
with this difference, that the medical student very rarely in the present day passes
through, what to him would be a useless drudgery — a five years’ apprenticeship to prac¬
tical pharmacy ; he is usually content with the practice of three or six months in a
shop or at a dispensary.

The student, then, attends one or more courses of lectures on the following subjects,
chemistry , botany , and materia medica , and he derives his knowledge of practical phar¬
macy from a shop or a dispensary ; and with that course of study, so far as it goes, no one
can find fault. But does it take the student far enough, — is it sufficient to make him a
pharmaceutist? I submit that, as a general rule, it is not. We well know that there
are exceptional cases of self-educated men who have attained the highest positions in
their several callings, without the aid of lectures at all ; but teaching is to be adapted
to the capacities of ordinary minds. A very celebrated physician, Dr. Jenner, in speak¬
ing of his method of teaching the principles and practice of medicine, uses the following
words : — “ The time is short, the subject is long ; for no general subject or special dis¬
ease of pathological significance or of practical importance can be omitted. In such a
course novelty seems to me out of place, — lengthened arguments in favour of this or that
view, to occupy time which would be better employed in dogmatic teaching, — and the
exposition of theories bewildering to the young student, who has so much to learn and
so little time to acquire it.” Omitting the words “ or special disease of pathological
significance or ” this passage is equally applicable to chemistry, botany, and materia
medica. Chemistry is a very long subject, and quite able to occupy the six months of
systematic, and the three or more of practical teaching without pausing for a prac¬
tical application to pharmacy. Botany requires its three months without the interrup¬
tion of pharmacy, for its time is very short.

And now, let me dwell a little longer upon the course of lectures on Materia Medica.
If pharmacy could be efficiently taught in a course of lectures on Materia Medica, I
think it will scarcely be denied that Edinburgh would have one of the first schools of
pharmacy in Europe ; for the names are few indeed that are held in higher reputation
than than that of the distinguished professor of Materia Medica in our University. But,
“The time is short, the subject is long.” I take the first volume of Pereira’s 4 Elements of
Materia Medica ;’ it opens at the name Potassce Nitras, and I find that this substance is
considered under the following heads : — history, natural history, production, properties,
characteristics, composition, impurities, physiological effects (a. on vegetables, /3. on ani¬
mals generally, y. on man), uses, administration, antidote ; and this is not an example from
which there are officinal preparations to be treated of. It would not be very difficult to
find out whether, if Materia Medica were attempted to be taught as above, one second
of time could, even in a six months’ course of lectures, be devoted to each of the heads ;
and if not in six months, how are the three months’ courses to get over the ground ?
But it is not worth while to make the calculation. It is practically impossible to teach
Materia Medica at such length, and therefore something must be left out, more espe¬
cially if dietetics and private hygiene form part of the course. Then follows the ques¬
tion, what part of the subject is to be curtailed? and the reply has already been given ;
each teacher enlarges on the part of his subject which he considers of greatest relative
value to the student. For my own part, I think that a sufficiency of pharmacy may be
taught with Materia Medica for the medical student, but not for the pharmaceutical
student, but I think also that the option of a higher pharmaceutical education should
not be denied to the former when it is provided as a sine qua non for the latter.

I shall not venture upon any observations with reference to the practical teaching of
pharmacy in shops and the laboratories of dispensaries, further than this, that I think
neither the medical nor the pharmaceutical student would be the worse of having even

PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

415

the simplest apparatus and operations explained to them by one who is thoroughly ac¬
quainted with their value. Nothing is more remarkable in a great mind than its con¬
descension to little things ; and there are few more striking examples of this than the
instance of Professor Faraday writing his very simple but most valuable work on ‘Che¬
mical Manipulation,’ a book whose object is to describe “ The conveniences and requi¬
sites of a laboratory. General chemical apparatus and its uses. The methods of per-
orming chemical operations. The facilities acquired by practice ; and, the causes which
make experiments fail or succeed.” (Introduction p. 7.) To strengthen his view of
the importance of small things, Professor Faraday quotes the following from Dr. John¬
son : — “Nothing is to be considered as a trifle by which the mind is inured to caution,
foresight, and circumspection. The same skill, and often the same degree of skill, is
exerted in great and little things.”

How, then, is the deficiency in the teaching of pharmacy to be supplied ? First, it may
be answered that the pharmaceutical student can wait until he has closed his appren¬
ticeship, and afterwards take advantage of the school of pharmacy in London for addi¬
tional scientific and practical instruction. But such a reply is objectionable, because it
would imply the loss of five years at the most important period of life for instruction ;
and besides it would not afford the option of a higher pharmaceutical education to
medical students.

Second, a school of pharmacy, on the same plan as the London school, might be sug¬
gested ; but that would probably be found to be inexpedient, and, on the same scale, is
perhaps unnecessary in Edinburgh.

Third, the institution of a chair of pharmacy in the University, endowed by the
Government, is too much to hope for, and therefore — fourth, I would suggest that the
students avail themselves, as heretofore, of the lectures on chemistry, botany, and
materia medica ; indeed, under any circumstances, I can see no necessity for removing
these lectures to a school of pharmacy, but that, in addition, they be provided with a
laboratory for scientific and practical operations, and attend a further course of lectures
on the practical application of physics, chemistry, botany, and materia medica to phar¬
macy. The superintendence of the laboratory and the delivery of the lectures might
be conducted by the same person, supported if necessary by laboratory assistants.

It is obvious that such a teacher of pharmacy must be independent of other work,
and therefore neither a practising physician nor a Pharmaceutical Chemist engaged in
business could accept the office ; and possibly a little difficulty might arise as to the re¬
muneration. But if the laboratory and lectures were not at first self-supporting, would
it not be the duty of those who have been represented as interested in the progress of
pharmacy — to wit, the Pharmaceutical Chemist, the physician, and the public — to lend
substantial aid ?

Mr. President, I now leave the matter in the hands of the meeting, and of the mem¬
bers of the North British branch of the Pharmaceutical Society generally. If it be
thought desirable to provide greater facilities for pharmaceutical education in Edinburgh,
I have no doubt you will, as a Society, use your powerful influence for making the ne¬
cessary provision. For myself I have no personal interest in the matter, nor any what¬
ever beyond a desire, common to us all, for the public and professional good ; and
having made these, I fear somewhat desultory remarks, it remains for me only to thank
you for your kind attention, and to listen to your valuable suggestions.

At the close of the paper a long discussion ensued, in which Dr. James Young, Dr.
Smith, and several members of the Society took part. All spoke in favour of the pro¬
posed Pharmacy Bill, and a feeling appeared to pervade all the speakers, that in event of
Government passing the Amended Pharmacy Act this session, an impetus would be given
to the teaching of pharmacy, which would be of the greatest service to Pharmaceutists
as a body.

A vote of thanks was proposed by the chairman to Dr. Jackson, for his excellent and
valuable paper, which was carried unanimously, and with acclamation. The meeting
•then adjourned.

416

PROVINCIAL TRANSACTIONS.

THE LIVERPOOL CHEMISTS’ ASSOCIATION.

The Fourth General Meeting of the Association was held at the Royal Institution on
Thursday evening, November 24th, 1864 ; the President in the chair.

The donations to the Library announced were 1 The Chemist and Druggist,’ ‘ The
Pharmaceutical Journal,’ and the ‘ Abstract of the Proceedings of the Liverpool Geo¬
logical Society,’ from the respective societies. A vote of thanks to the donors was passed.
Mr. John Weightman, jun., was duly elected a member of the association.

The President exhibited a sample of Tinct. Camphoroe prepared with methylated
spirit, the effect of which on the patient who obtained it was very undesirable. He con¬
sidered that methylated spirits should not be employed for such purposes.

Mr. R. F. Young laid specimens of Tinct. Ferri Sesquichlor., prepared by a formula
different from that given in the B. P., before the meeting. He stated that he could not
obtain a product according to the recipe in this text-book that would resist decomposition ;
and he attributed the defect to the fact that an excess of nitric acid was advised therein ;
that a sesquinitrate of iron was produced, and that this salt suffered decomposition after
the addition of the spirit. The samples laid on the table were prepared with two-thirds
of the nitric acid specified in the B. P.

Mr. John Abraham stated that the old compound Tine. Ferri Perchlor. was very
similar to that in the present work ; he always found it kept well.

The Secretary considered that no sesquinitrate such as that indicated by Mr. Young
was produced.

The Vice-President, N. Mercer, Esq., F.C.S., delivered the lecture of the evening, “ On
Nitrogen Compounds used in the Arts.” At the conclusion of the lecture, which was
highly interesting, a vote of thanks was moved to the lecturer from the chair, and the
business of the evening closed.

The Fifth General Meeting was held on the 8th December, 1864 ; the President in the
chair.

‘ The Technologist,’ from the Editor , was announced, and the thanks of the meeting
accorded to the donor. Mr. Thomas Williams was duly elected a member of the asso¬
ciation.

The Vice-President explained the cause of the slow combustion which gun-cotton
undergoes under certain conditions.

Dr. Edwards spoke on the same subject. In the absence of Mr. A. N. Tate, who was
prevented from reading the paper of the evening by sudden indisposition, Dr. Edwards
volunteered to give the history of a serious poisoning case in Wales, whereby several
members of a family lost their lives. He exhibited some specimens of the arsenical indi¬
cations obtained both on copper and in sublimate. He mentioned that arsenic was voided
in the urine of one of the patients for several days, as indicated by the respective tests.
He concluded his interesting address by dwelling upon the comparative merits of Marsh’s,
Reinsch’s, and other arsenical tests. A vote of thanks to Dr. Edwards concluded the
business of the evening.

The Sixth General Meeting of the Association was held on Thursday evening, January
5th ; the Vice-President, in the absence of the President, occupied the chair.

The following donations to the Library were announced, and the thanks of the meeting
awarded to the donors : — 1 The Pharmaceutical Journal,’ for January, from the Society ;
‘ The Technologist,’ for January, from the Editor. The following gentlemen were duly
elected members of the association : — Messrs. Charles Taylor, William Hughes, R. K.
Jones, A. R. Arnott, and Thomas Huson.

The Chairman called upon Mr. A. N. Tate to favour the meeting with his lecture.

Mr. Tate proceeded with a very practical and comprehensive address “ On the Refining
of Petroleum.”

A brief discussion followed, in which Messrs. Abraham, Bird, Betts, and others took
part. A vote of thanks to the lecturer, moved from the chair and carried, brought the
evening’s business to a close.

417

LEEDS CHEMISTS’ ASSOCIATION.

The Third Meeting of the Session was held in the Library of the Philosophical and
Literary Society, upon the evening of December 14, 1864 ; the President (Mr. Ilaigh)
in the chair.

Mr. Wm. Smeeton was elected a Member, and Messrs. Paine, Fowler, Wilson, Norrish,
Dobell, and Ball were elected Associates.

Donations of Books to the Library were announced from Messrs. Barber, Church,
Draper, Haselden, and Squire, for which the best thanks of the Association were voted
to the donors.

Mr. R. Parkinson, Ph.D., of Bradford, (a Corresponding Member) read the paper of the
evening, which was fully illustrated by apparatus and experiments.

By Volumetric Analysis is meant a system of analysis by measure, as distinguished
from the older and generally understood methods, in which the various constituents of
the substance under examination are obtained in a separate form, and are then weighed.
The distinction between the two methods may be also thus expressed : — in the older
system, that of analysis by weight, or “ the dry way,” we endeavour to ascertain the
quantity of material which is produced by any reaction, while in analysis by measure, or
“ the wet way,” we generally take no notice of the material produced, but base our
calculations on the quantity of reagent used to produce certain results. These by the
laws of chemical combination are convertible terms, and in most cases convenience and
simplicity are on the side of analysis by measure. Thus, in estimating the quantity of
sulphuric acid present in any substance by the old method, we have to precipitate it by
means of baryta, taking care only to add more than is absolutely necessary, then the
resulting BaO, S03 is collected and weighed, and from its amount that of the S03 is calcu¬
lated. By the newer method we take no notice of the quantity of BaO,SG3 that is pro¬
duced, but we carefully ascertain the quantity of Ba 0 that has been required to produce
it. A slight variation in the calculation then brings us to the same result.

Although volumetric analysis has been much improved and extended of late times,
yet it does not in many cases supersede the older methods, as there are certain conditions
required for its use, and whichare not always capableof fulfilment. Its principal advantage
consists in the very much less time required for its operations than when the various
substances have first to be separated in a convenient form, then washed or otherwise
purified, dried, and finally weighed. Under the old system you have first “ to catch your
hare, then cook it,” and finally dispose of the same, whereas, under the new, you may be
said to eat your hare without either catching or cooking. As one instance of the saving
of time by analysis by measure, I will suppose that we require to know the value of,
that is the amount of iron contained in, a sample of iron ore. Under the old system we
must dissolve the ore in HC1, filter, and precipitate the Fe203 by means of NH3, collect
this precipitate on a filter, wash till quite free from soluble matter (no easy task) then
dry, and finally weigh. These operations will take the best part out of a day’s work.
Now, on the other hand, we dissolve in acid as before, boil a few minutes with zinc, dilute
with water and add a solution of KG Mn2G7 until a red colour is produced. The amount
of permanganate used will then (if the solution has been properly prepared and the
quantity of ore taken be in correspondence) at once give us the percentage of iron. This
can all be done in half an hour, or in an hour easily. Again, it may be required to know
the alkaline value of a sample of soda ash, an article that often requires its true value
finding. By the old methods, this could only be done by a very tedious process, while
“ alkalimetry,” which is the name given to volumetric analysis as applied to the estimation
of alkalies, will furnish the desired result in a few minutes.

Before proceeding with any of the manipulatory details, it will be well just to notice
the principles on which the capabilities of volumetric analysis depend, a clear under¬
standing of which is necessary to its intelligent appreciation, and without which it cannot
be carried out successfully. Some branches of it are indeed so simple, that even the
most ignorant may arrive at results, if supplied with materials and apparatus, with
empirical directions for their use. Such must, however, always go in the same groove,
and will be unable to rectify any error. Powers of this kind are worth very little ; it
behoves all, therefore, to make themselves acquainted with its principles, of which,
perhaps, the first and greatest is the law of equivalents, or the law of combination in
definite proportions, especially that part of it which is implied in the name “equivalent ” or

418

LEEDS CHEMISTS’ ASSOCIATION.

equal to, — that is, that a certain known quantity of every substance will combine with
a certain known quantity of every other, capable of such combination. Thus 40 parts of
S03, neither more nor less, will equally combine with and neutralize 31 parts of soda, or
28 parts of lime, or 17 parts of ammonia, and so on. Thus, if you know the quantity
of sulphate of soda you have, you know exactly the quantity both of the S03 and the
NaO that compose it ; and also, if you know how much S03 you have in a quantity of
NaOSOg, you also know how much soda and how much sulphate. It would be out of
place for me to dwell further on this part of the subject, it is doubtless familiar to many
of you ; a clear understanding of it is, however, of the greatest advantage. Another
principle of Volumetric Analysis is that there must be some well-defined indication,
evident to the senses, showing the exact termination of the various operations, thus
enabling us to use only just so much material or reagent as is necessary to effect our
object, and so to know exactly the quantity required. Thus, if we are decomposing soda
ash by means of S03, we must be able to know the exact point when we have added
enough acid to neutralize the soda. Various chemical reactions are taken advantage of
with this view, such as the fact that acids turn vegetable blues (e. g. litmus) to red,
while alkalies, on the other hand, restore this reddened litmus to blue ; also, that iodine
forms a blue colour with starch, ferrocyanide of potassium gives a blue with persalts of
iron, ferricyanide a blue with protosalts of the same metal. Again, the commencement
of formation of a precipitate in a clear liquid, or the cessation of production of a pre¬
cipitate on addition of more reagent, are among the indications which, as I have said, are
necessary. It is this necessity that limits in some degree the applications of volumetric
analysis ; as it is not in all cases that we can obtain this clear and well-defined mark of
the end of the operation. New suggestions in this direction are however frequently being
made. Another condition required in volumetric analysis is the possession of various
solutions of a known chemical value, that is, that so much by measure contains a known
quantity of the dissolved substance by weight. And again, we require intruments by
which we can accurately and conveniently know how much of any of these solutions we
have had to employ to effect our object. We will first describe the standard solutions.
Strictly speaking, the actual strength of these is of no consequence, so long as it is known .
In practice, however, it is found that the necessary calculations are, in most cases, very
much simpler if they are of such strength that one atom or one equivalent of each sub¬
stance is contained in the same measure of solution

Two systems of weights and measures are in use for preparing and using these solu¬
tions : the French or decimal system, which has the great advantage that its weights and
measures bear a simple decimal relation to each other, — the unit of weight, the gramme,
and the cubic centimetre, which in volumetric analysis may be considered as the unit of
measure, being identical. In the other system the grain is taken as the unit both of
weight and measure. I much prefer the decimal system, and always work by it ; but
as the other is perhaps in more general use here, and is the one adopted in the Pharma¬
copoeia, I shall take it as the basis of the descriptions and examples that follow. In
the decimal system, 1000 cubic centimetres of solution are generally made to con¬
tain an equivalent of each of the substances in grammes. In the grain system
1000 grain-measures contain an equivalent of substance expressed in grains. Thus, the
standard S03 solution will contain 40 grains in 1000; the soda solution 31 grains in 1000,
and so on. It will be seen that the solutions are of the same strength whether prepared
on one system or the other, both having one equivalent in 1000, and therefore they may
be used for either method indiscriminately. One great advantage of this uniformity in
the strength of the solutions is that they are mutually and equally convertible. Thus,
10 grain-measures (a quantity which it has been proposed by Mr. Sutton, to whose work
on volumetric analysis I am indebted for much contained in this paper, to call a decern
and to accept as the unit of measure in this, as the C. C. is in the decimal system)
of the standard or “normal” S03 will exactly equal or exactly neutralize 10 grain-
measures of the standard soda solution, and vice versa, , and so through the whole list.
Sometimes more dilute solutions than these are required ; such are generally made one-
tenth of the strength of the others, and are called decinormal solutions.

With regard to the apparatus, we require a means of delivering the solutions in such a
way as not to waste any, and also of readily and accurately knowing how much we
have used when the operation is finished. There are several forms of “ burettes,” which
is the name given to the apparatus for this purpose. The best of them for general

LEEDS CHEMISTS’ ASSOCIATION.

419

purposes is that devised by Mohr, of Coblenz, and consists of a tube open at both ends,
capable of holding rather more than 1000 grains of solution, and graduated into 100 equal
divisions of 10 grains each. To the lower opening, which is a small one, is attached a
small tube by a piece of india-rubber tubing, which on pressure by a spring clamp of
wire forms a very simple and effective stop-cock by which even drops can be accurately
delivered. I have other forms here which will explain themselves. Besides the burette,
a larger graduated vessel is required for preparing the standard solutions. This may
either be a cylinder like the burette, only larger and graduated from 100 to 10,000 grains,
or it may be a flask which holds 10,000 grains when filled to a mark in the neck. The
former is better and more convenient, the latter cheaper. Two or three pipettes, or small
dropping-tubes, which when filled to a mark in the narrower upper portion of the tube
will deliver 100, 200, or 500 grains, are also very useful. A few flasks and beaker glasses,
scales and weights, and a few chemicals to act as indicators, with the standard solutions,
complete the volumetric outfit.

Analyses that may be made volumetrically can be roughly classed under three heads,
viz. analysis by saturation, analysis by oxidation or reduction, and analysis by precipi¬
tation. I will shortly describe these divisions, giving an example or two as we go on.
The first of them, or analysis by saturation, includes, and in fact is almost constituted
by, the important items of alkalimetry and acidimetry. It is a property of all alkalies
that they combine with acids ; neutralizing them, or destroying their acid properties, and
becoming themselves neutralized, or having their alkaline properties destroyed thereby.
It is also a property of the vegetable blue colour litmus that its blue is turned to a red
by a very slight excess of acid, and again, that this reddened litmus is re-changed to
blue by as slight an excess of alkali. If we have then a solution of any alkali with
which a small quantity of Tinct. Litmus has been mixed and add to it an acid, this acid
will be destroyed and thus rendered incapable of reddening the litmus as long as there
is any alkali present. Immediately however the alkali is all decomposed, the next drop of
acid will redden the previously blue liquid, and thus show the end of the operation ;
then from the number of grain-measures of acid that have been used, the amount of
alkali present is calculated ; whether this be soda, potash, or any other.

The principle of acidimetry is just the same as above described, only reversed : the
litmus is added to the acid, is reddened by it, then standard alkali added till the blue
is restored, and the result obtained by a similar calculation. As it is often required, in
Alkalimetry[especially, to know the percentage of pure material present in a given sample,
it is well to weigh out such a quantity as if pure would be saturated by 100 of the
alkalimeter divisions or decerns (10 grain-measures). The number of decerns of acid re¬
quired then gives at once the percentage without further calculation. These cases where
the result is obtained by direct saturation are among the simplest in volumetric
analysis. There are many modifications of the saturating principle devised to meet par¬
ticular cases, into which I cannot enter in a hasty sketch like the present, and I would
here mention that in the examples I have given or may give, I describe only the broad
facts and as simply as I can, without at all entering into the minutiae of conditions
necessary in particular cases. I have written this principally with a view of inducing
those who may know but little of the subject to pursue it further.

Before we leave acidimetry we may just notice a process which does not come under
the head of saturation analysis, but which is useful in some cases, especially in testing
the strength of the commercial vinegars, whose brown colour somewhat interferes with
the observation of the change of colour in the added litmus. This is the use of ammonio-
sulphate of copper as an acidimetric solution. Ammonio-sulphate of copper solution
may be regarded as a solution of CuO in NH3, besides NH40S03. It is, as you know, a
clear blue solution. If this be added to an acid, the ammonia combines with it and the
CuO is precipitated ; this precipitated CuO is however re-dissolved by the acid as long as
such is present, but when the acid is all neutralized the CuO is no longer re-dissolved,
and the previously clear solution becomes turbid. The end of the operation is thus dis¬
tinctly indicated.

The class of analysis by oxidation or reduction is of great importance, and its
principle is very simple, although the processes are rather more complicated than in
alkali or acidimetric estimations. Substances capable of combining with oxygen in
known proportions, thus producing compounds with properties different from their original
ones, are brought into contact with substances capable of yielding a known quantity of

420

LEEDS CHEMISTS’ ASSOCTAION.

this element ; and the end of the reaction is generally known by the production of some
distinct colour. Thus, protosalts of iron combine readily with just half as much more 0
as they already contain, and are thereby converted into persalts of that metal. Now we
have tests that will distinguish the smallest quantities of either of these salts, and we
can therefore tell at once when the protosalt is all converted into persalt. Again, per¬
manganate of potash, a salt whose solution in water is of an intense violet-red colour,
yields up a certain quantity of 0 to substances capable of combining with it, and becomes
thereby decolorized. If now a solution of KO Mn2 07 be added to a solution, say of
FeGS03, so long as any of this remains the colour is discharged, but immediately it is all
oxidized this beautiful colour shows itself and so marks the end of the operation. The
permanganate is thus at once reagent and indicator.

Protosalts of iron and oxalic acid are the chief substances thus readily decomposed by
permanganate, and as we can readily convert any iron solution we may have into the
state of a protosalt, the amount of oxygen or permanganate required to convert this into
a persalt is an accurate index to the amount of iron contained in our solution. The uses
of oxalic acid in connection with permanganate are mostly of what is called an indirect
character; thus lime and lead may be estimated by their means ; not that permanganate
has any action on either of them, but they are both perfectly precipitated by oxalic
acid. If, then, to a solution of lime or lead, we add oxalate of ammonia in excess,
taking care to know exactly how much we have added, the amount of this excess, more
than would combine with the lime, and which we can estimate by the permanganate,
subtracted from the whole amount used, gives us the amount which has combined with the
lime ; from this the quantity of lime is readily calculated. This may seem a com¬
plicated way of arriving at the result, but it possesses an element of great convenience,
which is, that we need not wait to separate the precipitates entirely, but if we make our
mixture of oxalates, etc. to a certain volume, the upper part will very soon have settled
enough for us to take out one-fourth or one-fifth part clear, and multiplying the results
obtained from this by four or five, as the case may be, we very readily get what we want
to know. Bichromate of potash again is used as an oxidizing agent, in iron estimations
more particularly. It will not, however, act as its own indicator as permanganate will,
but the solution must be tested from time to time until the appropriate reagents show
that there is no protosalt left. Iodine is also in many cases a powerful oxidizer, and the
beautiful reaction between iodine and starch enabling us to detect the smallest traces
of free iodine, many valuable processes are based on its use, both directly and indirectly.
It is used directly in the estimation of sulphuretted hydrogen or sulphides in mineral
waters or other substances, as these compounds, as also hyposulphites, are decomposed
by it. If a solution of starch be mixed with any of these and standard I solution added,
no colour will be produced till they are exactly decomposed, but when this is the case
the intense blue is instantly developed. On account of this reaction between hyposul¬
phites and iodine, a standard solution of hyposulphite of soda is used for the estimation
of free iodine and is very useful in indirect analysis by means of it. Indirect analyses
are so called when we do not directly estimate the amount of the substance we require,
but the amount of something else that that substance may under certain circumstances
be made to produce. For instance, suppose it to be required to know the value, that is,
the oxygen-yielding power, of a sample of MnQ2. We do not estimate this 0 directly,
— we have no convenient means of doing so, — but if it be boiled with HC1 a certain
equivalent of Cl is produced to the amount of 0 yielded by the sample. We have, how¬
ever, again, no ready means of estimating this Cl, but if the Cl be passed through a
solution of KI an equivalent of I is set free for each equivalent of Cl used, and this
iodine we can estimate with 'great nicety, as above noticed ; but the indirectness of the
analysis hardly ends here, for it is most convenient to destroy the I thus produced by a
known excess of standard hyposulphite solution and then estimate the excess of hyposul¬
phite again by standard iodine and starch. This may seem a roundabout and complicated
method, but is not so in practice, and there is no class of volumetric analysis that yields
such accurate results as these indirect ones with iodine. Besides Mn02 there are many
substances that will when boiled with HC1 liberate chlorine, and which can therefore
be estimated in this way.

We come now to the last division, that of analysis by precipitation, the principle of
which is, that the substance to be analysed shall form an insoluble precipitate with the
reagent employed. The end of the operation may be determined in three ways : firstly,

LEEDS CHEMISTS’ ASSOCIATION.

421

by adding the reagent till no further precipitation occurs ; secondly, by using some other
substance which shall show when excess of reagent has been added, and thirdly, by adding
reagent until a precipitate is commenced to be produced or the liquid becomes turbid.
The mutual estimations of Cl by means of Ag, and of Ag by means of Cl, are the only
ones that can be accurately made in the first way, as in few or none of the other cases
where insoluble precipitates result on the addition of any reagent, do these precipitates
settle down so readily and completely as to leave the liquid clear enough to see the exact
point when precipitation ceases on addition of more reagent. The estimation of Ag by
Cl wras one of the earliest, as it is now one of the most important, of the applications of
volumetric analysis. It is a point of great value to be able readily to ascertain the
amount of real silver contained in the various alloys, solutions, and ores of this important
and costly metal, and the old process by cupellation, as it is called, occupies considerable
time. The volumetric assay of silver solutions is effected by means of a standard solu¬
tion of NaCl, which is added to the silver with constant and strong agitation to cause
the precipitated AgCl to clot together and leave the solution clear, so that the point
may be seen when a drop of the salt solution ceases to produce any further turbidity.
It is well in this analysis to work with dilute solutions containing only one-tenth of
the ordinary standard quantity, i.e. an equivalent in grains in 1000 grain-measures.
The analysis of chlorides by means of standard silver solutions is of course the
same in principle as the above, only reversed, the silver being added to the chloride.
It has, however, a considerable advantage over its companion process in that we can
make use of another substance to show the end of the reaction, thus bringing it
under the second division of analysis by precipitation. This is KOCrG3 which forms
with silver a blood-red chromate of silver, which, however, is not produced as long as
any chloride is present in the solution, chlorine having a greater affinity for Ag than
Cr03 has. If a little chromate of potash be added to a chloride, and then the silver,
the precipitate remains white until the chloride is all decomposed, when the appearance
of the red colour at once indicates the end of the operation. So great a convenience is
this, that in estimating silver, it is often well to add at once a known excess of salt and
then estimate the amount of this excess by standard silver and chromate of potash.
This facility for backward or residual, as well as for indirect analysis, is one of the great
recommendations of the volumetric method. Thus if in any analysis the mark be over¬
stepped by accident or carelessness, and too much of the reagent added, the operation is
not spoiled, as the amount of this excess can generally be as readily ascertained as that of
the original solution. The estimation of sulphuric acid, when in combination as sul¬
phates, by precipitation by chloride of barium is another instance of the use of an indi¬
cator contained in the solution. If the precipitation alone were relied on, the difficulty
caused by the non-subsidence of the precipitate would be fatal ; but if a known excess
of BaCl be at once added to the hot solution, this excess may be tolerably readily
ascertained by means of standard chromate of potash solution. This precipitates the
baryta as a yellow powder, but the delicacy of the indication is owing to the great
colouring power this chromate of potash has for water, a very small quantity indeed
communicating a decided yellow colour to the solution. As soon, therefore, as the BaO
is all precipitated the liquid becomes yellow, and a very slight subsidence of the pre¬
cipitate is sufficient for this to be observed.

The estimation of phosphoric acid or phosphates by nitrate of uranium is another
instance of the use of an external indicator of the end of the reaction, but in this case it
is not contained in the Solution itself, but is brought in contact with it from time to
time.

All soluble phosphates are precipitated by nitrate of uranium in the presence of NH3
(under certain conditions which I need not here specify). The precipitate produced is
one that settles very slowly, so that the end could not be known by the reagent pro¬
ducing no further precipitation. When, however, nitrate of uranium and ferrocyanide
of potassium are brought together, an intense brown colour results. The uranium is
therefore added to the phosphate till a small drop of the solution mixed with a drop of
ferrocyanide on a white plate shows the commencement of this brown colour, and the
uranium thus is shown to be in excess.

The third kind of analysis by precipitation, namely, that in which the end of the
reaction is shown by the commencement of formation of a precipitate in a previously
clear liquid, includes only two substances (if ^ve except the use of ammonio-sulphate of

422

BATH CHEMISTS’ ASSOCIATION.

copper as an acidimetric solution), that of cyanides by means of silver, and of chlorides-
by nitrate of mercury in the presence of urea. I will shortly describe the former, as it
is of especial interest to the pharmaceutist as giving the means of estimating the strength
of HCy and the amount of that acid in bitter-almond and cherry-laurel water, and also
the value of the commercial cyanides of potassium. This beautiful and exact volumetric
method was devised by Liebig, and depends on the fact that AgCy forms a double salt
with KCy which is soluble in water; the slightest excess of silver, however, decomposes
this and insoluble AgCy is precipitated. If, therefore, standard silver solution be added
to an alkaline cyanide, no precipitation takes place till sufficient has been used to combine
with half of the Cy present, the other half remaining in combination with the potash and
forming the soluble double salt. As soon as this point is reached, the next drop of silver
causes a precipitation of AgCy. One equivalent of silver used thus indicates two equiva¬
lents of Cy present. We may express this perhaps rather differently, and say that so¬
lutions of silver give with alkaline cyanides a white precipitate of AgCy, which is soluble
in the cyanide either of potassium or sodium, as the case may be. When, therefore,
the cyanide present is decomposed by the silver, it can no longer dissolve the AgCy,
and a precipitate results. The law of equivalents teaches us that the exact point occurs
when half the cyanide is decomposed and thus the whole amount present is readily
ascertained.

I am well aware that the slight sketch of the leading features of volumetric analysis
I have thus brought before you is a very imperfect one, and that it contains nothing
new or original. I am also assured that many here are as well acquainted with the
subject as I am. These will, I hope, bear with what will have been a dull evening to
them, while they consider what I take to be an important part of the work of such asso¬
ciations as this, — the diffusion of useful knowledge among our younger members and
associates, no less important than the mutual interchange of information on original
subjects. I will therefore hope that even the cursory description now offered may have
the effect of leading some to study further, and above all, to practise this beautiful and
useful branch of analysis.

Mr. G. Ward, F.C.S. remarked that the paper to which they had listened with so much
pleasure, could not fail to be practically useful to every one present. The introduction
of materials for volumetric analysis into the British Pharmacopoeia made the present
communication especially opportune and acceptable. With reference to the six processes
selected for admission into the British Pharmacopoeia, he thought that with one ex¬
ception, they all were deserving of confidence, as being processes in which the termina¬
tion of the operation was sharply defined, and this was the first essential of a good
method of volumetric assay. He thought that the bichromate of potash test for iron
was often unsatisfactory in the hands of beginners, from doubts as to when the operation
was over. The permanganate appeared to be preferable. He moved that the hearty
thanks of the Association be given to the author of the paper.

Mr. Atkixson seconded the motion, which was carried by acclamation.

Mr. Reynolds exhibited some specimens which had been kindly lent by the Mag¬
nesium Metal Company (Limited), of Manchester. They included fine masses of the
metal both in its crude and distilled state. Three forms of lamp that have been used
for burning the wire or ribbon were also shown. Although the reflectors attached to
these condense the light, the rapid combustion of the metal leaves much to be accom¬
plished towards ensuring its steady consumption. The pure whiteness as well as intensity
of the light was well shown by illuminating with it sheets of paper toned yellow, blue, or
green, which colours could be distinguished as well as by daylight.

HATH CHEMISTS’ ASSOCIATION.

There has been a branch of the Pharmaceutical Society in Bath since the formation
of that Society, and in its early days it was one of the most flourishing offsets of the
parent stem ; but for many years it has been in a languishing state, and no meetings had
been held amongst the chemists of Bath until the then approaching meeting of the
Pharmaceutical Conference in our city called the chemists together, and there was
formed, as a temporary association, the Bath Branch of the British Pharmaceutical Con-

BATH CHEMISTS’ ASSOCIATION.

423

ference, composed of nearly every chemist of Bath, pharmaceutical or not. After the
meeting of the Conference, this temporary association, having fulfilled its purpose, was
dissolved, and under a sense of the advantage and pleasure derived from meeting to¬
gether, the chemists of Bath formed themselves into a society.

At the second meeting of the Society the following address was delivered by the Pre¬
sident, Mr. Tyler: —

Gentlemen, — As you have done me the honour of placing me in this position as Pre¬
sident of the Bath Association of Chemists and Druggists (though I much doubt the
prudence of your choice), I can only assure you that nothing shall be wanting on my
part, so far as in me lies, to perform the duties incumbent upon me so as to render our
evenings at once pleasant and instructive. It gives me great pleasure (and perhaps I
feel it more than many) that I shall have associated with me a gentleman, whose un¬
tiring energy and zeal is so well known and duly appreciated by all those who have
worked with him. I need not say how fortunate we are in having the services of Mr.
J. C. Pooley as our Secretary. It is owing to his indefatigable exertions that we thus
meet together this evening, and the formation of this Association of Bath Chemists and
Druggists for social enjoyment and friendly intercourse is solely to be attributed to him ;
and if the spirit-in which he has laboured can be perpetuated, there can be no doubt but
that good feeling and reciprocity of sentiment will pervade our little circle.

It is pleasing to see how city and town throughout the country are now holding
meetings of a similar character, with a view to promote more social intercourse and
advancements ; and I do sincerely trust that Bath, in proportion to its population, will
not be second to any, but that our members will each do something towards promoting
the best interests of our Society. We start with one advantage which few similar
societies possess, — I mean the use of an excellent library, belonging to the Bath mem¬
bers of the Pharmaceutical Society, but kindly and freely placed open for the use of the
members of this Association. It contains valuable standard works on materia medica,
chemistry, botany, etc. ; and I trust the time is not far distant when we shall enjoy the
privilege of having a room of our own, on the table of which we may lay our periodicals
and papers, and in which we may meet to enjoy the advantages of social intercourse
and discuss such topics as may be desirable, and consider any suggestions that may' be
of practical importance.

Prance has repeatedly been held up to us as a pattern and model of pharmaceutical
intelligence, and superiority inlaws and pharmaceutical governments; certainly many of
their pharmaciens are far before us in intellectual pursuits, but are there not very many
pharmaceutical chemists taking a much higher standing amongst us? In the ‘Phar¬
maceutical Journal’ for December last, there is a very interesting letter from Mr. Charles
Ekin, “ On the State of Pharmacy in France,” which is well worth perusal ; it states the
high attainments expected from all members entering the profession (as it is there
called), and many advantages to be obtained by passing a first-class examination. There
is one curious privilege, that when a patient dies, among the first claims to be settled
are those of the physician and chemist, — a law worthy to be introduced into our Codex.
Following this letter is another from Mr. J. S. Weston on the same subject, viz. “The State
of Pharmacy in France,” but giving a most unsatisfactory account of the law on phar¬
macy ; a commission having been appointed to inquire into the operation of the existing
law, has presented a report, which shows the extreme weakness and imperfection of the
present regulations. According to this report, the law prohibits secret remedies, and
they swarm. It forbids the advertisement of secret remedies or new preparations, and
the newspapers are filled with them. Pharmaciens ought not to supply medicines
but with a physician’s prescription, yet, for the most part, as much medicine is sold
without as with them ; they ought to confine themselves to the Codex, yet many use
other formulas ; and it thus happens that a medical man does not always obtain for his
patients the medicines he desires. “ Finally, as the law neither defines a secret medicine,
nor a required medicinal weight, it results that mineral-water manufacturers, druggists,
colour merchants, photographers, perfumers, grocers, herbalists, with a crowd of pre¬
tended chemists and charlatans, exercise medicine and pharmacy more or less illegally, to
the great dishonour of these honourable professions.” The report closes with this ob¬
servation : — “ A new legislation, giving greater protection to pharmacy and medicine, is
thus become necessary.” It really appears, gentlemen, as if France were taking a leaf
out of our book in thus demanding a new legislation in pharmacy.

424

BATH CHEMISTS’ ASSOCIATION.

And this brings me to the subject of our new Pharmacy Bill. It is very pleasing to
find with what energy and zeal the project of this Bill is being taken up ; a new spirit
seems to pervade all, whether pharmaceutical chemists or otherwise, the former indeed
being in the minority. Many of the returns made are highly satisfactory : in Wey¬
mouth, every chemist but one has signed the appeal ; at Canterbury, every chemist ; at
Leicester, all but one (43 having signed it) ; at Brighton, 45 out of 52, and besides this
31 assistants ; in Manchester, 116, of which 37 only were pharmaceutical chemists ; and
here in Bath, nearly every chemist and 15 assistants have signed it ; and I have no
doubt that when the returns are fully made, the majority in favour of the Bill will be
very great. All speak in the highest terms of the Bill, and also of the liberal offer
made by the Society to all who really feel inclined to become members by examination.
Nor can I see the practical difficulty which some apprehend ; the examinations have a
practical rather than a theoretical bearing, and I feel quite sure there is no person in
this room who is not perfectly qualified for passing such an examination ; it would be
an insult to their understanding and attainments to doubt it for an instant. Only let
one try, and the result would be that others would follow, and we should soon be a truly
Pharmaceutical Society, members rejoicing in M. P. S. won by examination, — a far
more honourable distinction, allow me to say, than any title procured by purchase. I
am conscious of a certain delicacy in addressing some whose opinions upon the Phar¬
macy Bill may differ very widely from those to which I have given expression, but that
feeling is to a great extent removed when I consider that it is one of the objects of this
Society to give frank expression to opinion upon matters of common interest and while
I shall, I hope, ever listen with deference to the utterance of sentiments adverse to my
own, when claiming the same sincerity as those which I now offer, I shall hail with
pleasure the honest acknowledgment of any who with Mr. Moffat, of Glasgow, say, “ I
wras mistaken.” I must, however, in common honesty to those gentlemen who form the
Council of the Pharmaceutical Society, declare that I firmly believe that their inten¬
tions are purely devoted to the true interests of the body generally ; their very names
are a guarantee for the honesty of their proceedings.

I do sincerely trust we shall not be looking with a jaundiced eye on one another
because we think differently, but let the love of the noble science with which (worthily
or unworthily) we stand connected preserve good feeling and fellowship, and may
materia medica, pharmacy, chemistry, botany, etc., secure more of our attention, make
us more earnest and zealous, and thereby “ more honoured because more honourable.”
There is another point to which I would now more especially call your attention, — it is
micro-chemistry. I am sure that those who saw the beautiful specimens exhibited at the
Conference by Messrs. Deane and Brady, since then engraved in the ‘ Proceedings of
the Conference,’ |and also the objects shown by Messrs. Stoddart, must have been de¬
lighted. I need not dwell upon the obvious advantage of the knowledge of “ how to
work with the microscope ” in detecting adulterations, etc.

I do not know if any gentleman has worked the British Pharmacopoeia, but I must
say the more I know of it the more I am pleased ; it certainly far surpasses the expecta¬
tions my first impression of it led me to entertain ; we must not expect perfection, and
but for some unwise alterations, which certainly are not improvements, it is a “ move in
the right direction.” There has been a considerable compromise made to satisfy Scot¬
land and Ireland, but on the whole it is a valuable book, and with Squire’s ‘ Companion’
it is rendered much more complete ; in time it must of necessity become our law.

With regard to the Poison question, that has been so well ventilated at the Congress
that it would be only waste of time to enter on it, except to compliment those gentle¬
men whose zeal and industry were rewarded by so excellent a report. In conclusion, I
do most sincerely trust we shall none of us forget the proposal upon which we so gene¬
rally agreed, to close our shop upon the Sunday ; even in a worldly point of view, I am
quite sure we shall find a substantial proof of the promise that “ those who honour
Me, I will honour.” It is now more than twenty years since I adopted that plan, and
I am sure I have lost nothing, but gained much ; but even had I lost much, I believe I
should have gained more.

After which it was proposed by Mr. P. Harding, seconded by Mr. King, and resolved,
that the address be copied into the minute book of the society, and also that a copy of
the address be forwarded to the Editor of the £ Pharmaceutical Journal,’ together with a
brief sketch of the origin of the association, and a request that it be inserted in the next
number of the Journal.

CHEMICAL DISCUSSION ASSOCIATION OF THE PHARMA¬
CEUTICAL SOCIETY.

Deport of the Committee to the Anniversary Meeting, January 9, 1865 ; Dr.
T. Redwood, President, in the chair.

The Chemical Discussion Association has now reached the Seventh Anniver¬
sary of its formation, and the committee present their Report with no less satis¬
faction than in former years. If during the past session the number of meet¬
ings has been somewhat fewer than usual, the valuable and interesting character
of the communications made to those meetings fully makes up for any deficiency
in other directions, and must be a subject for congratulation to the members.

While looking back with pleasure over the results obtained since the last anni¬
versary meeting, and tendering their thanks to those gentlemen who have as¬
sisted them by bringing forward their papers, the Committee look to the mem¬
bers generally, but particularly to the younger members, to whom the existence
of the Association must be especially useful, for their assistance and co-operation
in furnishing matter suitable for discussion throughout the year that has just
commenced ; and they repeat what has already been urged, that communica¬
tions intended for the Association need not be in a state of elaboration. Un¬
finished researches frequently derive a stimulus from the information elicited in
course of the discussion which constitutes a feature of these meetings.

The account of the treasurer will be found to be very satisfactory as regards
the financial position of the Association.

During the session seven new members have been added to the list.

Appended are the titles of communications that have been received during
the year : —

“ Note on the Chemistry of Insects.” Mr. C. Sharp.

“ On Sweet Spirit of Nitre.” Mr. Fewtrell, F.C.S.

“ On the Preservation of Vegetable Powders.” Air. C. H. Wood, F.C.S.

“ On Granulated Sulphate of Iron.” Air. H. Smith.

“ On some Reactions of the Sulphuric Acid Chamber Crystals.” Air.
Broughton, B.Sc.

“ A Contribution to the History of Balsam of Peru.” Dr. Attfield, F.C.S.

“ On Perchloride of Iron in Solution.” Dr. Attfield, F.C.S.

“Note on several New Organic Compounds.” Mr. W. A. Tilden.

“ On Air. Stoddart’s Alethod of Examining the Cinchona Alkaloids.” Air.
J. Watts.

“ On the Purification of Essential Oil of Almonds.” Air. W. A. Tilden.

Officers for 1865 : — President, T. Redwood, Ph.D ; Treasurer, S. Gale; Se¬
cretary, A. Tilden. Other members of the Committee : Alessrs. J. Attfield,
Ph.D., J. Broughton, B.Sc., A. F. Haselden, J. Ince, J. Watts, and C. II.
Wood, F.C.S.

MEETINGS ON PHARMACY BILL.

EDINBURGH A1EETING.

A meeting of Chemists and Druggists, called by public advertisement, to consider the
new Pharmacy Bill, was held in St. George’s Hall, 119a, George Street, Edinburgh, on
the evening of Tuesday, 20th December, at half-past nine o’clock. There was a good
attendance, fully forty being present, about one-fourth of whom only were connected
with the Pharmaceutical Society. Among those present were, Messrs. Young, of Mac-
farlan and Co., Tait and Buchanan, both of Duncan, Flockhart, and Co., Aitken, Nicoll,

426

MEETING OF THE LIVERPOOL CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS.

Noble, Blanchard, Mackay, Storrar of Kirkaldy, Mackenzie, Taylor of Musselburgh ,
Aitken, jun., etc. etc.

Notes of apology from several unavoidably absent were read.

Mr. George Blanchard was called upon to preside. After a few remarks, he re¬
quested Mr. Mackay to explain the object of the meeting.

Mr. Mackay then stated the purpose for which the meeting had been called, and
proposed to read the whole Bill as at present in the hands of Sir George Grey, or to give
an abstract. Those present having unanimously desired that the whole proposed Act
should be read, Mr. Mackay did so, commenting upon and explaining the various
clauses. A good deal of question and answer followed, in which several took part, and
at length, after a full explanation, there appeared to be no objection to any portion of
the Bill, excepting the clause fixing the age of the assistants at twenty-one years. A
chemist present thought nineteen would be a more suitable age, and hoped the passers
of the Bill would make this alteration before it passed the House of Commons.

Mr. Mackay then moved the following motion : — “ That this meeting approve of the
Amended Pharmacy Act now before Parliament which has already been fully published
in the ‘ Pharmaceutical Journal,’ do hereby express an opinion favourable to the provi¬
sions of said Bill, and agree to do all in their power towards supporting and carrying
this measure through Parliament during the approaching session, believing that such an
Act is desirable alike for the interests of the public at large, as well as for regulating
and recognizing chemists and druggists throughout the country.”

Mr. Nicoll, Dundas Street, seconded this motion, and the Chairman having asked if
there was any amendment, declared the motion unanimously carried, which it was, with
acclamation ; and after a vote of thanks to the President, the meeting adjourned.

MEETING OP THE LIVERPOOL CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS.

On Thursday, the 5th instant, an influential meeting of the chemists and druggists
of Liverpool, Birkenhead, and the neighbourhood, was held in the lecture hall of the
Royal Institution, Colquitt Street, Liverpool, for the purpose of discussing the provisions
of the proposed new Pharmacy Act.

Mr. Sumner, who was called to the chair, opened the proceedings by saying, the object
of the meeting was to give the chemists and druggists of Liverpool an opportunity of
expressing their opinion of the provisions of the extended Pharmacy Act, which would
shortly be laid before Parliament. Perhaps without further preface on his (the Chair¬
man’s) part, Dr. Edwards would indicate what the Pharmacy Act was to do for the
present and the rising generations.

Dr. Edwards regretted the absence of his colleague on the Council, Mr. H. S. Evans,
who was detained by domestic bereavement from being present that evening, but whose
heart was with them in the objects of the meeting. The chemists and druggists, as dis¬
pensers of medicine, bad long had under consideration the desirability of associating
themselves into one distinct and broad phalanx, and consolidating the body, not only
for the resistance of attacks on the part of any adversaries, but also for the promotion of
their status in the way of education, and thus rising from the ranks of a mere
trade to that of a profession. The present movement was one which had not originated
within their day. Movements had come to them from time to time from without, and
it was in the first place an aggression from a medical body which caused them
to associate together for the resistance of an encroachment upon their trade rights, in
the form of a Bill laid before Parliament by Mr. Hawes. They were then induced to
form the nucleus of what afterwards took the position of the Pharmaceutical Society of
Great Britain.

The United Society had sprung up from a similar alarm, which however had proved
groundless, and_they took credit to themselves for vanquishing an enemy which had no
real existence. It was to be regretted that such an attempt had been made to destroy the
morale of the Pharmaceutical Society as a representative institution. Double societies,
and double examinations, and double bills, were not likely to forward the general pro¬
gress of the body. It had been abundantly shown in the past history of medical

MEETING OF THE LIVERPOOL CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS.

427

bodies that divided authority and competitive standards of examination were not
conducive to the onward progress of a profession, and that it was desirable that
union and consolidation should take place, in order that all should advance together. They
could not carryforward a body of men unless they had the whole of the body in one uni¬
versal progress. The progress of an army depended not merely upon the advance of the
vanguard, tfut in a great measure also upon the progress of its commissariat. The march
of the Pharmaceutical Society had somewhat exceeded the rate of progress of the chemists
and druggists, and at the present they were at a pause, because it was said by the Medical
Council, who had just consolidated themselves into one compact body, that it was very
desirable that the subject of Pharmacy should be considered, and that, while a very
great amount of good had resulted to the public from the union of the different medical
bodies together into one body, represented by the Medical Council, yet nevertheless there
was one flaw in the general arrangement, and that related to the dispensers of medicines,
who ought to be provided for under a similar arrangement. Therefore, the Medical Council
in committee considered this subject, and, after a very considerable amount of deliberation,
they found that it was not desirable to attach Pharmacy as a branch of the medical
profession, under control of the Medical Council. That was for a long time a matter in
discussion with them ; but the chemists themselves had said over and over again that
they were an independent body, and they were not a branch of the medical profession.
They preferred to be at the head of the profession of pharmacy to be at the tail of the
profession of medicine. That was their constant point, and in that particular the
Medical Council had given their approval, and had said, in common with the chemists
and druggists, that it was better for the public benefit, and for the exercise of the
medical profession, that pharmacy should take an independent position, rather than that
it should be such a branch of the medical profession. If they required an example, they
had it in the history of the apothecaries, who had certain exclusive class privileges as a
lower branch of the medical profession. They were not satisfied with being in that
position, and climbed step by step until they got into the position of general medical
practitioners. It was therefore recommended by a number of the speakers at the
Medical Council that the matter should be referred either to the Pharmaceutical
Society, or to some other body appointed by Government.

There was another branch of the subject which touched upon legislative action in the
same way, and that was with reference to the unrestricted sale of poisons. Upon that
subject a committee of the House of Lords had sat and taken evidence, and a Bill was
brought before Parliament with the intention of restricting the sale of poisons to a
superiorly educated class of vendors. In consequence of the lapse of office of that govern¬
ment that bill was thrown aside, and at present no legislation had taken place with
reference to the sale of poisons ; but still it was a matter which had been thrown upon
the attention of the Government as one deserving of attentive and careful consideration.
With respect to that subject, a Government inquiry had been instituted by the Home
Office of the present Government, and Dr. Taylor had reported in favour of an educational
standard of qualification on the part of all engaged in the sale of poisons, and made a re¬
commendation that the subject should be referred to the Pharmaceutical Society.
Therefore, from two different points of view, it had been impressed upon not only the
present Government, but upon former Governments also, that, so far as the medical profes¬
sion was concerned, they desired a higher qualification ; and, on the other hand, that it
was desirable on the part of Government that the sale of poisons should be restricted to
those who were well qualified to judge of the nature of the medicines which they sold.
What was wanted was education as a basis of qualification ; a payment in recognition of
the expenses which were to be incurred in order to obtain legitimate status ; and then it
was required that that should be indorsed by a legal recognition, and to have, in return
for that, some kind of diploma or certificate, which should be in the possession of every
chemist and druggist, indorsed in some way by Government, to show that it was a legal
recognition. The Council of the Pharmaceutical Society' had been most anxious to
strengthen their borders as far as possible, to admit volunteers into their society. The
Pharmaceutical Society was, in the first place, a body of volunteers, and he believed that
its very strength, its very power, and its moral influence, consisted in the fact that it was
composed of a body of men who were educationally equal to their position, and who had
voluntarily united themselves into a body for the protection of those interests which
were dearest to the trade in general : and that volunteer band had always been willing to

2 ii 2

MEETING OF TI1E LIVERPOOL CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS.

4 28

put their hands into their pockets for the defence of the common interests of the body,
whether belonging to the Society or not.

In reply to the Chairman, Dr. Edwards said it was intended to give the title of
“ registered chemists and druggists” to the persons registered.

Mr. Shaw moved the following resolution: — “We, the undersigned chemists
druggists, residing and carrying on business in Liverpool and the district, having read the
principles of the bill for regulating chemists and druggists published in the ‘ Pharmaceu¬
tical Journal,’ pledge themselves to use their best endeavours to obtain the passing thereof
into law.” The bill, he said, had his entire approval, and he did not see any fair objection
that could be raised to it.

Mr. J. A. Turner had great pleasure in seconding the resolution, which he thought
commended itself to the common sense of all, and that, he apprehended, was the most
useful sense. The Pharmaceutical Society had, he considered, been the pioneers of that
general progress which was now becoming acknowledged and apparent, and he should
feel every confidence in a general measure which originated with that body.

The resolution was put to the meeting, and unanimously agreed to.

Mr. Eobinson moved the next resolution, which was as follows : — That this meeting
recommend chemists and druggists generally to sign the memorial in favour of the bill
which is now prepared for presentation to the Secretary of State for the Home Depart¬
ment. He confidently submitted the motion to the meeting, cordially endorsing its
purport, but at the same time anxious to hear adverse criticism, if any gentleman present
had such to offer.

Mr. WT right had great pleasure in seconding the motion. There was one remark,
however, which he should like to make. In the old Pharmacy Act he believed appren¬
tices and assistants were placed on the same footing as associates. Now there was no
mention made of apprentices in the present Bill.

Dr. Edwards explained that apprentices might be registered as such, but it would
be to their interest to pass the Minor Examination to prove their efficiency ; and, after
some further conversation on the subject, in which Mr. Wright agreed, and stated that
he had taken the objection on behalf of others than on his own account, the motion
was unanimously adopted.

Dr. Edwards explained, in reply to a question, that the registration of sales of poisons
was suggested by the Secretary of State, and therefore the Council had prepared a draft
clause, requiring such registration of each sale from all dealers not registered as chemists
and druggists under this Act. This bill would, they hoped, meet the requirements of the
Medical Council as such, and be conciliatory to the Government on the subject of the sale
of poisons ; and they thought that if a bill was submitted by the Pharmaceutical Society
which meets with general approval on the part of the whole body of chemists and
druggists, it would then become a Government measure. It would then be a measure of
medical police, to be carried on and not be done in the face of the House of Commons,
but with their approval. It was for that object that the support 6f the chemists and
druggists of Liverpool was wanted by signature to the requisition. They wished to lay
a very strong representation on the subject before Sir George Grey. A very large num¬
ber of signatures had been obtained throughout the country, and he should have been
very glad to have called an earlier meeting for Liverpool, but circumstances over which
he had no control whatever prevented him doing so. He had done so at the earliest pos¬
sible moment, and it was considered desirable that as large a number of signatures as pos¬
sible should be obtained, in the hope of making it a Government bill. The cost of the bill,
if they were to attempt to carry it through as an independent measure, would be <£G00 or
£700, whereas, if they could get it carried as a Government measure, the cost would be
but trifling. In leading articles, and in the correspondence of chemists and druggists, it
was continually thrown into the teeth of the Pharmaceutical Society that they wished
to enrol the chemists and druggists and get subscriptions from them, and yet not to give
them any voting powers in the management of the affairs of the Society. That was a
total misrepresentation. In order to secure the bill it was very necessary to spend money,
and the parties benefited by the bill should recoup the Society for that expenditure.
There was, therefore, the moderate charge of one guinea for each registration, or what¬
ever other sum might be hereafter agreed upon ; and it certainly did not require that
there should be any connection at all, or any representative power, or any further union
between the body of chemists and druggists so registered and the Pharmaceutical Society.

MEETING OF TIIE LIVERPOOL CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS.

129

It would be perfectly voluntary on the part of the chemists and druggists to apply for
memberships, and in order to do that they must pass through the door of the Major
Examination. It was also open to them to become Associates of the Society ; but it was
proposed to throw open the Benevolent Fund to the entire trade, whether belonging to
the Society or not.

Mr. Smith, of Great Howard Street, said, it was not his intention, when he entered
the meeting, to offer any observations on the Bill, but as criticism had been invited he
would say a word or two in reference to it. A bill, it appeared, was about to be pre¬
sented to the House of Commons for the purpose of protecting the trade generally.
That he believed to be a good provision, and one very much needed ; but as a member
of the United Society of Chemists and Druggists he deprecated such an attempt to rule
the majority; and the manner in which it was attempted would, in his opinion, prove
entirely futile. The Pharmaceutical Society numbered, he believed, about 3000, and the
number of chemists and druggists in Great Britain was 30,000.

Dr. Edwards said, the Registrar General’s returns only gave about 6500 in the trade
altogether.

Mr. Mercer said he believed that the number of chemists and druggists was from
6000 to 7000, and that a great number of the members of the United Society of Chemists
and Druggists belonged also to the Pharmaceutical Society.

Mr. Smith continued remarking that he could not see why chemists and druggists
should be registered as chemists and druggists, and not have the same privileges as the
Pharmaceutical Society. Why not extend the hand of fellowship at once? Dr.
Edwards had said, unity was strength, and so it was. He (Mr. Smith) was of that
opinion too, and unless united action was taken by the Pharmaceutical Society and the
United Society of Chemists and Druggists, their bill would never be passed. He would
ask one question, Was it intended that all chemists and druggists who did not enter
their names on the register should be debarred from practising as chemists and druggists ?
Was it intended that it should be retrospective ?

Dr. Edwards : The registration will be compulsory.

Mr. Smith: Then in my opinion — and I think the same opinion will be held by
a great many chemists and druggists — such registration is not consistent with British
law and British equity.

Dr. Edwards said a similar provision was proposed by the United Society of Chemists
and Druggists.

Mr. Smith said, yes, but he believed the United Society of Chemists and Druggists did
not even intend to exclude apprentices from the rights and privileges of being chemists
and druggists. In his opinion, no Act could come into operation within five years, and
apprentices in business had a right, he thought, to similar privileges. He hoped the
Pharmaceutical Society would extend their hands as freely and frankly as possible in
order to do that which had been wanted for years to protect the public and protect the
trade generally.

The Chairman wished to know in what way Mr. Smith wished the Pharmaceutical
Society to extend the hand of fellowship ?

Mr. Smith replied, to extend it to all chemists and druggists who were not members
of the Pharmaceutical Society, and who were, to a great extent, as well educated and as
well qualified as many who were now registered pharmaceutists. There were many
pharmaceutists who were not so by examination, but through a privilege which was
given some years ago to “ outsiders,” who were admitted on paying a fee of £5.
Such privileges were taken advantage of ; and therefore, so long as there had not been
a compulsory examination in every instance, he thought it would be an act of injustice
to “ outsiders ” now to compel men to pass on examination who had been in business
perhaps for many years — men perhaps of the same amount of practical experience as
those registered as pharmaceutists. He thought it was a narrow way of doing it ; it
was not sufficiently generous. If the “ outsiders ” wanted to come forward and join the
Society, he saw no reason why they should be deprived of the designation of pharma¬
ceutists.

Dr. Edwards : That is to go back twenty years, and make a fresh start.

Mr. Mercer, in moving a vote of thanks to thb Chairman, said he was only sorry
that gentleman’s duties had not been more arduous. He (Mr. Mercer) should certainly
like to have heard the different clauses of the Bill criticized more closely than they had

430 MEETING OF THE CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS IN NOTTINGHAM.

been, for it would not be possible for any persons to draw up a Bill which would satisfy
every one interested in it ; and in this Bill there were very wide interests to be considered.
There were the opinions of the Home Secretary, representing the Government ; there
were the interests of the medical profession, the interests of the founders and members of
the Pharmaceutical Society, and the interests generally of the body of chemists and
druggists. For his own part, he thought the framers had been very successful in keeping
in view the interests of all those various bodies ; and if there was one class of persons
treated more liberally and generously by the framers of this Bill than another, it was
the class of chemists and druggists outside the Pharmaceutical Society. Mr. Smith, the
gentleman who spoke last, has raised an objection which had been raised over and over
again, but which he (Mr. Mercer) did not think had any foundation at all, namely, that
the chemists and druggists were going to be “ governed,” and therefore that they ought
to have a voice in the selection of the body governing them. They were not going to
be governed at all ; the principle of the Bill was to retain for the chemists and druggists
all the privileges and rights which they at present enjoyed, and in addition to give them
a little protection, because no one could come into the trade after a certain date who had
not passed an examination, and that, while it protected the public, must also act as
a protection to those chemists and druggists who were already in business. They had
a very good precedent, as had been referred to by Dr. Edwards, in the apothecaries, and
no doubt that would be followed in the present instance. The apothecaries then in
business had their rights and privileges maintained, and from that day down to the pre¬
sent the apothecaries had been gradually improving in their position (as he had not
the least doubt the chemists and druggists would improve in their position, until
now: as had been before remarked, they had raised themselves to the higher branches
of the medical profession, and were now joined with them in the Medical Council. He
hoped that, on a future occasion, if they had an opportunity — and he hoped they would
have an opportunity — the gentlemen opposed to the Bill would really bring forward the
most forcible objections they possibly could, press those objections, and put them in
a tangible form, so that they might agree upon a Bill which would meet the views of
all, and tend to elevate the position of the chemists and druggists to that at present
occupied by the members of the Pharmaceutical Society.

Mr. Charles Jones, of Birkenhead, briefly seconded the motion, which was earned by
acclamation.

The Chairman, in acknowledging the compliment, said, wfith regard to the Bill and the
conflicting interests between the chemists and druggists and the Pharmaceutical Society,
he thought, before any Bill, was passed, through the House of Commons, all interests
would be so far argued and sifted and tested and tried, that there would be no interest
that would be omitted. He did not think the chemists and druggists, as a body, would
have anything to find fault with in a Bill that passed the House of Commons.

The meeting then separated.

MEETING OF THE CHEMISTS AND DEUGGISTS IN NOTTINGHAM.

A General Meeting of the chemists and druggists of this town was held at the May-
pole Hotel, on Thursday evening, the 5th of January, — Mr. Charles Welsh in the
chair, — to consider the proposed Amended Pharmacy Act for regulating the qualifica¬
tions of chemists and druggists.

The Chairman called upon the Local Secretary, Mr. I. II. Atherton, to introduce the
Bill.

The Secretary, before proceeding to explain the Bill, read the communication which
he had received from the President. The Bill vras afterwards read and freely discussed,
when the following resolutions were unanimously adopted : —

1st. That in the opinion of this meeting, the proposed Amended Pharmacy Bill for
regulating the qualifications of chemists in this country is admirably adapted to meet the
requirements of the trade, and is essential to public safety. Proposed by Mr. Shep-
perley, seconded by Mr. Burton.

2nd. That this meeting fully appreciates the great efforts of the Council of the Phar¬
maceutical Society to obtain legislation on this matter, and pledges itself to aid by all

MEETING OF CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS OF SOUTHAMPTON. 431

possible means the exertions of the executive in the passing of the Bill through Par¬
liament. Proposed by Mr. Fitzhugb, seconded by Mr. Squire.

3rd. That the Local Secretary be requested to forward a copy of these resolutions at
the proper time to the members in Parliament for the town and county of Nottingham,
and to request their support to the proposed Bill. Proposed by Mr. W. H. Parker,
seconded by Mr. F. White.

After a discussion on the J uries Exemption Bill, the following suggestion was adopted,
and Mr. Atherton was requested to forward the same: — “That this meeting further
desires td suggest to the Council of the Society the desirability of extending the ex¬
emption from juries to all registered chemists and druggists, as well as to members of
the Pharmaceutical Society.”

After a vote of thanks to the Chairman, the meeting separated.

The following letter relating to the above was received from the Local Se¬
cretary : —

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — In the present critical position of Pharmaceutical legislation, it is highly
important that the opinion of the trade (Pharmaceutical and non-Pharma-
ccutical) on the proposed Amended Pharmacy Bill, should be fully understood
and properly represented; so that the Executive in London may be able to pro¬
secute their arduous undertaking with success.

Having this object in view, on receipt of the valuable letter from the Presi¬
dent, directed to the local secretaries, I deemed it advisable to convene a general
meeting of the trade in Nottingham, so that the proposed Bill might be pro¬
perly discussed. I have great pleasure in saying that in every way we were
successful, upwards of twenty of the leading chemists of the town attended,
including many of the so-called members of the United Society, and their local
secretary. Resolutions, expressing the unanimous approval of all present to
the proposed Bill, were adopted by the meeting, which further pledged itself to
support, in every possible way, the efforts of the Council to obtain the required
legislation.

I have since obtained the signatures of all the chemists in the town (with
one exception) to the requisition to the Council, — 18 Pharmaceutical Chemists,
38 Chemists and Druggists, and 12 Assistants, in all 68 unanimous in favour
of the Bill. This of course is satisfactory ; but the gratification is greater from
the fact that in every instance the signatures were given most willingly.
During my canvass I was pleased to hear the Society so well spoken of, and not
in one instance was any other project urged in opposition to their acknowledged
liberal measure.

Before closing this short note, might I suggest to the local secretaries in
different parts of the country, that the success of this and other schemes de¬
pends upon their individual exertions ? I think it will be found that where the
local officer is apathetic and lukewarm in its interests, there the Society lan¬
guishes. But on the other hand, where he is willing (and surely there are such
in every town) to look after its interests, there will the Pharmaceutical Society,
with its noble aspirations, be appreciated and retain its supremacy.

I am, dear Sir, yours faithfully,

J. II. Atherton, Local Secretary.

Nottingham , January 6, 1865.

MEETING OF CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS AT SOUTHAMPTON.

At a meeting of the Chemists and Druggists, convened by circular sent to every one
carrying on business under that designation in Southampton, Mr. W. B. Randall in

432

NOTES ON CONESSINE, Oil WRIGHTINE.

the chair, the several clauses of the Pharmacy Bill were read and discussed, when it was
unanimously resolved, upon the motion of Mr. Smith, seconded by Mr. Johns, — 44 That
this meeting, having discussed the various clauses of the Pharmacy Bill, heartily approves
of the same, and urges upon the Council to take such steps as shall secure its being
passed into a law.”

A vote of thanks to the Chairman concluded the meeting.

Edward Palk, Local Secretary.

January 21, 1865.

My dear Sir, — I hasten to send yon the result of our meeting, held last
evening, at which there was a very full discussion of the clauses of the Bill,
and every clause received the unanimous approval of the meeting, except the
first, and that was carried with only one dissentient. The whole body of che¬
mists and druggists are much indebted to the Pharmaceutical Council for their
indefatigable and untiring exertions to improve the character and raise the
standard of those carrying on business under that designation, and I trust they
will be rewarded by a successful issue to their exertions by securing the passing
of this Bill through the Legislature. I will get the signatures to President and
Council, and send off to-night.

I am, my dear Sir, yours truly,

Edward Palic, Local Secretary .

Mr. Bremridge, 17, Bloomsbury Square.

ORIGINAL AND EXTRACTED ARTICLES.

NOTES ON CONESSINE, ALIAS WRIGHTINE.

BY R. HAINES, M.B.,

PROFESSOR OF MATERIA MEDICA, GRANT COLLEGE, BOMBAY.

I observe in the last volume of the 4 Pharmaceutical Journal,’ at page 493, a
paper by Dr. Stenhouse on a new alkaloid, Wrightine , discovered in the seeds
of the Wrightia antidysenterica. The following extract will show that the ob¬
servation is not so new as it has been supposed, though the small circulation of
the publication from which the extract is taken, and the brevity of the notice
itself, render this a matter of very little surprise : —

“ Dr. Haines read a short paper on a new vegetable alkaloid, extracted from
the bark of the Wrightia antidysenterica , the 4 Kliooda ’ of the bazars. The
alkaloid is resinous and uncrystallizable, of a powerfully bitter and somewhat
acrid taste, insoluble in water, but very soluble in alcohol, ether, and chloroform.
It exists in very minute proportion in the bark, only one part being procurable
from one thousand parts of dry bark ; it is supposed that the seeds contain it
in much larger quantities. A specimen of the pure alkaloid was exhibited, and
its alkaline nature shown by experiment. The writer proposed to give it the
name of Nereine , from the former name of the plant which yields it, Nerium
cintidysentericum. It is believed that this is the first alkaloid which has been
extracted from the generally acrid and poisonous family the Apocynese, to
which the plant belongs.” (From the 4 Transactions of the Medical and Physical
Society of Bombay,’ new series, vol. iv., Appendix of Proceedings, p. xxviii.
Meeting of 2nd October, 1858.)

The name Nereine being liable to cause confusion, now that an alkaloid or
alkaloids have been found in the Oleanders, I had since proposed to myself, and
now propose, to give to the alkaloid of Wrightia the name of Cones sine, from
the Hindustani name of the bark. I altogether ' rejected the name Wrightine ,
as too uncouth.

NOTES ON CONESSINE, OR WRIGHTINE.

433

The'1 paper itself was not published in the Transactions. I was in hopes to
be able to make a full investigation of the new alkaloid, and to publish the
results in a complete state, and my object at the time was merely to record the
fact of the discovery, to exhibit a pure specimen of the alkaloid, and to demon¬
strate its nature in presence of the Society. Unfortunately, the demands made
by public duty are here so numerous and exacting, that I have been unable
thoroughly to fulfil my intention ; but the publication of Dr. Stenhouse’s paper
obliges me, in justice to myself, to give as they are the results of my experi¬
ments, which were made at irregular intervals, and under circumstances far from
favourable to accuracy, chiefly in the month of December, 1858.

The Wrightia antidysenterica is a small forest-tree, tolerably abundant over
all Western India. It grows here and thereon the hills on this and the neigh¬
bouring islands, but most abundantly in the Southern Konkan, and in the
Sawunt Warree and Goa territories. The part of the tree on which I operated
was the bark, which is of a reddish-brown colour, but lighter towards the wood,
and loose and spongy in texture. It was coarsely powdered, thoroughly moist¬
ened with hydrochloric acid diluted with six parts of water, and after twenty-
four hours, packed in a percolator and exhausted with cold water. The liquid
was precipitated by an excess of ammonia, and the precipitate washed, dried,
and exhausted with alcohol. After filtration, the alcohol was distilled off, the
syrupy residue mixed with acetate of lead and a little ammonia, evaporated to
dryness at a gentle heat, and exhausted with ether. The ethereal solution had
a pale yellow colour, and on evaporation left the alkaloid as a tough, brownish-
yellow, semitransparent, resinoid mass. Various attempts to crystallize it were
made, but without the least success. Its taste and that of its salts was ex¬
tremely bitter, conjoined with a distinct kind of acridity. After being tho¬
roughly dried in vacuo over sulphuric acid, it was gradually heated in a test-
tube placed in an oil-bath. At 71° C. it became soft, like wax ; at 100° it was
thoroughly melted ; at 110° a few bubbles, either of water or spirit vapour,
were given off ; at 177° it acquired a dark brown colour ; and at 205° it boiled
up and became decomposed.

The solution in hydrochloric acid gave with bichloride of platinum a loose
flocculent precipitate, rather fawn-coloured than yellow. After thorough wash¬
ing and drying, this precipitate yielded in two trials 25-26 and 25"06 per cent,
of metallic platinum : mean 25T6 ; giving as the equivalent of the alkaloid,
taking the formula of the platinum salt as HCl,PtCls, 186-4. Some of
the platinum precipitate having been left at rest in the mother-liquor for several
days, a number of dark orange- coloured bodies were observed to be dispersed
through the pulpy mass, and partly settled at the bottom of the vessel. On
close inspection, these were found not to be crystals, but globular, semitranspa¬
rent masses of the size of pins’- heads. They increased considerably in number,
but not in size, by standing. As it appeared probable that these contained the
platinum salt in a purer state than the bulk of the precipitate, they were sepa¬
rated by decantation, dried, powdered, dried again, and ignited.

I. — *7445 gm. left T835 platinum = 24-65 per cent.

II. — -5415 gm. left *1330 platinum = 24-56 per cent.

Mean, 24-605

This gives -196 as the equivalent of the alkaloid.

I. — -308 gm. pure alkaloid, burnt with oxide of copper only, gave carbonic
acid -8843, and water -310.

II. — -506 gm. platinum salt, equal to -2465 alkaloid, burnt with oxide of
copper mixed with one-fiftli chromate of lead, gave *6985 carbonic acid, and
•264 water.

III. — -346 gm. platinum salt, equal to T686 alkaloid, burnt 'with soda-lime

434

COCHINEAL COLOURING.

by Varentrapps’s method, gave a platinum salt, which left after ignition *092
platinum, equal to *013 nitrogen.

The results are not sufficiently accordant to allow of the precise deduction of
the formula : — ■

I.

Pure Alkaloid.

C . 78-3 ..

H . 11-2 ..

N . .

The formula which agrees best with I. is C2GH21NO ; that most applicable
to II. is C25 H22 NO : —

156 ...

.... 78-39

c,5 ....

.. 150 ..

.... 77-33

21 ...

.... 10-55

h22 ....

22 ..

.... 11-34

14 ..

.... 7-04

N ....

14 ..,

.... 7-21

8 ...

.... 4-02

O ....

8 ..

.... 4-12

199

100-00

194

100-00

II. hi.

Platinum Salt. Platinum Salt.

.. 77-3 .

.. 11-9 .

. 773

The latter formula also gives an equivalent number more closely corresponding
with that deduced from the ignition of the platinum salt, but nevertheless the
uneven number of the carbon equivalents renders it a very improbable one.

To my great regret, I have had no opportunity of repeating the analysis with
more care ; hence the results are not so satisfactory as I could wish, and but for
the reasons above given, I would willingly have withheld them.

COCHINEAL COLOURING.

For the following formula we are indebted to Dr. George Dickson, of Edin¬
burgh : —

u Cochineal colouring may be prepared without admixture of carbonate of
potash, alum, etc., as follows : —

Take of —

Cochineal in powder, 1 oz.

Spirit of wine, 2 oz.

Water, 6 oz.

Liq. Ammon. Fort., q. s. (about -rn.viij).

a Mix the spirit and water, and in three ounces of the mixture, heated to near
the boiling-point in a flask, infuse the cochineal for fifteen minutes. Pour the
infusion into another vessel, and repeat the process with three ounces more of
the mixed spirit and water ; and a third time, with the remaining two ounces.
Let the liquid stand till cold, when some fatty matter will rise to the surface ;
filter, adding spirit and water, up to eight fluid ounces. Lastly, add sufficient
Liq. Ammon. Fort, (about mi to *i) to change the infusion to the desired tint.

“ The objections to the use of carbonate of potash, alum, etc., are : — 1st, the
colouring-matter is thrown down as a lake, and after some time, forms a layer
at the bottom of the containing vessel, requiring the addition of ammonia to
redissolve and keep it in solution ; and 2nd, it does not keep well. On the
other hand, the advantages of this preparation are : — 1st, the colouring- matter
remains in solution, and 2nd, it keeps well, and has no unpleasant odour.”

435

SEA-WEED WINE.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — I beg to call your attention to a remedy which was suggested to me by
the ‘ Gazette Ilebdomadaire de Paris’ in the spring of last year, — namely, u Sea¬
weed wine,” stated to be far preferable to all preparations of iodine, and per¬
fectly safe in its administration in that large and oftentimes unmanageable class
of cases understood by the term “ scrofula.” For years past, I have found that
if I could get patients with hip disease, disease of the vertebrse (Pott’s disease),
scrofulous disease of the knee and other joints, to eat oysters, and especially in
any quantity, that they rapidly recovered. I therefore anticipated the results
spoken of in the paper alluded to, and asked Messrs. J. Bell and Co., of Oxford
Street, to make some “ sea-weed wine.” This they kindly did ; and I and my col¬
league Mr. Naylor, have now used it largely, both in private and public, in the
Cripples’ Nursery and the Royal Orthopaedic Hospital, with a success that has
surpassed our expectations, evidenced by a rapid improvement in health, arrest
of disease in that most formidable affection disease of the hip, and other bones
and joints, in children. I have, therefore, thought it my duty to forward to
you these particulars. Should you think them worthy of publication, they are
at your service.

I am, Sir, your obedient servant,

K. W. Tamplin.

January 23, 1865.

PURIFIED OIL OF BITTER ALMONDS.

TO THE EDITORS OF TIIE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — At the last meeting for discussion at the Pharmaceutical Society, it was
stated in reference to the Essential Oil of Almonds freed from Prussic Acid, that
the article lost its flavouring properties by the processes used.

As large manufacturers of the Pure Oil, and having been much interested in
it for many years, we trust you will allow us a small space in your valuable
Journal to assert that by our process the Oil is not at all deteriorated in quality.

We always use the essence made from our Oil at our private houses, and
therefore can speak practically upon it, and we have now in our counting-house
the specimen sent to the Exhibition of 18G2, which, although exposed to light
and air, is as free from Prussic Acid as when first made, and has neither crystal¬
lized nor lost its flavour.

We remain, Sir, yours obediently,

Preston and Sons.

8S, Leadenhall Street , London , Jan. 20 Pi, 1865.

POISON BOTTLES.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — Perhaps the following plan for distinguishing bottles containing poison¬
ous liquids, kept on the same shelf with others containing innocuous prepara¬
tions, may find favour with those who, like myself, are unwilling to discard
old friends, with no mysterious preteosions, for new ones, whose stability of
character may be questionable.

I have found the plan answer very well, and as every one can make his own
safety bottle, it were a pity that any chance of giving Tr. Opii for Tr. Rhei in
the ordinary way of sale, should remain.

436 PREVENTION OF MISTAKES AND ACCIDENTAL POISONING.

I propose to groove the stopper at opposite sides and then tie it into the
bottle ; the liquid leaves the bottle by the one groove and the air enters by the
other ; a little japanned tin cap, to fit over the stopper and neck of the bottle, is
required to exclude the dust.

I will just give a few hints for doing this neatly ; those who do not need
them will, I have no doubt, excuse them, and to those who do I need not
apologize. Place the stopper on a bench with one of the flat sides of the upper
part resting upon a flat piece of wood of sufficient thickness to steady it, and
hold it firmly between the fore-finger and thumb, then with a rat’s-tail file
dipped in turpentine, carefully make a groove on the crown of the arch ; when
this is done, turn the stopper over, and with a three-sided file make a smaller
groove exactly opposite the first : the size of these grooves can only be deter¬
mined by experiment, and it should be such as will permit a free, though not
too free, escape of the contents : to use a familiar expression, it should allow a
stream to run uas thick as a straw.” When the grooves are made, the bottle
should be filled, as the stopper will be a fixture ; then place the stopper in the
bottle with the smaller groove, cut by the three-sided file, exactly over the
centre of the label : the reason for this is obvious ; we pour from that side of
the neck opposite the label, that it may not be injured by any of the liquid
which may run down. The next thing to be done is to tie down the stopper,
and this should be accomplished in such a manner, that the string cannot come
off by accident ; the string should not pass over the top of the stopper, but over
the shoulder on either side, and then by u bracing the braces ” with another bit
of string, the stopper is made quite secure. Care must be taken that the string
is not in the way of pouring out.

While writing, may I ask whether there would be any objection to the fol¬
lowing plan for making Liquor Ferri Perchoridi? The object aimed at in the
process of the Pharmacopoeia appears to be to ensure a certain quantity of iron
in a given bulk of the preparation, and this is done by starting with a definite
substance, namely, iron in its elementary state ; but the result of the process is
not altogether satisfactory. Would it not be better to dissolve the iron in sul¬
phuric Acid, then convert it into persulphate in the usual way with nitric
Acid, and precipitate the peroxide with ammonia ; this, having been carefully
washed and drained, to be added to the whole of the hydrochloric acid, and
evaporated to the proper bulk. No appreciable loss of iron takes place if due
care be used in the washing. I cannot see what objection there can be to this
process, if hydrochloric acid of proper strength be employed. A weaker acid
would not contain sufficient HC1 to convert all the Fe203 into Fe2Cl3, and,
although a clear solution might be obtained, it would be because hydrated
peroxide of iron is soluble in solution of Fe2 Cl3. The extra trouble would not
be worth consideration, if a perfectly satisfactory result were arrived at. I
have tried the plan, and it appears to leave nothing to be desired, but I have
not yet had time to examine it carefully, nor to test its keeping qualities when
not tincture.

I am, Sir, your obedient servant,

Sydenham , December 23, 1864. T. H. Holloway.

A SIMPLE AND PRACTICABLE SUGGESTION FOR PREVENT¬
ING MISTAKES AND ACCIDENTAL POISONING.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — The numerous suggestions for preventing accidental poisoning recorded
from time to time in your Journal, for the most part appeal to the senses of

ACCIDENTAL POISONING.

437

feeling and seeing, either in the colour or shape of the bottle, a particular
stopper or capsule, or arrangement of the label, many of which are very good, —
and to such as are so, the simple suggestion I have to make, and which up to
the present time appears to have been overlooked, may, I think, be added with
advantage, viz. an appeal to the nasal organ. By smelling the contents of a
bottle before pouring or taking from it, acts as a powerful check, and has this
advantage over most of the suggestions that have been already made, viz. as
most liquids have their own characteristic smell they are at once recognised,
and if the bottle has been filled from a wrong stock- bottle the mistake is likely
to arrest attention. I admit my suggestion is more applicable to liquids than
to powders or crystals, but the negative or absence of smell in the generality of
these would induce one to take another look at the label, and thus make a mis¬
take less likely. Any one induced to carry oufr the above suggestion will in a
very short time find himself habituated to the use of it, and if it should in one
instance be the means of preventing a minor mistake than the sending out
Tr. Opii for Mist. Sennae Co., or Tr. Ithei Co., it will have amply repaid the
trouble of the extra precaution adopted.

I remain, Sir, your obedient servant,

Henry Long.

Croydon , January 13, 1865.

ACCIDENTAL POISONING.

TO TIIE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — Will you kindly allow me to explain to Mr. Deane and others who have
written on this subject, that the proposed Insurance Company which I am
forming, and advertising in this Journal, is not open to the objection which he
justly makes in regard to guaranteeing the amount of damages levied upon the
chemist in cases of accidental poisoning. We propose to guarantee the costs of
the defence only , which would, in cases of criminal prosecution, be the only ex¬
pense to which the chemist would be put. It is obvious that if the public were
well acquainted with the fact, that a poor chemist would always be provided
with good counsel, etc., it would be no inducement whatever to proceed against
him, and it would be a great boon when they did do so. There have been in¬
stances where the chemist would have been acquitted had he been thus provided,
whereas he was unjustly punished through his inability to obtain an efficient
defence.

I am, Sir, yours respectfully,

Rochester, December 15^, 1864. Henry Barnaby.

PROPOSED LEGISLATION AND THE BENEVOLENT EUND.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — Permit me to suggest, that as in the Pharmacy Act Amendment Bill
it is proposed to admit chemists and druggists (non-members) to the benefits of
the Benevolent Fund, a specially appropriate method of augmenting that fund
is available (in the event of the Bill becoming law) by adding the fees received
from registering these gentlemen to the amount already invested.

It appears to me that this course would satisfy the persons so registered, and
convince them that the Society has no selfish motive. Moreover, the members

4B8

THE MEETING OF CHEMISTS AT GLASGOW.

of our own Society would be gratified by the addition of a handsome sum to the
six thousand pounds now in hand for benevolent purposes.

Energetic action, in short, by the Council in reference to this point would, it
may be reasonably thought, add largely to both the popularity and usefulness of
the measure. I am, Sir, your obedient servant,

O.

London, January 24, 1885.

THE MEETING OE CHEMISTS AT GLASGOW.

TO THE EDITOR 07? THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — The ‘ Chemist and Druggist ’ for this month contains a report of a
meeting held in Glasgow, which is calculated to lead those who were not present
to attach an importance to it which it is very far from deserving.

The facts are these : — After the meeting in the Trades Hall here, report of
which appeared in the Journal for this month, Mr. Iluott issued circulars for
another in the Globe Hotel, calling personally on many of the trade and invi¬
ting them to attend. The result was a meeting consisting of twenty-five per¬
sons, employers and assistants ; no great proportion out of a trade which numbers
over three hundred members in this city.

After Mr. Buott had delivered the speech as reported, the chairman invited
those present to express their opinion. No one seeming likely to come forward,
he called on me to give my ideas on the subject ; and it is amusing to see how
the reporter, in condensing a discussion between Mr. Buott and myself which
lasted more than an hour, lias eliminated almost everything that could tell against
the United Society and its Bill, or in favour of the Pharmaceutical Society.

Four persons voted for my amendment, that no bill is necessary. Desirous
of ascertaining how many were in favour of the Pharmacy Bill, I wished to put
a second amendment. This was, of course, out of order, and caused Mr. Moffat
to make the remark, in the most friendly spirit however, u that I was confused
from having sustained the whole discussion during the evening.” Mr. Buott
did not object to the second amendment being put, but a vote was not taken as
the meeting considered that this would be irregular.

Mr. Taite’s motion was then put to the meeting, when eight voted in its
favour, the real majority of the meeting declining to vote. Mr. Buott addressed
them, saying that he could not understand how gentlemen could refrain from
giving an opinion one or other and that since the United Society had put itself
to the expense of sending him down, he would not like to leave without some
more definite result of his visit. It was in vain — the thirteen remained im¬
movably silent. I do not wish it to be inferred, however, that these would have
voted for the Pharmacy Bill. “ Carried by a considerable majority ” looks well
in a printed report, but a statement of the numbers, eight against four, somewhat
diminishes the effect.

Trusting rather to the gradual spread of education, for the elevation of our
profession, and expecting sounder results from the continued efforts and example
of the Pharmaceutical Society than could be obtained by any legislation, I was
more anxious to defend the Society than the Pharmacy Bill, as I consider this
was forced upon the Society by the threatened interference of the Medical
Council.

If Parliament should think an Act of this kind imperatively called for, let us
have the Pharmacy Bill by all means, as it is the only feasible measure yet
brought forward. It interferes with the rights of no other trade, requires only
the education of the individual, and permits every man to manage his business

THE CHEMISTS OP SALISBURY.

439

according to bis own ideas of the exigencies of his position. It registers the
non -member on payment of a fee, and leaves him in peace to carry on his labours
as before, or to pass the examination, and join the Society if he chooses.

The bill of the United Society, as interpreted by Mr. Buott, is an undignified
clamour for a monopoly of the sale of certain articles ; a humiliating declaration
that we are unable to withstand the competition of uneducated men, such as
u hucksters,” grocers, etc., without protective laws. It also contains a provision
for electing council, who are to have the power of dictating regulations for shop
arrangements, etc., — certainly a most irritating attempt at meddling legislation.
Such a measure is certain to meet with the defeat which it deserves, but the
attempt to introduce it will reflect discredit on the trade.

The above is a summary of what I said at the meetings, and I have taken
this opportunity of expressing my opinion of the rival bill, as my conduct at the
two meetings appears contradictory, and requires some explanation.

I am, Sir, yours respectfully,

Alexr. Kinninmont.

THE CHEMISTS OF SALISBURY.

TO THE EDITOR OE THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Dear Sir, — As the Local Secretary for this city, it has devolved on me during
the past week to send the “Pharmacy Act ” to my brother chemists for perusal,
and likewise the paper for their signatures, approving its contents.

The Council solicits an expression of opinion on the said proposed u Act
I am glad, therefore, to be able to report, that all my brethren, whether mem¬
bers of the Pharmaceutical Society or not, readily attached their names to the
document, and expressed their satisfaction that at length there was a prospect
of legislative action in behalf of ourselves as well as the public. Permit me,
Sir, to add, that all legislation on the question should include these two — the
interests of our trade or profession, and the safety of the public. I have re¬
gretted to see to what an extent this fact has been lost sight of in the abundant
discussions of the last few years. Just as the true interests of employers and
employed are o?ie, and any divergence from this rule will sooner or later entail
mischievous results, so, I take it, the true interests of the public as purchasers,
and of ourselves as vendors, whether of scientific ability or the mere retailing
of drugs, etc., is one and the same.

This principle of mutual welfare, whilst applicable to trade as a whole, lias
a special bearing on ourselves, for ours is a business essentially of confidence.
Society, in the long run, will give its preference to that man whose character
and trade arrangements desire their confidence. It is because the interests
of both are preserved, that I cordially approve the scope and design of the
“ Pharmacy Act.”

But it is a source of regret that a more cordial spirit of co-operation does
not exist amongst ourselves as chemists and druggists. We present another
illustration of the sad truth, that “ a man’s foes are they of his own household.”
Our greatest difficulty will not be the House of Commons or the nation, but our
divided position before them both.

The u Pharmacy Act,” so far as I can see, has been framed in a spirit of safe
yet generous concession to those who are without our ranks. How the door
could, in justice to those who had entered in previous years, or with a due
regard to the safety of the public, have been thrown open wider, I do not see.

I had hoped this spirit of conciliation would have been frankly reciprocated

440

AMERICAN PHARMACEUTICAL ASSOCIATION.

on the part of “The United Society,” but, judging from the tone of Mr. Buott’s
address at Glasgow, the 24th ult., we must not expect it.

I should be sorry to say anything that would tend to widen the breach be¬
tween the two societies, for I feel that that man is rendering the most essential
service to the movement who does everything in his power to heal the breach ;
but surely Mr. Buott’s cause must be a weak one, when he can find nothing
better to say than abusing the Pharmaceutical Society.

I am, dear Sir, yours truly,

S. R. Atkins.

Salisbury, December 1 6th, 18G4.

MINUTES OF THE TWELFTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE AMERICAN
PHARMACEUTICAL ASSOCIATION 1864.

The twelfth annual meeting of the American Pharmaceutical Association commenced
its proceedings at the Hall of the Catholic Institute of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, on
Wednesday, September 21st, 1864, at 3 o’clock p.m, — the President, Mr. J. Faris
Moore, of Baltimore, Md., in the chair ; Mr. H. N. Rittenhouse, of Philadelphia, acting
as Secretary.

The Chair appointed a Committee on Credentials, who reported the following gentle¬
men as Delegates duly appointed to attend the present meeting : —

From the Massachusetts College of Pharmacy. — Messrs. H. W. Lincoln, R. R. Kent,
Charles A. Tufts, A. P. Melzar, Thomas Hollis.

From the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy. — Messrs. E. Parrish, Evan T. Ellis,
Wm. Procter, jun., Alfred B. Taylor, John M. Maisch.

From the Baltimore College of Pharmacy. — Messrs. J. B. Baxley, A. P. Sharp, J.
Faris Moore, Wm. Caspari, H. A. Elliot.

From the Cincinnati College of Pharmacy. — Messrs. P. Reinlein, L. Gronewag, A. W.
Fcertmyer, 0. Heineman, C. H. Bode.

The election of members having taken place, the Reports of the several Committees
were read and adopted, and the officers for the ensuing year were appointed.

Answers to the Scientific Queries, proposed at the last meeting, were called for,
and where the investigations were incomplete, the subjects were continued for another
year.

The Committee presented the following queries for solution, which were accepted : —

1. — The seeds of Cimicifuga racemosa are numerous and easily obtainable. What
are their characteristics, properties, and chemical constituents ?

2. — Gillenia trifoliata and stipulacea are found extensively diffused throughout the
United States. Their roots are known to resemble Ipecacuanha in medical properties.
Could they be made to substitute that costly drug, and would Fluid Extract, Wine and
Syrup of Gillenia be available for use as substitutes for the corresponding preparations
of Ipecacuanha?

3. — The Salts of Sanguinarina are employed to a considerable extent in some of the
western cities. How do they compare with the galenical preparations of the root, and
what are their best combinations and modes of administration ?

4. — Which process for Camphor Water is to be preferred, that of the U. S. Pharma¬
copoeia or of the British Pharmacopoeia ?

5. — Could the Poppy be profitably cultivated in any part of the United States, for
the production of Opium and Poppy-seed Oil?

6. — Can Citric Acid be profitably produced in this country, from Currants, Gooseberries,
or Tomatoes ?

7. — Can Peach Kernels be profitably used to procure the fixed and volatile Oil of
Almonds ?

8. — Commercial Honey is much adulterated with or substituted by artificially pre¬
pared Syrup. How can the fraud be detected ?

9. — What is the best strength of Alcohol for the extraction of the several officinal
Gum Resins, with a view to the production of eligible liquid representatives of the
drugs ?

MISCELLANEA.

441

V

10. — A good permanent preparation of Pumpkin Seeds (Pepo, U. S. P.), is a deside¬
ratum, with a view to its convenient use as a tasnifuge remedy. What is the best,
with a formula ?

11. — What is the most convenient form of apparatus adapted to common use, for re¬
gulating the temperature at or below 160°, 140°, and 120° respectively, as directed in
the evaporation of some of the officinal extracts ?

12. — What are the causes of the decomposition of the Syrups and other Vegetable
solutions, the best precautions to prevent it, and the best means of restoring such pre¬
parations which have deteriorated ?

13. — In what preparations may Glycerine be used to prevent the deposition of apo-
theme ? What is the minimum quantity that will answer the purpose, and will such
preparations bear dilution ?

14. — How far is Glycerine capable of substituting Alcohol in extracting drugs for
pharmaceutical preparations? Would such substitution be economical?

15. — Is the cultivated Valerian, produced in New England, of equal quality with that
imported from England and Germany, and are there any characteristic differences by
which they may be distinguished ?

16. — The so-called Naphtha or Benzine derived from the rectification of coal oil is
very variable in properties. How far do these properties fit it for use in Pharmacy,
and what are the relations, if any, of specific gravity and solubility among these hydro¬
carbons ?

17. — What indigenous articles of the Materia Medica can be properly and profitably
cultivated ?

MISCELLANEA.

Accidental Poisoning1 by Digitalis. — On the 5th instant Henry Murney, son
of the late Hon. William B. Murney, for years a member of the Legislative Assembly
and Legislative Council ; George Rankin, son of Mr. Arthur Rankin, M.P.P. ; and Charles
Scott, son of the late Mr. W. S. Scott, agent of Molson’s line of steamboats, and brother
of Mr. Scott, manager of the Express Company, who were staying at the Russell Hotel,
stopped at the drug-store of Messrs. Sturton and Co., corner of St. John and Stanislaus
Streets, and ordered a stimulating drink made of chemical compounds. The elder Mr.
Sturton, who is reputed one of the best chemists in the province, was absent ; but his
son, who is his partner, was present, and made up the potions as ordered. Unfortu¬
nately, he mistook one bottle for another, and gave his patients a draught of digitalis —
a deadly poison — instead of gentian, as he intended. The party had no sooner left the
store than the effect of the poison began to manifest itself. Each of them complained,
on leaving the store, that their fingers and the extremities of their toes were affected alike ;
that a burning sensation, as if pierced by needles, was troubling them, but did not sus¬
pect for a moment that they had been poisoned. Although the distance from Mr.
Sturton’s drug-store to Russell’s Hotel is scarcely 100 yards, yet the deadly draught had
such an effect that Mr. Murney fell twice from exhaustion before reaching Palace Street ;
and immediately after entering the hotel his companion, Mr. Rankin, fell senseless on
the table in the reading-room. They were immediately conveyed to their respective
rooms and medical aid called in. The noxious draught had, however, taken too deep a
hold ; and although Dr. Marsden and one or two other physicians were in immediate
attendance, and the stomach-pump, with a free application of antidotes, were used, yet
they were found of no avail. Mr. Murney, after suffering for an hour and a half,
expired ; while his friends, Mr. Rankin and Mr. Scott, lay in a very low condition, their
medical attendant, Dr. Marsden, remaining with them all night. Mr. Scott and Mr.
Rankin are now out of danger. The coroner’s inquest has resulted in a verdict of
“ manslaughter ” against Mr. Sturton, jun. — Quebec Daily News.

Growth of the Dalsam of Peru Tree. — Seeds of the Balsam of Peru tree QMy-
roxylon Pereira, Kl.) transmitted by Dr. Charles Dorat, reached England in February,
1861, and young plants raised from them in English hot-houses are now from nine to
fifteen inches high. Some of these seeds were sent to the Botanic Garden of Peradenia
in Ceylon, whence Mr. Thwaites thus wrote in November last respecting the plants ob¬
tained from them : — “ The largest plant I have of Myroxylon Pereira has a trtmk nine

VOL. VI. 2 I

442

REVIEWS.

inches in circumference close to the ground, and the largest of several branches into
which it divides at about a foot from the ground is 11£ feet long.” In Jamaica and
Trinidad, young plants derived from the same source have grown with great vigour.
Those in the latter island are described by Mr. Prestoe, Director of the Botanic Garden
(under date Dec. 8th, 1864) as “ nearly five feet high : their aspect beautiful in the
extreme. I do not remember to have seen foliage of a more glossy or darker green ;
and they will doubtless be, ere long, magnificent trees. The rapidity of growth in such
plants in this country is something truly wonderful.”

Growth of Cinchona in Jamaica. — Although numerous plants of Cinchona in
this island have been lost, owing to the selection of an improper site for a plantation, a
few which have been planted on the mountains at about 4000 feet above the sea-level
have thriven with the utmost luxuriance. In a letter, under date 23rd December, 1864,
just received, Mr. N. Wilson, Director of the Bath Botanical Garden (Jamaica), thus
describes the rapid growth of some of the young cinchonas : — “. . . I measured one
lately and found it to be eight feet in height, seven inches in circumference at base of
stem ; and it had eighteen branches, some of them three feet long, with numerous la¬
terals. In fact, nothing can exceed the progress of these plants, which, when I planted
them three years ago, were but three inches in height.”

Cinchona-Culture in the Himalaya.— The number of Cinchona plants in the
Government plantations at Darjeeling, on the 15th July, 1864, was 19,516. This
number includes 4904 plants of CincJiona succirubra , Pav., 172 of 0. Calisaya , Wedd.,
10,460 of C. officinalis , L., 1705 of C. micrantha , Wedd., and 2275 of C. pahudiana ,
How. No efforts are now made to propagate the last-named species, the bark of which
is ascertained to be of inferior value.

Oil of Bergamot in the Treatment of Itch. — The ‘Boston Medical Surgical
Journal ’ states that M. Manfre, the venerable clinical professor in the University of
Naples, has published in a Roman political newspaper, many articles on the rapid cure
of itch. The best remedy, which he says he has thus far tried with complete success in
his clinical service, is the oil of bergamot, which cures instantly, or at most in two
minutes, even where the eruption is general. According to him, this remedy, more
economical, less irritating, more prompt in its insecticide effects than Helmerich’s oint¬
ment or sulphur, makes the wards appropriated for patients with this disease in hospi¬
tals superfluous ; for a single friction over the whole affected surface is sufficient to
effect a perfect cure. The patient may return home immediately after this application,
the precaution being taken of making him change his clothing, or of thoroughly purify¬
ing that which he has worn. An ounce or two of oil of bergamot is enough to com¬
plete the cure. According to M. Manfre, the same remedy may be advantageously
substituted for all those employed for the destruction of the pediculus pubis. For a long
time physicians have known the insecticide power of the essential oils, and there may
be found in some formularies many receipts of M. Aube for the cure of itch in two
minutes. The essential oil of turpentine mixed with essence of lemon, is the basis of
the treatment recommended by this author. Before him, M. Gras had recommended
the essential oil of lavender, which is quite analogous to that of bergamot, and has the
additional advantage of not costing more than a quarter or half as much. — Dublin
Medical Press.

REVIEWS.

Treatment of Diseases of the Skin. By Dr. William Frazer, Lecturer on Materia
Medica to the Carmichael Medical School. Dublin: Fannin and Co. 1864.

Skin Diseases ; their Description, Pathology, Diagnosis, and Treatment, with a copious
Formulary. By Tilbury Fox, M.D. Lond. ; Senior Physician to St. John’s Hospital
for Skin Diseases ; Physician to the Farringdon General Dispensary ; Author of
‘ Skin Diseases of Parasitic Origin,’ etc. London : Hardwicke. 1864.

During the last few months, several works on Skin Diseases have been published in
this country, indicating the increased interest which has arisen in so important a class

REVIEWS.

443

of maladies. The subject is, however, of too exclusively a medical nature to he more
than briefly alluded to in our pages; nevertheless, it is necessary that pharmaceutists
should he well informed upon the various remedies employed in such diseases, and the
formulas in common use. It is with this view more especially that we direct attention
to the two works at the head of this notice.

The pages of the first work, as the author informs us, “ are devoted to the considera¬
tion of the remedies most relied on in treating diseases of the skin : they are intended
for the use of advanced students in our medical schools, and I trust will also prove of
service to junior members of the profession.” To such readers we can safely recom¬
mend this little volume as a useful and practical guide ; and as it contains a good
formulary, it will be found serviceable to all dispensers of medicines.

The treatise of Dr. Fox is of a more comprehensive character, as it comprises not only
the Treatment of Skin Diseases, but also their Description, Pathology, and Diagnosis.
Dr. Fox is evidently a good observer, as well as a practical physician, and has taken
good advantage of the opportunities that have been afforded him for enlarging our
knowledge of the pathology, diagnosis, and treatment of skin diseases. The work con¬
tains an interesting chapter on Parasitic Diseases produced by, or associated with the
presence of animal parasites, and those in which vegetable parasites are concerned. In
ascertaining the nature of these parasites, all good microscopists may do valuable ser¬
vice to science, and we have many such in our own body. The work concludes with a
copious formulary, arranged under the heads of Baths, Soaps, Caustics, Astringents,
Sedatives, Special Stimulants for Outward Application, Kennedies specially adapted for
Scabies, Mixtures, Pills, etc. The work reflects much credit upon the author, and
cannot fail to enhance the reputation he has acquired in connection with skin diseases.
The formulary will be found very useful to pharmaceutists and all engaged in the dis¬
pensing of medicines, as it contains directions for preparing many of the formulas now
in common use by the principal practitioners, both at home and abroad, in the treatment
of skin diseases.

The Philosophy of Health ; or, an Exposition of the Physiological and Sanitary

Conditions conducive to Human Longevity and Happiness. By Southwood Smith,

M.D. Eleventh edition, revised and enlarged. London : Longman and Co. 1865.

A work which has reached the eleventh edition is strong evidence both of the want of
such a volume and of the capabilities of its author. Dr. Southwood Smith was 'well
known as one of the first pioneers in this country in the important subject of Sanitary
Reform, and a debt of gratitude is due to him and those who worked with him for first
rousing the Legislature and Corporate Bodies to its necessity. The present edition, in
consequence of the lamented death of the author, has been completed by his grandson.
The work was originally written from a “conviction of the importance of a more
generally diffused physiological knowledge.” Thus the author says : — “ My introduc¬
tion will consist of an argument to show that a knowledge of the structure and func¬
tions of the human body, irrespective of the pleasure arising from the study as a most
interesting branch of science, is necessary to a rational care of health ; and that it is
absolutely indispensable to those who have the charge of the health and well-being of
others, from the mother and the nurse to the educator — to the heads of families — to the
heads of large establishments, whether public or private, most especially to officers, ge¬
nerals, etc., as the guardians of the health and efficiency of the soldiers — to local au¬
thorities — and last, but by no means least, to the legislator, as the framer of laws for
the regulation and administration of Public Health.”

With all this we cordially and entirely agree, and we hope the time is not far distant
when pharmaceutists especially, will be called upon to possess a general knowledge of
the structure and functions of the human body. We do not mean that they should be
skilled anatomists and physiologists, for such a knowledge could only be gained by la¬
borious study, which would lead them too much from the more important studies of
their profession, — but simply grounded in general principles and their application in the
preservation of health and prevention of disease. Although the author did not live to
carry out fully his design, the work is just one of those which is adapted for the mem¬
bers of our own body, and as such we cordially recommend it to their careful perusal
and study.

444

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

The Chemist’s Desk-Companion for 1865. — The Year-Book of Pharmacy: a
Practical Summary of Researches in Pharmacy, Materia Meclica, and Pharmaceu¬
tical Chemistry during the Year 1864. By Charles H. Wood and Charles
Sharp.

This little work, as stated in the Introduction, 44 is intended to furnish the pharma¬
ceutist with a concise abstract of all important papers hearing on Pharmacy which
have appeared during the past year.” It is the first attempt at the establishment of
a work of the sort in this country, although for many years similar publications have
appeared in France, Germany, and America, and we have no doubt its appearance
will be hailed with satisfaction by those who, being engaged in the practice of phar¬
macy, feel the want of a ready means of referring to a brief account of all new matter
relating to their profession. The authors are known to many of our readers, one be¬
ing the Librarian to the Pharmaceutical Society, and the other late Demonstrator in
the Laboratory and Secretary to the Chemical Discussion Association. They are well
qualified for the task they have undertaken, and have well performed their task. The
work, which consists of a pamphlet of 1 55 pages, gives a brief notice of the state,
political and social, of pharmacy in this country during the past year ; it then gives
in a series of short articles the results of the communications which have been made
in the different journals on Materia Medica, Pharmaceutical Chemisty, and Pharmacy,
and these notices are followed by pharmaceutical formulae, and therapeutical notes
and formulae. The whole is concisely yet clearly expressed, with full references to the
sources from which the information is derived. It will be found to be a very useful,
and at the same time inexpensive, appendage to the desk of the dispensing chemist.

OBITUARY.

On Wednesday, November 23rd, at 10, Parade, Tunbridge Wells, William Maddock,
in his seventy-third year ; one of the founders of the Pharmaceutical Society.

BOOKS RECEIVED.

The Half-Yearly Abstract of the Medical Sciences. Edited by W. H. Ranking,
M.D., etc., and C. B. Radcliffe, M.D., etc. Vol. LX., July -December, 1864.
London : John Churchill and Sons, New Burlington Street. 1865.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

Registered Apprentice (Bradford). — See Wood and Bache’s ‘ United States Dispensa¬
tory,’ p. 1443, and 4 American Journal of Pharmacy,’ vol. xxviii. p. 510. A paper will
shortly appear on the subject by Professor Bentley in the Pharmaceutical Journal.

J. 13. (Glasgow). — See 44 New American Remedies,” in the Pharmaceutical Journal,
by Professor Bentley. New papers will shortly appear.

S. J. F. — Methylic Alcohol. See Vol. V. (2nd series), page 369.

C. Sf D. — The apparatus referred to would answer the purpose.

S. P. (Darby). — We are unable to give the information required.

J. II. W. (Blackheath). — In the prescription referred to, Potassce carbonas should be
used.

W. R. S. (Manchester). — If our correspondent means carbazotic acid , this has recently
been tried in some cases where the use of quinine is indicated ; but we understand that
the property possessed by carbazotic acid, of colouring the skin, is some objection to its
use.

Instructions from Members and Associates respecting the transmission of the
Journal before the 25th of the month, to Elias Bremridge, Secretary, 17,
Bloomsbury Square, W.C.

Advertisements (not later than the 23rd) to Messrs. Churchill, New Bur¬
lington Street. Other communications to the Editors, 17, Bloomsbury Square.

THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL

SECOND SERIES.

VOL, VI.— No. IX. — MARCH 1st, 1S65.

QUESTIONS RELATING TO THE PHARMACY BILL.

It could not be expected, and certainly was not desired, in appealing to the body
of Chemists and Druggists for their opinions on the proposed extension of the
Pharmacy Bill, that simple assent or dissent should be expressed. There must
be many differences of opinion on such a measure, many doubts entertained
with reference to the probable effects of specified provisions or the best means of
accomplishing desired objects, and difficulties experienced in forming settled
opinions upon some of the questions that necessarily arise. The full and free
discussion of the subject is calculated to dispel erroneous notions, to give a defi¬
nite character to expressed opinions, and to reduce the number of essential dif¬
ferences among those most interested in the issue. We believe much good has
arisen in this way from the agitation throughout the country of the merits of
the proposed Bill ; but we cannot say, nevertheless, that the results or the ge¬
neral tendency of the discussions, as reported, have always appeared just and
satisfactory.

In the meeting of Chemists and Druggists at York, although a preference
Avas expressed for the Bill of the Pharmaceutical Society over that of the United
Society of Chemists and Druggists, yet neither Bill was adopted in an unaltered
form, and the propositions that were made for amendments in some of the clauses
Avere accompanied by remarks which Ave cannot alloAv to pass unnoticed. It Avas
freely admitted that the Pharmaceutical Society, being an incorporated and le¬
gally recognized body, Avould, on these accounts, have an advantage in claiming
the attention of the Legislature to their proposed measure. But then it Avas
stated that the Pharmaceutical Society Avas a small body compared to the great
mass of Druggists in the country ; this remark being apparently made Avith the
vieAv of disparaging the claim to support which might be urged in favour of
the Bill emanating from and supported by the Society.

We have shown on a former occasion (March, 1864, page 383) that the mem¬
bers of the Pharmaceutical Society constitute fully one-third of the Avliole num¬
ber of Chemists and Druggists throughout the country. This calculation is
founded, not upon the vague and absurd statements which have been made by
some persons, who have represented the number of Chemists and Druggists at
30,000, and even at 40,000, but upon the more reliable data furnished by the
Registrar- General in the census returns. There were only 12,638 persons of
twenty years of age and upAvards avIio, according to the census of 1861, Avere
engaged in the practice of pharmacy at that time in England and Wales, and
this number includes apprentices and assistants as well as principals. Noav, in
London there is one Druggist to every 3500 of the population, and if the same

VOL. VI. 2 K

446

QUESTIONS RELATING TO THE PHARMACY BILL.

proportions prevail throughout the country, this would give 5700 as the total'
number of Chemists and Druggists engaged in business on their own account. — a
number which corresponds very well with the proportion that may be supposed
to occupy the position of principals out of the 12,638 Druggists of all sorts re¬
turned at the census.

It may be said, it is true, taking the whole number of Chemists and Druggists-
at 6000, that the two thousand and odd Pharmaceutical Chemists, who are in¬
corporated and recognized by Act of Parliament, form but a minority when
compared with those who are outside the Society. But there are other points
to be considered in estimating the position and influence of the Pharmaceutical
Society besides the mere numerical relation which its members bear to the total
number of Chemists and Druggists. The Pharmaceutical Society represents a
principle, and its members acquire an influence which the recognition of this
principle is calculated to give them. The basis of membership in this Society is
professional qualification, and one of the principal objects of the Society has been
to raise and equalize the standard of qualification not only among its own mem¬
bers, but also among the members of the trade generally. It is something to be-
able to show that the Pharmaceutical Chemists, who number more than two-
thousand, and constitute one-third of the entire body of Chemists and Druggists,
have for upwards of twenty years been the promoters and supporters of the only
systematic arrangement existing in England for providing efficient professional
instruction to those who are engaged in the practice of pharmacy, and for test¬
ing the knowledge of such as claim the confidence of the public on the score of
professional acquirements. It may no doubt be said, as it has been said, that
many — nay, a majority, of the members of the Society have never been examined,
and are no better than some who have not joined the association. The admission
of such men prior to 1853 was a matter of necessity for the foundation of the
Society ; but even these can claim the merit of having recognized the principle
referred to, of having contributed to support a system of education, of having to
the extent of their power as men already in business partaken of the means of
education and improvement provided, and of having been for twelve years or
more engaged in business on their own account. If all these circumstances be
duly considered, and if, moreover, the position occupied and the business done
by the leading members of the Pharmaceutical Society in the principal towns
throughout the country be taken into the account, it will be found that neither
in numbers nor in the influence which its members possess, can the Society be
justly represented as an unimportant bod}r, or as only a small section of the
Chemists and Druggists of England.

But it has been further stated that the Pharmaceutical Society has neglected
the interests of the body they pretend to represent, and that they have even con¬
spired to sacrifice the interests of their brethren by handing them over to the
tender mercies of the medical profession. This is a very unjustifiable imputation,,
for which there is no ground whatever. The Society can confidently appeal to
the results of their operations since 1841 for abundant evidence of the zeal and
consistency with which they have watched over, fought for, and maintained the
interests not only of their own members, but of those of their brethren who have
not been associated with them.

With reference to the amendments proposed to some of the clauses of the Bill
by the meeting at York, we think they are neither judicious nor just. The ex¬
clusion of the present race of apprentices from the necessity of passing the pro¬
posed examinations, and the admission of all existing Chemists and Assistants
into the Pharmaceutical Society on the mere payment of the annual subscrip¬
tion, without any other condition being required, would have the effect of un¬
doing much of the good which has resulted from the past labours of our Society,
and of throwing back to a still distant period the attainment of the object for

TRANSACTIONS Of THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

447

which we have so long been working, and which the proposed further step in
Pharmaceutical legislation contemplates. We can hardly think the proposers of
these so-called amendments could have fully understood their bearing, or, if they
did, that they could have seriously supposed they would be acceded to. The
Bill as it stands provides that all existing Pharmaceutical Chemists and Drug¬
gists should have the rights and privileges they at present possess secured to
them, but the proposed amendments would have the effect of lowering the posi¬
tion of the Pharmaceutical Chemist without elevating that of the Chemist and
Druggist.

We are glad to find that while we have some lukewarm friends within our
own body, we have influential advocates without, whose assistance may be
of the greatest importance to us. The ‘ Lancet ’ of February 25th states as
follows : — “ The President of the Medical Council lias addressed a communi¬
cation to the Home Secretary commendatory of the objects of the Pharmacy
Bill. The Secretary has returned a reply of a courteous and official character..
The Pharmaceutical Society has also addressed the Home Secretary on this sub¬
ject. On the whole, the sentiments of the Government are, we believe, friendly
towards this useful and valuable reform, which will assist to elevate the standard
of Pharmaceutical education, and improve the guarantees for the security of the
sick, without infringing on any existing rights.”

TRANSACTIONS

or

THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

AT A MEETING OE THE COUNCIL, February Ut, 1865,

Present — Messrs. Bird, Bottle, Davenport, Deane, George Edwards, J. B. Edwards,.
Evans, Hanbury, Haselden, Hills, Morson, Orridge, Savage, Squire, Watts, and Waugh, —
The following Pharmaceutical Chemists were elected

MEMBERS.

Altrincham . Holt, William Henry.

Brentwood . Guest, Edward Percival.

London . '. . Booth, Samuel.

„ . Nosworthy, Robert.

„ . Richards, Edwin.

„ . Salman, Thomas.

Peckham . Taylor Thomas.

Liverpool . Young, Robert Fisher.

Plymouth . Sloggett, Thomas Chubb,

ELECTION OF COUNCIL.

The lot having been taken, the following Members were declared^to go out of office
but are eligible for re-election : —

Bird, William Lionel, 42, Castle Street, Oxford Street.

Bottle, Alexander, 37, Townwall Street, Dover.

Edwards, George, Dartford.

Edwards, John Baker, Royal Institution, Liverpool.

Evans, Henry Sugden, 52, Hanover Street, Liverpool.

Haselden, Adolphus Frederick, 18, Conduit Street.

Hills, Thomas Hyde, 338, Oxford Street.

Orridge, Benjamin B., 30, Bucklersbury.

Proctor, Barnard S., 11, Grey Street, Newcastle.

418

TRANSACTION’S OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

Retnolds, Richard, 13, Briggate, Leeds.

Sandford, George Webb, 47, Piccadilly.

Standring, Thomas, 1, Piccadilly, Manchester.

Watts, William Manning, 32, Whitecross Street.
Waugh, George, 177, Regent Street.

The following Members remain in office for the ensuing year : —
Deane, Henry, Claphain.

Davenport, John T., 33, Great Russell Street.

Hanbury, Daniel Bell, Plough Court, Lombard Street.
Mackay, John, 121, George Street, Edinburgh.

Morson, Thomas N. R., 38, Queen’s Square.

Savage, William Dawson, 65, Edward Street, Brighton.
Squire, Peter, 277, Oxford Street.

The sum of £500 was ordered to be invested to the General Fund Account.

EXAMINATION, February \oth , 1865.
MAJOR (Registered as Pharmaceutical Chemists).

Barrett, James . Leicester.

Isherwood, James . London.

Preston, Joseph Classon

MINOR (Registered as Assistants).

Quinlan, Joseph . London.

Payne, Martin Henry . Bridgewrater.

Why sail, William . Belper.

REGISTERED APPRENTICES.

Name. Residing with Address.

Cheesman, John . Mr. Pearman . Newport, Monmouthshire.

Turner, William Henry Mr. Stroud . Bristol.

Ward, John Slinger . Mr. Brayshay . Stockton-on-Tees.

Warrior, Henry . Messrs. Maud and Wilson .. Bradford, Yorkshire.

EXAMINATION, February 22ncl, 1865.

(Registered as Pharmaceutical Chemists.)

Tugwrell, William Henry . Greenwich.

Whiteway, William Henry . Torquay.

REGISTERED APPRENTICES.

name. residing with. address.

Sadler, George Edward . Mr. Watson . Leicester.

Wood, Alexander . Mr. Wood' . New Brentford.

(EXAMINATION IN EDINBURGH, 14 th February, 1865).
(Registered as Pharmaceutical Chemists.)

Currie, John . . . Glasgow

Francis, John . Wrexham.

Williamson, James . Edinburgh.

BENEVOLENT FUND.

The sum of £20 wras granted to the family of a distressed member of the Society, in
the South of England.

The sum of £150 was ordered to be invested in Consols to the Benevolent Fund
account.

THE BENEVOLENT FUND.

449

SUBSCRIPTIONS RECEIVED DURING JANUARY AND FEBRUARY: —

London.

£ s. cl.

A. M . 1 0 0

Anderson, Charles, 23, Lower

Belgrave Street . 1 1 0

Barnes, James B., Knightsbridge 0 10 G
Barron, Harvey, Becket, and

Simpson, G, Giltspur Street... 2 2 0

Binge, Thomas, 23, Stockbridge

Terrace . 0 10 G

Bird, W. L., Castle St., Oxford St. 110
Blake, Sandford, and Blake,

47, Piccadilly . 110

Booth, Sami., 33, Carrington St. 0 10 0
Bourdas, Isaiah, 10, Pont Street, 110
Buckle, Christopher F., 77, Gray’s

Inn Road . 0 5 0

Butt, Edward N., 235, Oxford St. 0 10 6
Cracknell, Charles, 107, Edge-

ware Road . 2 2 0

Croyden, Chas, 37, Wigmore St. 0 10 G
Davies, Henry E., 43, Wood St. 0 10 G
Dinneford and Co., New Bond St. 2 2 0

Elvey, Thomas, 8, Halkin Street

West . 110

Evans, J. H., Bartholomew Close 110
Fisher and Haselden, Conduit St. 110
Foott, Richard R., 8, Lower Eaton

Street . 0 10 G

Goodbarne, Thomas, Hoxton ... 0 10 6

Goodger, David, 31, Regent St. 0 10 G
Gristock, Thomas, 42, South St. 0 10 G
Groves, E., 4, Bernard Street, N.W. 0 10 G
Herrings and Co., Aldersgate St. 2 2 0

Hill and Son, 11, Little Britain 2 2 0

Hodgkinson, Tonge, and Head,

213, Upper Thames Street ... 2 2 0

£ s. d.

Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Redfern,

John . 110

Barnstaple, Goss, Samuel . 0 5 0

Berwick, Carr, William Graham 0 10 0
Beverley, Robinson, James Mowld 0 5 0

Bishop Stortford, Grounds, George

Field . 0 10 0

Brighton, Noakes, Richard . 0 10 G

Brighton, Robson, Thomas . 0 10 6

Chichester, Pratt, John . 0 10 G

Gravesend, Spencer, Charles . 110

Harleston, Muskett, James . 0 5 0

Hartlepool, Farrar, William . 0 5 0

Hirwain, Sims, Joseph . 0 10 G

Ilford, Beal, Edmund John . 0 10 G

Ingatestone, Stuart, Henry J. ... 0 10 6

Kidderminster, Bond, Charles ... 0 G 0

Liverpool, Mercer, Nathan . Cf 10 G

Maidstone, Argles, Robert . 0 4 0

£ s. d.

Hopkin and Williams, 5, New

Cavendish Street . 2 2 0

Kemp, Robert, Holloway Road 0 10 G
Ivernot, George Charles, Poplar 0 10 G
Kershaw, George, Camden Town 0 10 G
Lescher, Joseph L., Bartholomew

Close . 110

Low, Win. Francis, Wimpole St. 1 1 0

Mathews, Win., 1, Wigmore St. 0 10 G
Morris, Henry, St. John’s Wood 110
Nicholson, Frederick, Highbury 110
Orpe, Thomas M., 329, Old Kent

Road . . 0 10 0

Palmer, Robert, Ovington Sq. 110
Quiller, Charles R., Sloane Sq.... 0 10 6

Roach, Pope, St. James’s Street 0 10 G
Snelling, Francis, 23, Farringdon

Street . 1 1 0

Starkie, Richard S., 4, Strand ... 1 1 0

Tippett, Benj. M., 3, Sloane St. 0 10 G
Tupholme, John J., 38, Lamb’s

Conduit Street . 0 10 G

Turner, Richard, 2, Oxenden St. 0 5 0

Ur wick, William M., GO, St.

George’s Road . 1 1 0

Vizer, Edwin B., G3, Lupus St. 1 1 0

Whitburn, Augustus R., 174, Re¬
gent Street . 0 10 6

Williams, Joseph J., Harrow Rd. 0 10 G
Wilson, Thomas, Upper Hollo¬
way . 0 10 G

Wooldridge, John, 290, Euston

Road . 0 10 G

Wright and Francis, 11, Old Fish

Street . 1 1 0

FRY.

£ s. cl.

Manchester, Mitchell, John . 0 10 6

Norwich, Arnold, Edward . 0 5 0

Odiham, Hornsby, John H . 0 5 0

Oldham, Bagshaw, William . 1 1 0

Pembroke Dock, Saer, David P. 0 10 0

Portsmouth, Parsons, William ... 0 10 0

Rochdale, Mercer, Thomas Wm. 0 5 0

Shildon, Veitch, William . 0 10 G

Sittingbourne, Gordelier, Paul

W. G . 0 10 G

Southsea, Rastrick and Sou . 0 10 G

Stockport, Brooke, Frederick ... 1 1 0

Stockport, Shaw, Alexander H. 1 1 0

Tickhill, Crowther, Thomas . 0 10 G

Torquay, White way, Wm. Henry 1 '0 0

Wellingborough, Thorne, John .050
Weymouth, Groves, Thos. B. ... 0 10 6

Winchester, Powell, Edward ... 0 10 G

450

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

DONATIONS.

T S. 0.. | U 6*. (1.

Atkins, Francis Thos., Deptford 2 2 0 Holt, Wm. Henry, Altrincham... 5 5 0

Bailey, Delamore J., Conduit St. 5 5 0 Horner and Sons, Bucldersbury 10 10 0

Gamble, Kichard, Grantham . 5 5 0: Newbury, Francis and Sous,

Goddard, Joseph, Leicester . 5 5 0 St. Paul’s Churchyard . 10 10 0

PHAPcMACEUTICAL MEETING.

Wednesday , January Ath, 1865.

MR. T. II. HILLS, VICE-PRESIDENT, IN THE CHAIR.

The following papers were read : —

ON .THE KOLA-NUT OF TEOPICAL WEST AFEICA.

(HIE GURU-NUT OF SOUDAN.)

BY IV. F. DANIELL, M.D., F.L.S.,

HON. MEMBER OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN.

It would probably 'prove a futile task, to attempt the discovery throughout the
vegetable kingdom of tropical West Africa, of any analogous product that occu¬
pies such an exalted position in the social, or dietetic economy of the negro tribes,
or constitutes such an important article of traffic in Soudan, as the seeds of the
Kola-tree ( Cola acuminata , E. Br.). With the majority of the aboriginal races
populating that vast extent of territory, comprehended between Senegambia to
the north, and the province of N’gola southward of the equator, these fruits
have from time immemorial been held in inestimable value, and their virtues
so highly prized, that their employment has become an indispensable and per¬
manent luxury. Within the last few centuries, however, their use has been
even still more extensively diffused, and to such a degree as to excite a large
eommercial intercourse to spring up, between the coastal districts, and the regions
of Central Africa, or Soudan. This profitable trade has been carried on both by
Pagan and Mahomedan merchants, by the latter especially into more remote
countries beyond the Sahara, so that for many years these valuable commodities
have been offered for sale in the markets of Fez, Tripoli, and other local depots,
on the shores of the Mediterranean.

The first Portuguese adventurers, in their exploration of the coasts of Western
Africa, were soon made aware of the great repute in which this produce was re¬
garded, and taking advantage of the circumstance, they without delay com¬
menced collecting considerable quantities of these seeds, from their stores in the
Congo, and Isle of St. Thomas, and supplying various trading factories in other
portions of the coast ; and thus by retailing them at a great increase of price,
managed to secure a monopoly for a long succession of years, which perhaps, of
all the indigenous products of local commerce, proved to be the most lucrative.

Implicitly crediting the assertions of the natives that their usage was viewed
as a luxury, exclusively reserved for the chiefs, and richer classes of people,
and merely as a means for rendering water sweet, and palatable, when drunk
before, or after meals, (a fact confirmed from their being observed masticating
the seeds, more or less throughout the day), they («. e. the Portuguese) never
•entertained the most remote idea, of investigating the causes of this extraordinary
uniformity of demand, or rather special craving of the human system, for a ni¬
trogenous substance, that would tend to compensate for the void caused by the
deficiency of animal food ; for in West Africa, as in other countries, the flesh of
animals is scarce, and difficult to procure. Heiufb the induction of a peculiar in-

ON THE KOLA-NUT OF TROPICAL WEST AFRICA.

431

•stinctive law, which has led the negro and other uncivilized races to select, as if by
intuition, such products of the vegetable kingdom, as contain a predominance of
highly azotized elements, to supply the waste of the human frame ; and to this
inordinate desire for a diet, chiefly composed of nitrogenous constituents, they
aPPear to have been guided by an importunate constitutional want.

Prior to entering into any general details, we may briefly advert to a few of
the more prominent aboriginal customs, which from their ordinary occurrence,
could not but fail of attracting the attention of Europeans, to the marked popu¬
larity attending the use of these nuts.

Should a white trader, or native personage of rank, visit any chief, whether of
ceremony, or otherwise, the presentation of a few seeds, or even the half of one,
constitutes the highest compliment he could receive, as conveying an assurance
of friendly welcome, and protection.

If a chief or man of property residing at some distance from another, felt in¬
clined to perform an act of courtesy to the latter, the transmission of a few Ivola-
uuts was esteemed as the most grateful indication of friendship, and was almost
invariably reciprocated by a similar exchange or acknowledgment.

in countries where the Kola-tree was not indigenous, and the fruit therefore
difficult of attainment, being more restricted to the chiefs and higher inhabitants,
no business could be transacted without a few of the nuts being previously eaten :
and so high Avas their appreciation, that formerly no marriage gift of the bride¬
groom to the father would be deemed acceptable for the purchase of his daughter,
unless it comprised a considerable amount of the. Kola-seeds.

The fetislnnan, or necromancer, desirous of raising the shadow of the dead from
its earthy tabernacle, to satisfy the caprices of some importunate votary, completed
the potency of his spells, by the addition of the food it loved best Avhen in the
human body.

In all propitiatory offerings made to the malign god of the earth, to avert
•disease, misfortune, or ensure a bountiful harvest, they formed by far the most
important ingredient in these magic oblations.

When two belligerent tribes were on the eve of war, prior to the committal of
any act of hostility, the Kola-nut often acted the part of a mediator, or herald,
to determine the future intentions of one, or both parties. On the centre of an
elevated mound of earth, on some neutral boundary, or piece of land, tAvo red.
and one white Kola-nut, the latter divided into two pieces, Avere deposited. If
one of the red nuts Avas taken by either tribe, it Avas a declaration of Avar ; but if
only half of the Avhite was removed, it Avas deemed as an indication of peace, and
thus answered all the purposes of a proclamation, Avhich, being officially promul¬
gated, was regarded of most sacred import by either party, and both therefore sub¬
sequently mingled freely, to adjust their dispute, Avithout the danger of treachery.

Again, on the departure of any guest, the host was bound to bestoAv on him
a farewell gift of Kola’s. To not a feAV of these visitors, induced by commercial,
or political objects, to traverse great distances, no present could be more deeply
valued ; for experience had already demonstrated, that their use not only sup¬
ported the strength, allayed an inordinate appetite, assuaged thirst, and pro¬
moted digestion, but in fact rendered them more capable, of sustaining the
fatigues of their homeward journey, than any other product that could be ob¬
tained.

It is somewhat curious that the Portuguese, Dutch, and at a later date, the
English voyagers, imperceptibly fell into the negro predilections for this fruit :
and eventually, from continual addiction, their urgency as a stimulus became so
habitual, that the due gratification of this Avant Avas established as a matter of
imperative necessity. Indeed in later years, it Avas thought they Avere endowed
with the flavour and qualities of the Peruvian bark.

E. Lopez, one of the earliest Portuguese adventurers, writing on this product,

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

452,

avers that it was the fashion in his day for the negro’s “to hold them in their
mouths, and chew, or at least eat them for the quenching of their thirst, and
better relishing of their water. They comfort and preserve the stomach, but
above all other virtues, they are singularly good against diseases of the liver.
And it is said the liver of a hen, or any other bird that is putrified and stinketli,
being sprinkled with the matter of this fruit, returneth to its former state, and
becomes fresh and sound again. In further evidence of the popular esteem
they commanded at apparently such a distant age, we may allude to the custom
mentioned by a Capuchin missionary, Jerome de Sorrento, in his voyage to the
Congo, that when any gentleman of St. Paul de Loando (the metropolis of the
Portuguese possessions in South-West Africa) was desirous of paying a compli¬
ment to any lady he met in the streets, he offered her a present of a few of these
nuts. It was evident even at this date that some peculiar stimulant property
was manifested, otherwise it would be difficult to account for the subtle influence
they exercised on the human economy. That the taste for them was acquired
there can also be but slight doubt, for the bitter astringency of the nuts was
far from being pleasant, or palatable at first, to those unaccustomed to their use.

Another point should always be kept in view, viz. that they were not specially
reserved for meals or bad water, but usually carried in the hand of the owner
whilst pursuing his ordinary avocations ; small fragments being masticated at
intervals, and the pulp, after the extraction of their juice, thrown away. This
addition to their daily habit, brought under their cognizance the remarkable
faculty they possessed in causing insomnia, or want of sleep, and this property
the natives probably rendered available in protracting the festivities of their mid¬
night orgies. In other respects the best, if not the most useful, application the
Portuguese made in a practical point of view, was the extraction of a beautiful
yellow dye from the fresh seeds, by a process still in vogue among several abo¬
riginal tribes, in proximity to their ancient colonial settlements.

Another interesting feature connected with the primitive nomenclature of
this plant, is the origin of the term Kola, and its widely-spread diffusion along
the shores of Western Africa by this designation, — a fact which did not escape
the notice of that celebrated botanist, Robert Brown. From the earliest records
relative to the discovery of the Congo in which we find the seeds and tree being-
described by this name, we might reasonably infer, that it was either of Con-
goese, or Portuguese derivation. Respecting the latter, I may remark that during
a long residence in the districts of the Congo, I never knew their inhabitants to
acknowledge any other title, than that of Makasso , or Makatso , that of Kola be¬
ing unknown. I had formerly been under the impression that this appellation
might claim its descent from an M’bunda source, but ample inquiries since in¬
stituted among the people of N’gola, have satisfied me that my surmises were
destitute of foundation. It must, however, be expressly understood that this
designation is only recognized by European traders, and negro tribes in the im¬
mediate vicinity of colonies, originally founded by the Portuguese. It is neither
appropriated, nor employed by any other of the populations of the most distant,
or even adjoining countries, each of which has its own vernacular name, distinctive
from any other. Perhaps the most feasible explanation, is that furnished by
the Foula traders, who occasionally visit Sierra Leone, and which, to me, appears
to be the real source of the term. They candidly affirm that it is simply a ver¬
nacular negro corruption, Gola or Kola being deduced from that of Guro, or Goro .
a Foula, and Soudan designation. Many centuries since, a very lucrative com¬
merce was established in this article, large trading caravans coming from the
interior to the Timmane markets to purchase this commodity ; hence the tribes
in the maritime regions, unable from physical defects of the vocal apparatus to

* Pigafetta, ‘Relatione del Reame di Congo,’ etc., 1591.

ON THE KOLA-NET OF TROPICAL WEST AFRICA.

453

articulate the letter “r,” were compelled to adopt that of so that the

word Guro, or G'oro, became converted into that of Gola or Kola , the substitu¬
tion of these, and, in fact other letters, being of proverbial occurrence, to those
conversant with the African languages. This modified term was ultimately
adopted by the Portguese, first in the neighbourhood, but long antecedent to
the foundation, of the colony of Sierra Leone, and within a brief period, after the
discovery of the river of the same name. In this locality they were actively
engaged in accumulating cargoes of the Ivola-nut by means of numerous small
vessels detached to different portions of the coast for this purpose, — a custom con¬
tinued so late as the commencement of the present century, and mentioned by
Afzelius, in his report on the vegetable resources of the infant settlement of Sierra
Leone for 1794.

From the great reputation these nuts had acquired, previous to the sojourn of
the English in West Africa, we may suppose that no length of time elapsed,
before they adopted the example of their predecessors. In the old books of
ravels, we may observe various descriptive details, in which their virtues, and
qualities are conspicuously extolled. Premising that the following remarks
pertain more to the Senegal, and Gambia rivers, where this production is not in¬
digenous, as affording perhaps the most appropriate illustration of what may be
termed the most invaluable of all the negro luxuries. It had been noticed by
the English traders, among the Mandingo’s of the Gambia, that in their
limited traffic with the inhabitants of the interior, they carried with them large
quantities of salt, either of native or foreign manufacture, and received in ex¬
change gold dust, and a roundish, compressed, bitter nut,*resembling a European
chestnut, and known by the appellation of Gola , or Kola. They were purchased
after a toilsome journey, a great distance inland. They were considered of such in¬
estimable value that ten were thought to be a gift worthy of a king, and that for the
moderate number of fifty, a man might purchase a wife out of the best families in
the kingdom. Kay, the elder and wealthier people, rather than be deprived of
this luxury from loss of teeth, proceeding from the decrepitude of advanced age,
carried with them a small pestle and mortar, by the aid of which, they reduced
the nuts into a form of powder. ; and, by occasionally placing small portions on
their tongue, thus secured all the benefits which would have accrued, if the nut
had been eaten entire.

Jobson, an English merchant, who was a resident in the Gambia about 1620,
launches forth into fulsome encomiums on their properties, especially so when
he relates that after mastication, they rendered river- water so sweet as to make
it resemble white wine mixed with sugar, and that its duicificant powers extended
equally to tobacco. Modern experience, however, has not indorsed such extra¬
vagant assertions. He further states that six of these seeds were esteemed a pre¬
sent of special consideration, when transmitted to European factors on the
Gambia. He also appears to have been acquainted with the fact that the Portu¬
guese, even in his day, furnished the inferior course of the river, through com¬
municating creeks, with this fruit from their factories atBissao and Cadico, these
again being supplied by imports, from the fertile regions in the neighbourhood
of Sierra Leone and elsewhere.

Afzelius, in the botanical report previously alluded to, includes among the
medicinal plants of the colony, the “ famous fruit ” of the Kola, which, he ob¬
serves, was so highly prized by the natives that they attributed similar remedial
virtues to it as to the Peruvian bark ; and a subsequent official report of
the African Institution, announces that the tonic qualities of these nuts had be¬
come so well known, that the travelling merchants in the vicinity of Sierra
Leone, had exported them to every portion of the Continent, even to such remote
countries as Egypt, and Abyssinia !

Since that time, few volumes of travels or discoveries in West or Central

P H A UMACEUTICAL M EE T I N G .

454

Africa, have been published which do not contain a casual reference to, or brief
description of its popular appliances, gleaned in most instances from secondary
authorities, being merely the old stereotyped phrases, referring to its employ¬
ment to alter, or correct the taste of bad, and unwholesome water, and allay the
sensations of hunger.

It is certainly remarkable that the Kola-nut, endowed with such a distinctive
fame, and such a widely-spread popularity throughout a considerable portion of
the African continent, should have gained merely a trivial appreciation, or be so
slightly noticed in our botanical treatises. ’What little they do mention con¬
sists, for the most part, of reiterations of worn-out and often incorrect state¬
ments, culled from the works of old travellers and others. Some of these au¬
thorities go so far as to confidently declare that half-putrid water, by means of
the entire or half-chewed seeds deposited in jars, had been converted into a pure
and agreeable liquid. No statement could be so far from the truth. This
error had doubtless proceeded from the circumstance, that it is necessary for their
preservation, to retain them for a short period daily in water, otherwise they
would become dried up, and lose their essential qualities. With the object, there¬
fore, of testing the value of this supposed purificatory influence in the West
Indies, I placed a few of the fresh seeds in a large tumbler of stinking river-
water ; no change was perceived until after a few days, when a quantity of ropy
mucus was generated, which, so far from assisting in the removal of the foetid
effluvia, had quite the reverse effect, the incipient decomposition of the seeds
themselves, increasing the offensive odours.

The introduction of the Kola or Guru-nut into the kingdoms of Northern
Africa, may be assumed to be of a comparatively modern epoch, for little, if any,
mercantile connection was held with the pagan tribes, until after their conver¬
sion to Mahommedanism by the Arab, or Berber invaders. The first mention I
■can trace, relative to this plant, is in the travels of Leo Africanus, who explored
a large extent of Central Africa, about the middle of the sixteenth century. He
briefly adverts to the fact, that no trees were observed in the territory through
which he passed, but a few of great size, yielding a bitter fruit resembling a
chestnut, and denominated by the inhabitants Goto or Garo .*

From this period, until that of Lucas’s visit, to Northern Africa in 1797, no
valid information respecting their intervening history has been promulgated,
worthy of credit. Lucas’s account of these nuts teems with descriptive errors, so
that but little reliance can be placed on his statements, evidently gained from se¬
condary sources. Under the Soudan term of Guru-nuts, he enumerates them with
gold dust, slaves, and other products, among the usual articles of commerce, im¬
ported by the Fezzan merchants, from the negro states south of the Niger.
They were esteemed a pleasant bitter, and became so grateful to those familiar
with their employment, as the means of changing the brackish, and unwholesome
waters of Fez, into a more palatable drink, as to be considered of essential im¬
portance to the comforts of life.

Lyons, and subsequently other travellers, supply far more accurate and trust¬
worthy knowledge of this product. By the designation of Goar , Guru , or Kolia,
they were brought to the markets of Mourzuk for sale, from Dagumba, Ashanti,
and other circumjacent regions, in parcels, enwrapped by a peculiar kind of leaf,
winch, by being occasionally moistened by water, retained their freshness, and
thus maintained their value, for months. This mode of preservation is likewise

* " Ma no v’ hafrutto di niuna sorte : eccetto alcuni frutti die prcducono alberi molti grandi,
iquali si assomigliano, alle castagne ma tengouo alquanto del! amaro. Quest i arbori si discon-
t;mo dal fiume verso la, terra ferma ; il frutto, ch’io dico, e cliiamato nella lor lingua Goto.” —
Della Doscrittione dell Africa, etc-., per Giovan Africano; Yiaggi da* lhunusio, part 1, page 9.
edir. Venice, 1013.

ON THE KOLA-NUT OF TROPICAL "WEST AFRICA.

455

pursued, by the caravans returning from the coastal districts, to Kano, and other
marts of Central Africa, the leaf of a species of Phrynium , or other succulent
plant, being resorted to for a similar purpose. For it is well known that if
they are permitted to become dry and shrivelled, they lose, not only their mer¬
cantile demand, but a considerable portion of their bitterness. In this condition
they are termed in Tripoli, Kowda , and are held to be of inferior estimation.
According to Lyons, the seeds in their fresh state sell in Fezzan, at the rate of
four per dollar, a price that virtually precludes their enjoyment by the poorer1
classes of people. These so valued luxuries are offered to visitors as a substitute
for coffee, being handed round on salvers ; hence the frequent application of the
title, the coffee of the blacks, or of Soudan, bestowed on them. If some of the na¬
tive reports be trusted, when in former years a great scarcity of this fruit pre¬
vailed, owing to a long-continued dearth, so difficult was it to procure a few of
the nuts, that a slave was frequently given in exchange for one.

Denham, Clapperton, and the more recent travellers Richardson, Barth, etc.,
who have traversed many extensive kingdoms of Central Africa, likewise fur¬
nish incidental notices of this popular tonic, and stomachic. The last-named
traveller has, however, entered more fully into the details of the subject,
stating that they were considered the greatest luxuries that negro-land, or
Soudan, could afford, and as articles of trade, were daily increasing in impor¬
tance, as might be gleaned from the fact, that they comprehended, with gold
dust and salt, the three staple commodities, that supplied and governed the
markets of Timbuktu. A few imperfect outlines respecting their botanical
origin, renders it necessary that I should revert to his statements in a future
portion of this paper.

My knowledge of the tonic and astringent properties of the Ivola-seeds, com¬
mences so far back as 1850, when in garrison at Fort Christiansburg, on the
Gold Coast, West Africa, then but recently transferred to the British crown.
With other diseases endemic to the settlement, a particular form of diarrhoea
often prevailed among the European population, caused more by local relaxa¬
tion of the mucous membranes and other visceral structures, than from consti¬
tutional debility. For its cure, the white inhabitants were in the habit of ad¬
ministering a decoction of the fresh seeds, and with apparent benefit. Experi¬
encing a similar form of attack, I wras relieved by resorting to the same remedy.

This affection having supervened whilst recently residing in Jamaica, I fol¬
lowed the same system of treatment ; but, much to my surprise, on taking the
medicine late, two evenings in succession, found that I was deprived of sleep,
during the remainder of the night. Uncertain whether this insomnia proceeded
from some temporary constitutional idiosyncrasy, or an inherent peculiarity
belonging to the fresh seeds, I intermitted taking the decoction for a few days,
and with the intermission, the natural rest returned ; on again continuing the
medicine in the evening, I invariably found its administration attended, more or
less, with loss of sleep. I was then reminded how practically verified (after the
lapse of two centuries,) wrere the quaint remarks of Dapper, one of our enter¬
prising African voyagers, who announced that the seeds, “as experience teacheth,
eaten in the evening hindreth sleep.”*' This singular and ’well- developed phe¬
nomenon, the result of a powerful stimulant on the brain and nervous system,
produced by some elementary principle analogous to caffeine, or theine, led me
to infer from physiological induction, that an analysis of the seeds would readily
determine this point in the affirmative. Following the process commonly in vogue
for obtaining theine, from other plants, viz. by mixing with a strong decoction of
the fresh nuts, acetate of lead to preoipitate the astringent principle, and then

* Ogi Ivy’s Africa, -p. iGl.

PHARMACEUTICAL M E E T IN G.

456

transmitting sufficient sulphuretted hydrogen, to remove the excess of lead,
after the gradual evaporation of the liquid, numerous long needle-like crystals,
became deposited in the glass. These, on comparison with a lai’ge sample of
this alkaloid in Kingston, proved to he identical. As, however, it was deemed
desirable to have a more elaborate chemical examination of the ultimate consti¬
tuents of these seeds, and also to determine fully the character of the theine
previously procured, a quantity of the broken dried nuts, were placed in the
hands of a practical chemist, Dr. Attfield, at the same time intimating to him,
that I had already obtained theine as one of the chief elements ; and the result
of his labours hitherto, has been to establish the validity of my discovery, and
the correctness of the estimate I had formed respecting the true nature of this
alkaloid.

In the preceding introductory statements, I have endeavoured, so far as con¬
sists with the importance of the subject, to condense within restricted limits,
various characteristic details of interest, such as might tend to elucidate the
origin of that constitutional craving, which induced the negro tribes to select
this in preference to other vegetable products for dietetic purposes. A concise
historical summary of their aboriginal appliances is at the same time supplied,
in allusion to those primitive usages existing long anterior to the visits of the
“ children of God ”* to the shores of Western Africa.

The discovery of Theine as a constituent of the seeds, affords a ready physio¬
logical solution of several of those otherwise obscure effects, manifested by their
therapeutic influence on the human constitution.

One remarkable feature worthy of mention, is the marked avidity displayed in
modern days, by the negro inhabitants of Sierra Leone, and Portuguese colonies,
for the nuts in preference to the beverages of tea and coffee, although each con¬
tains the same elementary alkaloid. I have occasionally observed that even the
coffee tree, more or less under culture in their farms or gardens, is neglected, and
on the whole they are indifferent to the stimulant properties of its fruit, so long as
the Kola-nuts are attainable ; nay, they indulge in the luxury of chewing them,
even when gathering the ripe purple- coloured berries of the former, for sale, or
domestic use. Nevertheless, the semi- civilized negro enjoys his cup of tea and
coffee, with the same gout as a European.

Wherever the slave trade prevailed, the Cola acuminata appears sooner or
later, to have been introduced as a necessary sequence, to the importation of
slaves to their new homes ; and in countries, where they became located in large
numbers, it was studiously imported, and cultivated for their advantage and
benefit. Hence the 'introduction of the tree into the Mauritius, several of the
West Indian Islands, Brazil, Mexico, and other extensive regions on the continent
of America.

In Jamaica, the young plants were brought over and naturalized from the
Gold Coast between the early epochs of 1630-40, by a Guinea trader, under the
local appellation of Biche , or Bissai , a name still retained throughout the island.
Its importation has been ascribed to the urgent request of an agent of large
sugar estates, exclusively worked by the Coroman tyn, or Gold Coast negroes.
Similar to the grains of Paradise ( Amomum Malegueta , Pose.), it was specially
intended to act, either as a medicinal prophylactic agent, or as an ordinary
article of food, to avert, as far as practicable, those attacks of constitutional de¬
spondency, to which this class of negroes were peculiarly liable. By thus allowing
them the means of participating in those favourite condiments in general use
in Africa, that predisposition to epidemic outbreaks of suicidal mania, (an
inevitable propensity for which ran like infection through several contiguous

*' i.e. Europeans, — a term hv which they were designated when first seen by the negroes,
and applied even at the present day in some of the regions of tropical West Africa.

ON THE FOOD-VALUE OF THE KOLA-NUT. 157

estates,) became gradually diminished, and ultimately checked, after narrowly
entailing an almost total depopulation in not a few of them.

(7b be continued .)

Professor Bentley, who (in the absence of Dr. Daniell, from illness) read the
paper, said that it was most remarkable that the properties of Kola-nuts, which
the author had detailed to them in his present communication, should have
hitherto been so little alluded to in civilized countries. More attention would
doubtless now be directed to their uses, and the experience of those best able to
judge of their merits would soon ascertain their real value. Whatever might
be the result of the trial of the properties of these seeds, there could be no differ¬
ence of opinion as to the importance of the discovery of theine as one of their
constituents. This was most interesting, as hitherto no such alkaloid had been
found in any plant of the order from which Kola- nuts were derived, or even from
any one very closely allied to it. Theine, it might now be observed, had been
obtained from no less than five genera of plants belonging to as many different
natural orders. Thus from Kola-nuts the produce of species of Cola of the
Order Sterculiacese , from Thea ( Ternstrcemicicex ), from Coffea arabica (Cin-
chonacese ), from Ilex Paraguayensis ( Aquifolicicex ), and from Paullinia sorbilis
( Scqnndacese ) ; moreover, an analogous alkaloid ( theobromine ) was obtained from
TJieobroma Cacao ( Byttneriacex ). It was most remarkable that all the most im¬
portant unfermented beverages in use in different parts of the globe should be
prepared from substances containing the same or a closely allied alkaloid. Much
credit was due to Dr. Daniell for the discovery of this new source of theine.

Mr. Daniel I-Ianbury regarded the experiment tried by the author, to
ascertain whether the Kola-nuts had the property commonly attributed to them
of sweetening putrid water, very unsatisfactory. He saw no reason at present
to doubt the correctness of the opinion generally received as to their use for this
purpose.

ON THE FOOD-VALUE OF THE KOLA-NUT— A NEW

SOUItCE OF THEINE.

BY JOHN ATTFIELD, PH.D., F.C.S.,

DIRECTOR OF THE LABORATORIES OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN.

A short time since, Dr. Daniell placed in my hands a few ounces of hard dry
fragments of Kola-nuts, stating that in the fresh state they were largely used as
an article of food and medicine by the natives of Western Central Africa ; that
he had himself once partaken of the fresh nut, the effect being that he was kept
awake for many hours ; that he therefore inferred that they must contain a prin¬
ciple similar to that which exists in tea, coffee, etc., namely, Theine; and that
he had in fact, by a rough chemical process, succeeded in obtaining crystals re¬
sembling Theine in appearance. As a medicine, the fresh nut, Dr. Daniell said,
was esteemed of great value in diarrhoea and affections of the liver ; and that
indeed, for all purposes, it was in the fresh state that the nut was generally em¬
ployed, portions being chewed, the juice swallowed, and the solid part ejected
from the mouth. If the nuts were allowed to become dry, they were considered
to have depreciated in value, and were then only chewed by the lower classes of
the natives. Altogether, Dr. Daniell considered that the nut possessed an
amount of interest sufiicient to demand analysis. I quite agreed with him, and
the following is the result of the examination.

Search was first made for Theine. Colouring matter, mucilage, etc., having

458

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING,

been precipitated from a decoction of the nut by solution of basic acetate of lead,,
and excess of lead removed from the filtered liquid by sulphide of hydrogen, the
clear supernatant fluid was evaporated to dryness over a bath, the residue di¬
gested in hot alcohol, and the latter evaporated to a small bulk. This on cool¬
ing solidified to a pasty mass of crystals, which were examined and found to
have all the characters of Theine. They were identical in crystalline form with
some Theine prepared from tea, both when seen under the microscope with and
without polarized light, and in their general silky character when viewed by
the naked eye ; they yielded the beautiful red colouring-matter known as
caffeo-murexid when treated with nascent oxygen, and gave gaseous methylamine
when treated with caustic potash. These reactions and the effect of the nuts on
Dr. Daniel], together with the well-known peculiar curved or fan-like character
of the crystalline masses as usually formed, and their long, acicular form when
deposited from a highly dilute and perfectly pure alcoholic solution, as in pre¬
paring a specimen for the microscope, will probably be considered sufficient to
establish the identity of the crystals with Theine. I shall, however, subject
the substance to ultimate analysis so soon as the possession of more nuts enables
me to prepare a sufficient amount. A quantitative determination showed that
the proportion of Theine present in dried Kola-nut is 2 per cent. Coffee con¬
tains from ’5 to 2-0, and tea from *5 to 3-5 parts in 100.

The dried nuts wrere next examined for any basic, neutral, or acid principle to
which the properties other than those of causing sleeplessness might be due, but no
such principle was found. This result might have been expected, from the state¬
ment that the fresh nuts lose so much of their properties in drying as to greatly
diminish in value. Moreover the fresh nuts, Dr. Darnell tells me, have a bitter
taste, while the dried fragments I examined had no trace of bitterness. Appa¬
rently therefore it is to the bitter principle that a portion of the activity of the
nut must be ascribed. I shall endeavour to throw more light on this point
when I succeed in obtaining specimens that have been preserved in a moist con¬
dition.

The presence of Theine, then, at once points to the analogy of Kola-nut, or at
least of dried Kola-nut, with coffee, tea, and two other similar but less common
substances — Paraguay Tea and Guarana. Infusions of one or other of these
vegetable products are used as beverages probably by three-fourths of the human
race, and each contains the same active principle — Theine. To these must novr
be added the Kola-nut. Thus does chemistry reveal the true reason why the
unerring instinct of man, even in his savage state, has led him to select from the
many thousands of plants presented to him in nature, just four or five with
which to concoct a beverage that would seem to be a necessary rather than a
luxury of life. And what makes the matter more remarkable is that these plants
are not botanically allied. What Theine really does do for the system is not yet very
well made out. Liebig thinks that it may aid in the formation of that substance, a
normal quantity of which is so necessary, and an abnormal so unpleasant — namely,
bile. Most chemists agree that it arrests that rapid consumption of tissue and
consequent feeling of fatigue which we all experience when we wrork hard with
mind or body. Whatever may be its exact office, its discovery in Kola must
greatly enhance its physiological interest, showing, as it does, that the instinctive
desire for it in one form or other by Europeans, Americans, and Asiatics, is
shared by the natives of Africa.

The other constituents of dried Kola-nut also indicate that it has the character
of coffee, though differing from that article of diet in some important respects.
Thus, on examining some finely-powdered coffee under the microscope, but few
or no granules of starch are to be seen ; while the powder of Kola is, apparently,
one-half starch, the granules forming the prominent object enclosed by the
brownish-yellow coloured cell- walls of the tissue. A rough quantitative deter-

ON THE FOOD- VALUE OF THE KOLA-NUT.

450

ruination, accomplished by kneading the thoroughly powdered nut in a fine calico
bag under a stream of water, a process by which the starch is washed out into a
receiving vessel, and the cell-wall remains in the bag, showed that starch, dried
at 212° F., is present to the extent of 42*5 per cent., and cell- wall and colouring-
matter to the amount of 20 per cent. Kola-starch granules are of about the
same size as those of wheat, namely, from one thousandth to one ten-thousandth
of an inch in diameter, but are readily distinguished by their action on polarized
rays of light, which they so affect as to be apparently traversed by a black or
white cross, whose four arms meet at the hilum in the centre of the granule, the
beauty of the effect being of course enhanced when a plate of selenite is placed
beneath the object in the path of the ray. The colouring matter of the cell- wall
of the nut is soluble in alkaline solutions, yielding reddish-yellow solutions.
Then, again, Kola resembles coffee in containing a small quantity of a fragrant
aromatic volatile oil, having a burning, persistent, penetrating taste. In the
case of Kola the odour closely resembles that of myrrh. Probably, as in coffee
and tea, some of the activity of Kola is due to this volatile oil. Kola also con¬
tains a fixed fatty matter, the fat and oil being dissolved out of the powdered
nut by ether to the extent of 1^ per cent. In coffee there is 10 to 12 per cent,
of fat, while tea has none. There is 1*56 per cent, of nitrogen in dried Kola-
nut. Subtracting from this number *56, which is the amount that belongs to the
Theine, there is left 1 per cent., which appears to exist in the form of 6*33 per
per cent, of an albumenoid substance resembling legumin, one of the so-called
liesh-forming materials. Kola can, however, be but of little value as a flesh¬
forming article of food, because apparently the juice only of the nut is swallowed :
the more solid part, which would of course contain nearly the whole of this ni¬
trogenous matter, being rejected. Moreover, unless the natives consume very
much more of Kola than we do of coffee, the total amount of flesh-forming ma¬
terial they would eat at a meal, even if they swallowed the whole of the nut,
would be too small to be worth taking into consideration as a constituent of food.
Coffee contains 13 per cent, of this nitrogenous matter, and tea about 22, but
in our methods of making beverages from these two substances, scarcely any of
it is swallowed, it remaining as valueless along with the spent leaves and frag¬
ments. The ash obtained on burning Kola is 3*2 per cent., about half the amount
that coffee or tea yields. It resembles the ash of coffee and tea in being com¬
posed of chlorides, sulphates, and phosphates of potash, lime, and magnesia. The
greater part of the phosphoric acid is in the soluble condition, probably combined
with potash or ammonia, and would of course be swallowed with the juice on
chewing the nut. Gum, sugar, and other organic matters, the nature of which
could not be determined, are present to the extent of 10*67 per cent., a proportion
similar to that in coffee and tea. Finally, the common astringent principle
tannin, which occurs in coffee to the amount of 5 per cent, and in tea to 15 per
cent., and which gives to tea and coffee beverages their pleasant rough taste, is
entirely wanting in Kola.

The following is a tabular form of the composition of dry Kola-nuts : —

In 100 parts.

-i o i » r?

Water .

Cell-wall and colouring

matter

. . . 20 00

Starch .

. . . 4-2*50

Volatile Oil . 7

Fixed Fat . J>

Albumenoid substance

p oo

Gum .

h

Sugar .

f

. . . 10*67

Other organic matter .

3

Ash .

Theine

2*13

4-GO

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

Kola then, in the dry state, somewhat resembles coffee, but differs in not con¬
taining tannin, in possessing but little fatty matter, and in the presence of much
starch. Indeed, so far as its analysis indicates, if the fresh nut did not possess
peculiar virtues, which apparently are lost on drying, it might be advantageously
substituted by coffee. For when made up into a beverage it is thick and muci¬
laginous like cacao, but is tasteless, inodorous, flavourless ; nor is it improved in
these respects by roasting.

An examination of the fresh nut would probably add greatly to the interest
of this already interesting material.

Some curious facts concerning the commercial, social, and even religious and
political relations of Kola-nuts will be found in the accompanying paper of Dr.
Daniell, and in a resume of several papers in the ‘ Journal de Pharmacie ’ for
1832, p. 702.

Mr. IIanburY thought it would be worth while searching for Theine in
Kat, the leaves and twigs of Cathci edulis , used in forming a beverage similar to
tea on the opposite coast of Africa.*

ON THE BOTANICAL ORIGIN OF SA VANILLA KITATANY.

BY DANIEL H ANBURY, F.L.S.

It is a fact well known to druggists that the Rhatany Root which formerly
found its way into European commerce from Peru, has to a great extent been
superseded by another and very excellent form of the drug exported from New
Granada and commonly known in the market as Savanilla Rhatany. But from
what plant this latter drug is derived or in what part of the vast territory of
New Granada it is produced, are points upon which I believe that no definite in¬
formation has yet been published.

Having endeavoured during some years past to elucidate these questions but
without much success, I gladly took occasion of the recent mission to New
Granada of Mr. John Weir, collector to the Royal Horticultural Society, to sug¬
gest that enquiries should be made at Santa Marta regarding Savanilla Rhatany ,
and that Mr. Weir should, if possible, visit the locality where the root is collected.
The Royal Horticultural Society having accorded permission to Mr. Weir to devote
some attention to this object, he soon succeeded in ascertaining that the rhatany
in question is obtained from the vicinity of Jiron, a small town lying to the
west of Pamplona and about midway between it and the river Magdalena. To
this place, Mr. Weir directed his course, arriving there in the latter part of
January 1864, when he thus wrote :

“ Jan. 'list. Enquiring to-day where the Rhatany plant was to be found,
Mr. L. informs me that in various places among the naked hills and savan¬
nahs around, the plant grows in plenty, but none nearer than a short day’s
journey from Bucaramanga. He told me, also, that he used to export large
quantities of the drug, but that he had lost H2000 by the last lot he sent
away, and had not sent any for the last twelve months. I saw, however, a
quantity of the root in another house, packed in bags ready to be sent
away.

* * * * * -x-

u Feb. 1st. Started this morning for the valley of Jiron. A few leagues
above the village of that name the Rhatany was said to be common, much

* Since the meeting a specimen of Kat has been examined. It does not contain Theine. —
[J. A.]

461

ON THE BOTANICAL ORIGIN OF SAVANILLA RHATANY.

of the root being there dug for export. The road lay up the bottom of the
valley, following the course of the stream the whole way. Two leagues
above the village the plant begins to be frequent, and a league further on
there are large tracts covered with it. The soil it grows in is arid, hard,
and gravelly in the extreme, so much so that in taking up the root the in¬
strument used is a strong iron crowbar, a little flattened at the lower end ;
from the same cause the roots are generally broken into small pieces in the
process, it being rather brittle when fresh. The general height of the plant
is about four feet ; but in some places it seems to grow stronger than
in others, and I saw considerable patches of the shrub quite six feet in
height.

“ I gathered many 'specimens of the plant in flower and fruit, and also
a small specimen of the root attached to the stem and branches.”*

The specimens here alluded to, consist of the pressed and dried plant bearing-
flowers and fruits, and stems with roots attached, the last being in every respect
identical with the Savanilla Ithatany of commerce. A slight examination suf¬
ficed to prove the plant a species of Krameria , and the next point of interest
was the determination of the species. Turning to the newly published Prodro-
mus Florx Novo-Granatensis of MM. Triana and Planchon, one finds three
species of Krameria there enumerated, namely Kr. Ixina L., Kr. grandiflora
St. Hil. and Kr. spartioides Kl. to the first of which Mr. Weir’s plant
proved to be most nearly related. Unfortunately no specimen of Kr. Ixina
now exists in the herbarium of Linnaeus, but in that of the British Museum
there are two, representing that form of the plant which has been figured by
Hayne.f From this type, the New Granada plant differs in having leaves
which in the young and vigorous shoots have a spathulate rather than lanceo¬
late outline, besides which they are somewhat more hirsute. In flowering shoots
of less luxuriant growth, these differences are far less marked, and the plant in
this state appears to vary but little from the true Kr. Ixina. The flowers
and fruits do not present, so far as I have observed, any marked differences.

Upon showing Mr. Weir’s plant to my friend Dr. Triana, he at once iden¬
tified it as the Kr. Ixina of the Prodromus Florx Novo-Granatensis , distin¬
guished in his MS. notes as var. /3. granatensis. Considering the present state of
our knowledge of the species of Krameria , Dr. Triana’s determination of this
plant as a variety of Kr. Ixina appears to me highly judicious, and far safer
than the introduction of a new specific name, which the receipt of further spe¬
cimens would probably show to be untenable. I therefore accept Krameria
Ixina L. var. /3. granatensis of Triana as the plant, the dried roots of which
constitute the drug known as Savanilla Rhatany.

This form of Kr. Ixina has an extensive geographical range, for besides
occurring in the locality already mentioned, it exists in Brazil, where it was
collected in the island of Itamaraca near Pernambuco by Gardner, who described
it as “ a shrub about 3 feet high with long spreading branches.” Another
specimen from the same botanist in the Hookerian Herbarium, is labelled “ com¬
mon on dry hills in the Sertao of the province of Ceara.” £

* Proceedings of the liogal Horticultural Society, Nov. and Dec. 1801, p. 181.

+ Arzney Gewdchse, viii. 13.

X For further information on the hitherto-described species of Krameria, and the various
kinds of Bhatany-root found in commerce, the reader may consult a valuable paper by Pro¬
fessor Otto llerg, in the ‘Botanisclie Zeitung’ for October and November, 1850.

2 L

VOL. VI.

462

PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

The fourth meeting of the present session was held in St. George’s Hall on the eve¬
ning of Tuesday, 14th current, at 9 o’clock ; Mr. Kemp, President, in the chair.

After a few preliminary remarks by the Chairman, the following communications
were made : —

1. Notes on a New Species of Gall from China, with references to other unusual
Commercial Galls, by Professor Archer, of the Industrial Museum.

Since the greatly increased demand for gallic acid which has been caused by the
requirements of photographic chemistry, much interest has been felt in obtaining galls
from various parts of the world from which to procure that acid. One of the first new
products of this class was the Chinese gall, described by Dr. Pereira in the £ Pharma¬
ceutical Journal,’ vol. iv. p. 384, 1844, under the name of Woo-pei-tsze. These have
now become regular articles of commerce, and so also has a similar one obtained in
Japan, rather smaller but apparently produced on the same tree, or a closely allied
species. Mr. Daniel Hanbury, who has carefully examined the Chinese galls, is of
opinion that they are produced on Rhus semi-alata , and Mr. Doubleday, the entomologist,
has shown that they are caused by an aphis and not by a cynips, as in the case of most
other galls with which we are acquainted.

Next came a small gall from India, called by its Indian name Mahee, this is yielded
by two species of Tamarisk ( Tamarix vndica and T. furas ) ; they are very rich in gallic
acid, but are not procurable in very large quantities. The shrub, however, grows in
Algiers, and there it appears to yield the galls more abundantly, as very considerable
quantities are exported to France under their Moorish name Takaout. There is a curious
gall, shaped somewhat like an ox horn, and about two inches or two and half inches in
length, which has a commercial value in India but has not yet found its way into our
markets, it is called Kakarasinghee or Kakrasingee, and is produced on Rhus Kakra-
singhee (Royle) ; they are to a small extent used by the Indian tanners, and have also a
place in the Materia Medica of India, possibly ere long they may become articles of im¬
port into this country.

The gall most extensively used in Southern Germany is the curious Knoppern, pro¬
duced by the puncture of a species of Cynips on an oak-tree, Quercus Cerris. These
have been imported occasionally, but are very inferior in quality to the common Turkish
galls. In Italy, France, Turkey, and India, the galls formed on several species of Pis¬
tachio, as Pistacia vera, P. lentiscus, etc. are used, and those fromP. lentiscus are largely
used for tanning in Turkey and Italy. Their value is not known in this country.

The latest novelty is a very curious gall which I have just received as an import from
Shanghae ; it bears strong resemblances to the Chinese and Japanese galls, but has not
their peculiar branched appearance ; on the contrary, it has mostly the form of a radish-
pod, and although some are slightly tomentose, as in the case of the other two, yet most
of them are smooth ; here and there we find amongst them some which have a tendency
to the branched form, indeed these galls seem to be intermediate in their general cha¬
racteristics between the Kakarasinghee and the Woo-pei-tsze. They were lately imported
into Liverpool, and doubtless will soon become common.

2. Note on a New Article of Commerce, called Cape Saffron, by Professor Archer.

This remarkable product, which strikingly resembles saffron in all but its colour, is

the dried flower of a very small plant extremely common in some parts of the Cape of
Good Hope, takiug there the place of our common Toadflax, Linaria vulgaris , and be-
loaging to the same Natural Order, Scrophulariaceas. It yields a colour like that of
saffron, and, what is very remarkable, it yields it as readily when mixed even with cold
water, moreover its odour is that of good saffron, and equally strong ; two importations
have taken place, the first about five years since, which was only a small sample, the
latter about 70 lb. weight ; the former shared the fate of thousands of valuable pro¬
ducts, it was buried in a drug-broker’s drawer, the latter is in the hands of an intelligent
merchant, Mr. David Bain, 50, Stanhope Street, Hampstead Road, London, who is fully
alive to the value of bringing forward the economic products of the Cape. Dr. Pappe
smce called attention to the uses of this plant, and the following quotation is from
his ‘Florae Capensis Medicae Prodromus:’ —

PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

463

•• This bush deserves notice as a drug, and in all probability will, ere long, become an
article of colonial export. It grows abundantly in some parts of the eastern districts,
whence it has found its way into the dispensary. The flowers, which are called Geele
•Moemetjee, closely resemble saffron in taste and smell ; they possess similar medical pro¬
perties, and as an antispasmodic anodyne and stimulant ought to rank with the Crocus
saiivus. Here they have as yet been only used with success in the convulsions of
children, but they deserve a more general trial. On account of the fine orange colour
which they impart, they are in daily request among the Mahomedans, who use them for
the purpose of dyeing their handkerchiefs. This drug has been observed to be some¬
times adulterated by the admixture of other plants of the same genus which are less
efficacious.”

3. Note on a New Product, called Cubebs, from Southern Africa, by Professor Archer.

This material has been sent from Cape Coast Castle, under the name of African cubebs.
It has, however, no relationship to Cubeba officinalis , or any other pepper, but belongs
to the Natural Order Xanthoxylacece , which is celebrated for the agreeable pungency of
the fruits of many of its species, especially in the genera Toddalia and Vepris , to one of
which it undoubtedly belongs. I believe it is the fruit of V. lanceolata (A. Jussieu), the
Toddalia lanceolata (Lamk.) ; this plant is pretty widely diffused, for it is found in the
island of Mauritius, and is also common in the woody districts of various parts of the
Cape of Good Hope. There is some slight resemblance to cubebs in this drug, but the
slightest examination shows that it has no affinity with the peppers ; its dry dehiscent
capsule, with the hard bluish-black shining kidney-shaped seeds, and the membranous
remains of the abortive cells, are distinctive characters wliich are quite sufficient to pre¬
vent any mistake. The properties are simply aromatic and stimulant, without any ap¬
proach to the special properties wrhich cubebs exercise upon the urinary organs.

These notes were illustrated by a variety of specimens, which were viewed with much
interest by the meeting. A portion of the Cape saffron having been immersed in cold
water parted very readily with its colouring-matter, and there can be little doubt that,
when better known, it will take the place of the ordinary hay-saffron wherever that
article is used. From the price being much lowmr that of the best saffron, it cannot fail
to become an article of commerce in this country. — A vote of thanks, proposed by Mr.
Young, to Professor Archer for his communications, was carried unanimously.

Mr. D. E. Brown, as convener of the committee formerly appointed to consider the
question of poisoning and the means of prevention, read the following report: —

“Your committee beg to say that they found the subject they were called to de¬
cide upon of far more importance and much more difficult than to allow an offhand
report to pass from them as their deliberate conclusions. The questions raised were nu¬
merous ; and their proper answers are important, alike from the bearing they have upon
the character of the Pharmaceutical Chemist, and upon the welfare of those who place
confidence in his professional skill. It became your committee, therefore, to see to it as
carefully as they could, that they neither mistook the questions nor the answers.

“Towards the proper fulfilment of the duty laid upon them, it appeared to your com¬
mittee requisite to classify, in some way, cases of poisoning. So far as your committee
can see, they all rank themselves under one or other of two heads, either poisoning by
design or by carelessness ; for that called 1 accident ’ is held by your committee to have
somewhere and always about it more or less of carelessness.

“Under the first head, 1 Poisoning by Design,’ there is the murderer and the suicide.
Your committee presume that such cases were not included in your remit, and therefore,
enter no further on them than to say, they believe that now, as in time past, Pharma¬
ceutical Chemists, and Chemists and Druggists, exercise a most careful and most judicious
caution in the sale of all poisonous substances.

It is to cases falling under the second head, ‘Poisoning by Carelessness ’ or c Acci¬
dent’ so called, your committee have specially directed their attention. Here your
committee find, comprehending them all, — 1st. A mistake as to the substance ; 2nd. A
mistake as to the quantity ; 3. A mistake as to both substance and quantity ; 4th, A mis¬
take in sending out the preparations, i. e. to the -wrong person.

“ Although perhaps not needful, yet, as a means whereby the Society may see the
grounds upon which your committee have come to conclusions, they think it right to
call the serious attention of the members to what all must know ; namely, that the
source of the errors which they are called upon to prevent lies altogether in the mind of

2 l 2

464

PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

the wrongdoer ; and that, whatever be the means employed for the prevention of the
errors, they must, to be effectual, he applied to the mind, and so applied as to call intel¬
ligent attention to the work in hand, or they will he useless.

“ Again, the means used for their prevention cannot be one and the same for all the pos¬
sible errors: that which may perhaps tell the Pharmaceutical Chemist he has the
wrong substance in his haud will never tell him nor the prescriber that the posology of
the prescription is at fault, either in fact or imagination. Neither are the means which
warn of danger merely, enough : aconitine, strychnia, atropine, morphia, arsenious acid,
and very many more, are all dangerous, and need discrimination each from all the others.
The warning to be given is not always that this is a dangerous material and that an in¬
nocent one, for it very often should be, — ‘ that dangerous substance is the proper one,
this is not.’

“To procure perfect safety, the questions which the Pharmaceutical Chemist must
put and find a true answer to, are these : — Is this the proper substance ? Is this the propel
quantity ? Is the prescription rightly read and understood, and is the posology correct ?
Is it properly prepared and labelled ? correctly addressed and duly delivered to the person
for whom it is intended? On all these points there is a liability to err; and against
such misadventures your committee have to report, that they are not aware of any me¬
chanical means whereby the whole necessities of the case are, or might be met.

“ After a careful examination of the questions involved, your committee are of opinion,
— First, that none of the mechanical methods hitherto proposed for the prevention of ac¬
cidental poisoning, can do more than meet the evil partially, and for a time. Second,
that no mechanical means for the prevention of poisoning can, or ought to supersede a
thoroughly educated Pharmaceutical Chemist, well instructed in all. that relates to the
nature and properties of the substances with which he is called upon to deal, and clearly
understanding the responsibilities which lie upon his handiwork. Machinery to remind
the Pharmaceutical Chemist that he is engaged with dangerous substances, and tell him
when and where he is wrong, would, if perfect, render him useless, and might, with
equal propriety, be applied to the lawyer, the physician, or even the divine. Your
committee are therefore unanimously of opinion, that the best security against accidental
poisoning which can be given to the public, rests in the intelligence and care of those en¬
gaged in the practice of Pharmacy ; without which, no arrangement or mechanical appli¬
ances will be of the least use.

“ In conclusion : your committee have had under their consideration various means for
preventing mistakes on the part of those who have occasion to use, or administer medi¬
cines, and particularly the propriety of putting dangerous substances into bottles of un¬
usual shape. Your committee are of opinion that such a practice might be of much use,
provided the same shape of bottle were universally adopted and rigidly adhered to ; but
that otherwise it would fail to answer the end desired.”

The reading of this report lead to a very lengthened discussion, in which Professor Archer,
the President, Messrs. Mackay, Nichol, Stephenson, and D. E. Brown took part. The
general feeling was to disapprove of any capsule or other means for the fixing, covering,
or fastening the stoppers of dispensing bottles. Most of those who spoke, while admit¬
ting that the system of peraliar- shaped bottles for poisonous preparations was a good
one, yet thought it inadvisable in the meantime to introduce these generally, until dis¬
pensing chemists, as a body, had agreed to adopt and adhere, to the practice of dispen¬
sing certain preparations in one particular kind of bottle, and thus ensure uniformity in
all respectable establishments. In no way could such an end be obtained but by legisla¬
tive enactment ; and as there were certain matters in connection with the entire regula¬
tion of the important question of poisons under consideration, it was hoped that, ere long,
such regulations would be proposed and enforced which, while they would tend to give
increased security to the public, would also prove a satisfaction to the Pharmaceutical
Chemist and dispenser of medicines. The approval of the report having been put by
the Chairman to the meeting, it was carried unanimously ; and, after a vote of thanks to
the committee, the meeting adjourned.

4G5

PROVINCIAL TRANSACTIONS.

LIVERPOOL CHEMISTS’ ASSOCIATION.

The Liverpool Chemists’ Association, in pursuance of its objects, and according to its
usual custom of affording to its members and their friends a treat of combined intellec¬
tual and social enjoyment, held a conversazione at the Royal Institution, Colquett Street,
on Thursday evening, February 2 ; and judging by the large and fashionable attend¬
ance, it was one of the most successful that has hitherto taken place.

The entire suite of rooms of the above spacious building was thrown open on the
occasion, together with the Gallery of Art and the Museums of Natural History, Geo¬
logy, Applied Science, and the very interesting one belonging to the Chemists’ Associa¬
tion. Several objects of interest, including illustrations of recent improvements in
photography, and in several arts and manufactures, mechanical devices, etc., were,
by the zealous efforts of the Council of the Association, placed in several of the museums
for the inspection of the company ; and some vases of rare ferns and other plants dis¬
posed in the halls and staircases, gave a freshness to the display that added considerably
to the effect.

At half-past six the doors of the Institution were thrown open, and in a very short
time, despite the trying state of the weather, over three hundred ladies and gentlemen
arrived. They were soon promenading through the various galleries and museums, in¬
specting the novelties, which, in addition to the very large and well-arranged collections
of the Institution, wefe brought there for th# occasion. The large series of photographs,
by J. B. Cros, Esq., the automatic female Blondin, by Messrs. Freisch and Co., and
various beautiful stereoscopes, by Messrs. Chadburn and Abraham and Co., attracted the
attention of one section of the company ; the models of ships, of a floating graving-
dock, and of machinery illustrative of improvements in connection with shipping in¬
terests — the great characteristic interest of Liverpool — by Captain Walker, that of an¬
other section ; whilst the microscopic exhibitions superintended by Messrs. J. Abraham,
T. F. Abraham, T. J. Moore, and W. J. Baker, were closely attended by others, and
many were not unwilling to dwell upon the models of the antediluvian Saurians lent
by the curator of the Derby Museum, T. J. Moore, Esq.

At half-past seven the company assembled in the large theatre of the Institution,
when the President of the Association, A. Bedford, Esq., took the chair, and addressed a
few words to the meeting, expressive of his welcome to them, and of congratulations on
behalf of the Association for the large and brilliant assemblage before him. He trusted
that all would find the evening’s proceedings pleasing and satisfactory, both in repect
to the novelties provided and to the instructive addresses that would be delivered to
them ; so that they might carry with them the conviction that the present entertain¬
ment would be up to the standard of excellence which was characteristic of the conver¬
sazioni of the Chemists’ Association.

After referring to the special subjects of addresses to be delivered during the evening,
he begged to call upon Dr. Edwards to favour the audience with that standing to his
name on the programme, namely, “ On the new oxyhydrogen lantern, with photo¬
graphic projections, and biographical notices of eminent scientific men.”

Dr. Edwards proceeded to describe the lantern, which was lately patented by Mr.
Chadburn, of Liverpool, and was known as “Chadburn’s Patent Opaque Oxyhydrogen
Lantern.” In the course of his address he stated that the new lantern differed from
those heretofore employed for the projection of opaque objects, chiefly in having but one
reflector, by which the rays from the illuminating medium were thrown back upon a
large condensing lens, which concentrated and discharged them at an angle of 45 J upon
the object to be shown. Opposite the object is fixed a whole-plate achromatic photo¬
graphic lens, by which a very clear and well-defined image is projected on the screen.
The lantern is capable of highly illuminating a disk of about four inches diameter, and
all objects not exceeding this area are clearly exhibited by it, — such, for instance, as
fossils, corals, fruit, feathers, etc. ; photographs oil paper, as ordinary cartes-de-visite ,
illustrations in books, diagrams, engravings, etc., — a range of subjects which sufficiently
indicates the advantages of this elegant apparatus.

At this stage, Mr. Chadburx took the management of the lantern, and projected upon

466

LIVERPOOL CHEMISTS’ ASSOCIATION.

the screen, with remarkable definiteness, Maule and Polyblank's photographs of Lord
Posse, Lord„ Brougham, Professors Faraday, Graham, Brande, Miller, Taylor, Redwood..
Bentley, Owen, Carpenter, etc. ; also of some eminent pharmaceutists, among which we
noticed those of Messrs. Morson, Deane, and the late Jacob Bell. Dr. Edwards gave a
succinct biographical sketch of many of these gentlemen, noticing their chief scientific
labours as their portraits appeared on the screen. Finally, some photographs of the
moon in its different phases, and the movements of a chronometer watch in action, were
beautifully depicted on the screen ; and the audience frequently, during the preceding
illustrations, manifested their gratification by hearty applause. An interval for pro¬
menade and refreshments was announced, hut the zest for creature comforts, which were
supplied throughout the evening on a liberal scale, proved to be very subjective with a
great many to the desire for intellectual observations and study, for in this interval large
numbers beset the microscopic exhibitors on the geological gallery, to obtain a sight of
the various objects shown under their very powerful binocular instruments.

The objects which appeared to attract most favour here were the diatoms, polycystins,
and the ova of the salmon in various stages of development. Dr. Edwards, during this
interval, exhibited some brilliant experiments with Geissler’s vacuum tubes, and several
fluorescent liquids and glasses ; he likewise showed the effect of vibration by the produc¬
tion of figures on a horizontal plate covered with sand, and also by delineating the
figures of a common chord, illustrating the laws of sound as investigated by M. Lissajou
and others.

At half-past eight the gong once more summoned the company to the theatre. The
President introduced Wm. Crookes, Esq., F.R.S., of London, and expressed his confi¬
dence that the high anticipation which he, i^fcommon with the audience, had entertained
of the pleasure of hearing Mr. Crookes, would be fully gratified, and concluded by saying,
that Mr. Crookes well merited the dignity of being ranked with original discoverers, by
his successful labours in an unexplored plain, and by which he had the honour of en¬
riching chemistry with the discovery and development of a new elementary body-
thallium. He had great pleasure in calling upon Mr. Crookes to favour them with his
lecture “ On the Recent Application of intense Chemical Action to the Production of
Heat and Light.” Mr. Crookes, who on coming forward was warmly applauded, pro¬
ceeded with the subject of his lecture, premising that whenever chemical action took
place, it was always governed by one particular kind of force — chemical affinity ; and
although in the manifestation of this force with certain classes of bodies, varied and sur¬
prising effects presented themselves, still such effects could only be regarded as degrees
of the intensity of chemical affinity. In the oxidation of iron in moist air, the decay of
woody fibre, the change of saccharine fluids in contact with a fermenting agent, and of
the effete matter of the blood in the lungs of living animals, as true a combustion of
certain matters took place as was evidenced in the burning of a coal fire or of the gas in
the lamp before him. In those, however, the action was slow and diffused, while in
these it was rapid and compressed ; hence the apparent difference in the results. Still,
by judiciously conserving the effect where the action appeared so feeble as to be almost
inappreciable to casual observation, as in the galvanic battery, great intensity could, be
acquired and manifested. He then gave illustrations of powerful and rapid chemical
action by means of sulphuric acid and water, the burning of potassium in water, the
ignition of chlorate of potassa and sugar by sulphuric acid, the burning of gun cotton,
magnesium, etc., and compared such bodies to so many springs, ready to exert their
tensile force in the powerful manner exhibited. He then proceeded to demonstrate that
many bodies which were usually regarded as manifesting but a weak tendency to undergo
chemical action, could be made, by altering slightly their condition, to exhibit it in a
powerful degree. In illustration, some finely-divided metallic iron was burned in the
flame of a spirit lamp, and by comparison the lecturer proved that this metal was much
more combustible than carbon or gunpowder. He next proceeded to enlarge upon the
consequences which attend the application of these phenomena to various purposes,
dwelling particularly upon the nature of the light which was afforded, and the data
which it presented for determining chemically the constitution of complex substances.
He concluded his interesting lecture by exhibiting the magnesian and electric lights side
by side, thus showing the remarkably superior intensity of the latter. Mr. Crookes, at
the conclusion of his lecture, was warmly applauded.

Not the least interesting feature of the evening was the exhibition of the Chromeido-

LIVERPOOL CHEMISTS’ ASSOCIATION.

4G7

scope of Mr. E. Swift, jun., which followed Mr. Crookes’ lecture. This instrument
is on the principle of the colour-top of Mr. Gorham, but Mr. Swift, by his various
adaptations, such as an arrangement of friction wheels and a special mode of illumina¬
tion, is enabled to exhibit its effects to a large audience, and has thus succeeded in
giving it a scientific character for illustrating the theory of the production of colours.
In this instrument the base disk, which is about two feet in diameter, is divided into
sections, exhibiting the primary colours of the spectrum. It is fixed vertically on a
central axis or spindle, which can be rapidly revolved by means of the friction-wheels
and winch- handle ; the face of the disk being illuminated by lateral jets of gas and
reflectors. On revolving the disk at a speed of about 7000 revolutions peri minute,
Avhite light results; further, on placing dark cards, with various designs cut in them, on
the spindle axis and .on the face of the disk, and then applying motion to the whole,
intermitting occasionally that acquired by the pattern cards, the play of colour which,
succeeds is of the most brilliant and varied order. The illustrations with this instru¬
ment were highly applauded.

The President said that what he ventured to express at the beginning of the evening,
relative to the pleasure and instruction derivable from the various subjects exhibited and ex
plained, he felt sure was fully realized, and he could not vacate his position of chairman
without expressing his thankfulness to those gentlemen who had so largely contributed to
the success of their conversazione. He felt assured that the audience shared his sentiments
in this respect, and therefore he desired that they would join with him in offering a
cordial vote of thanks to those gentlemen, and especially to Dr. Edwards and Mr.
Crookes, for their very valuable services in contributing to their entertainment and
instruction. The proposition was received with hearty acclamations, and the company
separated at half-past ten, evidently much pleased with their evening’s enjoyment.

The eighth general meeting of the session was held at the Royal Institution, on Thurs¬
day evening, February 16th; the President, A. Redford, Esq., in the chair. Messrs.
Walter Wilson and A. J. Stephens were elected members of the Association. The do¬
nation of 1 The Chemist and Druggist ’ was announced.

Dr. Edwards made a few remarks in reference to the paper read by Mr. G. F. Browne
at the last meeting “ On Chemical Method,” and subsequently described the means lately
adopted by Dr. Hofmann for proving the composition synthetically and analytically of
water, hydrochloric acid, ammonia, and carbide of hydrogen : the four principal types
on which the modern system of notation was founded.

The President announced that Mr. II. S. Evans, who was to have delivered the lec¬
ture of the evening, <£ On the Application of Photography to Microscopic Illustrations,
with Projections of Microphotographs,” was unavoidably detained in London that day.
He regretted this very much indeed ; however, as Dr. Edwards kindly volunteered to
take up the subject, the expectations of the meeting would not be entirely disappointed.

Dr. Edwards enlarged upon the advantages to several branches of natural science, of
the progress and improvements that were effected in optical instruments, and spoke of
the efforts which numerous experimenters had been making in the endeavour to attain
the same goal as Dr. Maddoc had reached so successfully.

Of the advantages to physiologists and microscopists generally, of the remarkable ac¬
curacy of the high powers— such as the 20th, 25th, even to the 50th, lately added— capa¬
ble of practical employment in microscopic researches, he could not say too much, since
the parts brought to view so distinctly by those high powers were of the most remark¬
able nature, and they opened as it were a new field for study and research.

A number <3f Dr. Maddoc’s microphotographs were then thrown on the screen by the
oxy calcine lamp, and were very much admired, on account of their delicacy and sharp¬
ness of outline. Dr. Edwards and Mr. John Abrahams gave short descriptions of the
organization or habits of the subjects as they remained on the screen. .

At the conclusion of the exhibition, Mr. Weightman spoke of a simple means by
which some objects might be easily photographed, such, for instance, as would lequne
an object-glass of one to two inches focus ; with lesser objects he thought that amateurs
would not be very successful, as the slightest vibration confused the picture. The me¬
thod suggested was simply to remove the photographic lens from the camera, aud to
place a simple object-glass in its stead; the prepared plate being placed at any come-

468

LEEDS CHEMISTS’ ASSOCIATION.

nient distance behind it, and the object as near as possible in the true focus. He further
spoke of the advantage that would be likely to be gained chemically from the extension
of microphotography in the detection of adulteration, or in extending our acquaintance
with the structure of rare bodies.

A vote of thanks to Dr. Edwards concluded the business of the evening.

LEEDS CHEMISTS’ ASSOCIATION.

The Fourth Meeting of the session was held in the Library of the Philosophical So¬
ciety, on the evening of January 11, 1865 ; the President (Mr. Haigh) in the chair.

Dr. Clifford Allbutt, one of the physicians to the General Infirmary, etc., very kindly
delivered to a large meeting of the members and their friends a discourse upon
“ Vitality, or the Correlation of Physical and Vital Phenomena.” The following is a
slight sketch of the lecture, which commenced by an allusion to the present advanced
status of those engaged in the practice of pharmacy, giving them the claim to recog¬
nition from the physician as intelligent and indispensable allies, to whom he was con¬
stantly indebted for the introduction of improved remedies.

The lecturer then spoke of the ideas formerly held as to the condition of matter in a
state of rest, viz. that it implied the negation of force, to which the term inertia was
given. All inorganic bodies were supposed to have such a negative condition as their
normal one. Now, however, rest is defined as the state of equilibrium between various
contending forces. This balancing or neutralization of force is termed tension. A piece
of chalk lifted in the hand is in a state of tension, since gravitation would draw it to¬
wards the earth, whilst muscular force, resulting from the complex operations of animal
life, keeps it elevated. When it is allowed to fall, gravitation obtains ascendancy,
tension is destroyed, and we speak of the resulting manifestation of force as energy.
Illustrations of the same truth are found in the machinery of a watch and in a cross¬
bow, etc. We may define the motion seen to occur in all these instances as the con¬
version of rest into energy.

The thermo-electric pile and astatic galvanometer were introduced to show the trans¬
formation of heat through electricity into motion. A multiplying-wheel gave friction
to a brass tube containing ether, which boiled and exploded its cork. An electric telegraph
instrument showed the conversion of chemical affinity exerted in the battery into gal¬
vanism and motion in the index. The conversion of motion into magnetism in the
well-known experiment with a poker, and other illustrations were alluded to, establishing
and elucidating the doctrine of the correlation of force.

The indestructibility and conservation of force were next treated. One of the simplest
cases is that of a falling body, where the force exerted in the fall appears to be lost
when it is arrested, but when carefully observed is shown to have taken the new form of
heat. Mayer’s mechanical theory of heat is the expression of such facts, which are more
precisely exemplified in the experiments of Joule, who found that one pound falling 772
feet raised a pound of water 1° F. in temperature. Shooting-stars have been calculated
to attain a temperature of 360,000° F. by friction against our atmosphere, — a heat suffi¬
cient to dissipate their most solid constituents into gases of the greatest tenuity. In
recent target experiments at Shoeburyness, flashes of light were seen which were attri¬
buted to volatilized iron.

The relations of force and matter were treated on by the lecturer, who showed that
neither could exist without the other, and that each atom of matter formed a centre of
force. Isomerism presented a most interesting field for inquiry as to how the same
atoms could by different grouping present very various results.

Applying the doctrine of the correlation of force to vital manifestations, it was shown
that man can no more exist surrounded by these forces, and still be independent of
them, “ than can iron be placed in the fire without becoming hot.” We have got ac¬
customed to think and speak of vitality as some distinct internal force belonging to
living beings. We now know that the physical phenomena of animal life can be ex¬
plained by the laws governing external forces, and may anticipate the time when it will
be determined experimentally how much force an animal absorbs, and how much it
gives out again. We may rest assured that the amounts will be found to be equal. In

LEEDS CHEMISTS’ ASSOCIATION.

4G«J

the meantime the term “ vital principle,” as indicating an internal force, must be given
up as completely as is the use of the word “ caloric ” in relation to heat. The deeper
our investigations into this most important subject, the more confirmed would be our
reverent sense of how much there was relating to man that must ever be a mystery to
our finite senses.

The cordial thanks of the Association were voted to Dr. Allbutt on the motion of Mr.
Harvey, seconded by Mr. Thompson.

The Fifth Meeting of the session was held February 8, 18G5 ; the President in the
chair.

Mr. E. Thompson read a paper “ On the Pharmacopoeia of the United States.” He
commenced by pointing out that a similarity in race, language, and literature between
the people of the United States and ourselves, gave an interest to all books issued by
them which did not apply to those published in other countries, as, for instance, those of
the continent of Europe. In medicine, as an inexact science, national peculiarities
exercise much influence of a kind not felt in relation to exact sciences like astronomy.
'Thus the use of particular remedies is often confined to particular countries. The
system of therapeutics of the United States may be broadly considered to be identical
with our own, possibly our American brethren being too ready to adopt new remedies,
whilst we are apt to adhere to those which modern research has shown to be useless.
The authority attaching to the United States Pharmacopoeia is quite different to that
recognized in our own. There is no law to command its exclusive use. It takes its
origin in a voluntary association of physicians and chemists, consisting of delegates from
the incorporated colleges, etc., of medicine and pharmacy throughout the country. Thus
the druggist meets the physician upon equal terms in settling the standard by which
one party is to prescribe, and the other to dispense. The work is revised every ten
years ; the issue of the present, which is the fourth, having been in 18Go.

The arrangement of the work is very similar to that of our own. Tables are given of
the alterations made upon the last edition. The ordinary list of the Materia Medica is
followed by what is called a “Secondary List” of such drugs as have not attained
sufficient standing to be admitted to the “ Primary List,” or of drugs falling into disuse.

Troy weight is adopted, but the use of the term “ pound” is avoided. The ounce is
also called “ troy ounce.” The drachm and scruple are not used, but their value given
in grains. For measure, the pint of sixteen ounces is employed, the ounce being subdi¬
vided into drachms and minims. We may see in these arrangements more wisdom than
has characterized the action of British legislation, since old names are not appropriated
for new weights and measures, as in the case of our pound, pint, and ounce. However,
it appears strange that in a country with a decimal system of coinage, the above anti¬
quated system of weights and measures should have lasted so long.

Much difference of opinion has existed in our own country as to the process best
adapted for the preparation of tinctures. It might have saved trouble had the condi¬
tions been first determined which favoured either percolation or maceration. To
order percolation, without defining the shape of the percolator, the fineness of the
powder used, or the pressure in packing, was leaving too much to the discretion of the
operator, and was calculated to bring the process into discredit. The instruction of the
British Pharmacopoeia would indicate a compromise between the advocates of the two
plans. The United States Pharmacopoeia adopts percolation wherever applicable, but
gives specific directions for each case. In the first place, five degrees of fineness of
powder are defined. A powder passed through a sieve of 80 or more meshes to the
linear inch, is designated as very fine ; through one of GO meshes, fine ; through one of
f>0 meshes, moderately fine ; through one of 40 meshes, as moderately coarse ; and
through one of 20 meshes, as coarse. In the preparation of tinctures, the degree of fine¬
ness of the powder is always indicated. The shape of the percolator, whether cylindrical
or conical, is also indicated, and the degree of pressure to be used in packing the ingre¬
dients.

The United States Pharmacopoeia admits a class of preparations called Fluid Ex¬
tracts. They may be described as tinctures concentrated by evaporation or distillation,
sometimes with sugar added. A waste of alcohol would be an objection to some of
them, but they appear to deserve notice. There are more than twenty such prepara¬
tions.

470

MEETING OF CHEMISTS AND DltUG GISTS AT YORK.

Mr. Thompson concluded by giving it as his opinion that the British Pharmacopoeia
would not suffer by a general comparison with the United States Pharmacopoeia, and
especially drew attention to the much fuller information as to tests of purity and strength
given by our own work.

Mr. F. M. Rimmington, of Bradford (a Corresponding Member), favoured the Associa¬
tion by the exhibition and description of an extensive series of microscopic slides illus¬
trative of the constituents of opium. The method of investigation was that adopted by
Messrs. Deane and Brady, and the illustrations served to confirm the statements of those
observers. The attention of the members was particularly attracted by the appearance of
narcotine under polarized light, and by the fine massive crystals of codeia. The latter
constituent was a predominant feature of various specimens of Liq. Opii Sedat. Mr.
Rimmington also exhibited some slides containing the principles of tincture of opium,,
precipitated by ammonia. He thought that there were advantages in using this means
of discrimination ; and whilst admitting that the whole subject was one deserving of
continued research, considered that it held out fair promise of much practical utility.

Mr. W. Smeetox proposed, and Mr. S. Taylor seconded a vote of thanks to the-
authors of the papers.

MEETING- OF CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS AT YORK.

The local secretary of the Pharmaceutical Society having received a circular from
the general secretary in London, enclosing a copy of the proposed Bill for regulating
the qualification of chemists and druggists, intended to be submitted to Parliament in
the next session, with a request that he would procure signatures from the York chemists
and druggists in his favour, — he, on consultation with the local secretary of the United
Societ}'' of Chemists and Druggists, came to an agreement to call a general meeting of
the trade, in order that the Bill of the United Society might be considered along with
it. Accordingly, on this understanding, a circular was issued and a meeting of the
trade took place at Mr. Beal’s, the King’s Arms Hotel, on Friday, the 20th of January,
which was respectably attended, Mr. Dennis being appointed Chairman. Amongst those
present were councillors Thomas Cooper, C. Croskill, and J. Brown, Messrs. R. Dresser,
W. Bowman, T. P. Bulmer, J. Oglesby, T. Siddall, J. Wood, W. Wilson, etc. The
Chairman briefly introduced the business of the meeting, and called upon the respec¬
tive secretaries to read over the proposed Bills. Previous to the Pharmacy Bill being read,
Mr. BroAvn, Secretary of the United Society of Chemists and Druggists, stated that the
Bill of that society was a right and proper measure in every respect for the governance
and regulations of the chemists and druggists throughout the United Kingdom, and
provided everything necessary for their incorporation ; he had only one fault to find
with it, and that was, it went rather too far ; in his opinion, the prohibiting all persons
except registered chemists and druggists from selling and dealing in drugs (however
desirable it might be) was what the Legislature would not sanction. It would then
have to be defined what a drug was, which would be a most difficult matter, and
whether grocers, hucksters, and country shopkeepers should be prevented dealing in
carbonate of soda, tartaric aicd, salts of senna, sweet nitre, and the common-going tinc¬
tures. He had no interest in its continuance — far from it ; but they must look upon the
question as business men, and they would see it was against the public interest and
convenience to legislate in that way. Let them ask the question of themselves, and
they would confess they were traders and dealers, and not pure chemists, keeping and
selling an infinite variety of articles that had no connection whatever with the drug-
trade ; therefore, however much it might be regretted that numerous accidents arose
from the ignorance and negligence of unqualified persons dealing in drugs, yet he Avas-
convinced the public convenience required that such articles should be obtained in
places where a qualified druggist could not support himself. He also stated that it was-
his opinion that Parliament Avould not pass either measure in its present form, though
the Pharmaceutical Society Avas most likely to obtain the support of Government, being
already incorporated, and had gained a status through Acts of Parliament. He candidly
OAvned he should give the Pharmacy Bill his support, providing the Council of that
Society Avould come doAvn a little from their pretensions, and meet fairly those >vho

MEETING OF CHEMISTS AND DllUGGISTS AT YOIiK. 4 7 1

were not members of that Society, but as yet they had ignored the existence of the
United Society. The Pharmaceutical Society was however a small body compared to
the great mass of druggists in the country, and for himself he could not see that a phar¬
maceutist was any better, or possessed more knowledge, than an ordinary chemist and
druggist. He would give honour where honour was due, and he would say, all honour
to that gentleman who was there in that room, who had obtained his title as a Phar¬
maceutical Chemist by examination ; but in what respect (and he spoke with all defer¬
ence to those members of the Society) were they considered, either by themselves or
the public, superior to those for whom the Pharmaceutical Society were now anxious
to legislate ? Pie stated there boldly, had it not been for the United Society, who had
stirred in the matter with proposals for the incorporation of the trade, nothing would
have been heard of the Pharmacy Bill ; they had rested on their oars, and had neglected
the very object for which the Society was originally founded ; they had even done worse
than that, for they had encouraged the Medical Council in their monstrous measure, and
had conspired to hand over all non- members to the tender mercies of the medical pro¬
fession. So, rather than have two societies, one of which would prosper whilst the other
would gradually die out, they came forward to subject those who did not belong to
them to their own control, and levy contributions upon their victims, without giving
them any voice in the management of the Society. He had come there, however, to
support the Pharmacy Bill, providing those present agreed to the amendments of cer¬
tain clauses in that Bill which he had drawn up, — reasonable amendments, which he fully
believed would meet with their concurrence. He should also move a resolution embody¬
ing those amendments, and calling upon the Councils of the two Societies to come to
terms, and mutually sink their differences ; so that a real union of the trade might take
place for the benefit of all, and for the future interests of succeeding chemists.

Mr. Cooper, the local secretary of the Pharmaceutical Society, then read the cir¬
cular from the Society, and commenced with the Pharmacy Bill, clause by clause. Con¬
siderable discussion took place upon the first, fourth, and sixteenth clauses, as well as on
Schedule “C,”and Mr. Brown moved the amendments of which he had spoken, which
were unanimously agreed to.

On the discussion of the first clause, Messrs. E. Dresser and Croskill moved and se¬
conded an amendment to' exempt all present apprentices (as well as assistants) from the
operation of the Act ; and it was stated that all preceding Acts of Parliament contained
such exemption. This was agreed to, and all succeeding clauses and Schedule “D”
were ordered to be altered accordingly.

Mr. Brown remarked there was no provision in this clause, or anywhere in the
Act, providing, in case of death of a registered chemist, for saving the rights of his
widow or of his children in the interests of his business. It would be a very serious
matter to many families, if, in case of death, where a family was dependent upon such
business, and where a son was young, or at all events under age, and where the business
had been intended for him, that it should be disposed of to another party ; such a state
of things would in many instances produce great hardships. He thought a clause should
be introduced to remedy this defect, and that a registered assistant should be allowed to
manage the business. He moved to insert a clause, which was seconded by Mr. Cooper,,
and unanimously agreed to.

On Clause 4 being read over, Mr. Brown said it was of such a nature as would meet
with his most strenuous opposition. Was it to be borne that the Pharmaceutical
Society should pounce upon respectable chemists and say, although you are in business,,
we will register you, and charge you a guinea for doing so? We will tax you, but you
shall have nothing to do with the disposal of the money. We will also fix another mark
of degradation upon you : we will compel you to produce a certificate from a medical
man, stating you have been in business from a certain time for the compounding of his
or other doctors’ prescriptions, when at the same time your neighbour, who is a Phar¬
maceutist by payment, is not asked a question, though he is less competent than your¬
self in the business. He asked, why should this distinction be made ? He had no ob¬
jection to be registered, but had a great objection to pay for being so when he was
already in business, and no person or society could legally prevent him. He thought
Schedule “C” was humiliating to him and the whole body of chemists who were non¬
members. For these reasons he should move that the clause be struck out, and an
amended one be introduced, doing away with the one guinea fee, as well as the oh-

472 MEEl'IXG O? CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS AT YORK.

noxious schedule ; as, with the safeguards introduced in other clauses, it was quite suffi¬
cient to fillup Schedule “ B,” and no person could possibly get on the register who was
not fully entitled to be there.

An animated discussion took place on the original and the amended clause (which
was seconded by Mr. Croskill), when the amended clause was agreed to unanimously.
Amendments were moved on Clauses 5, 6, 8, and Schedule “ D,” introducing apprentices,
according to a previous resolution, and in Clause G an amendment was carried that the
fee be fixed at not exceeding half-a-guinea.

Mr. J. Brown said he agreed to all the following clauses except Clause 1G, which he
said still betrayed that illiberality to the general body of chemists which he had pre¬
viously commented upon. Was it to be believed that the Council of the Pharmaceutical
Society were serious in expecting the registered chemists would pass the Minor exami¬
nation in order to become Associates, to pay an annual subscription and yet not to be
admitted as members ? The proposition was ridiculous ; he himself was for union, and
why could not the Society say, once for all, to the trade, We are anxious to get a Bill
that will satisfy you ; we will respect all existing interests, and though we cannot
compel you to subscribe your guinea annually, and become a member, we will give you
the opportunity of becoming one should you desire it ? He himself, and he doubted not
many others would join, should such a clause be passed, and it was in the interests of
the Society itself that he should move it. The amended clause would allow registered
chemists and their assistants to become members and associates of the Pharmaceutical
Society on application to the Council, and by paying the same annual subscription, to
have and exercise all the rights belonging to present members and associates.

Mr. T. Cooper said, as the local secretary of the Society, he had great pleasure in
seconding the amended clause, as he was convinced it would benefit the Society, and
would be accomplishing an object he had long considered most desirable. It would gain
for the Society an increased support from the great body of respectable chemists who
were not non-members, but who under the Act would become registered ; and he
thought it was desirable on the part of the Society to be more liberal to non-members
than the proposed Bill appeared to be.

Messrs. Dresser, Croskill, Bulmer, and others offered some additional remarks, when the
Chairman put the question of the amended clause, which was unanimously agreed to.

Mr. Brown then read over the Bill of the United Society, and afterwards moved the
resolution, with the amended clauses, which is appended to this report. It was seconded
by Mr. Dresser, and carried unanimously.

A vote of thanks -was accorded to the Chairman, who duly acknowledged the com¬
pliment, and stated it had afforded him great pleasure to preside over so united a
meeting.

A vote of thanks was also passed to Messrs. Cooper and Brown, the secretaries of the
respective societies, for their services in connection with the meeting, who in responding
thereto gave expression to their views and wishes for the union of the whole body of
chemists and druggists, and hoped that the proposed amendments then agreed to by the
York druggists would be supported in other towns ; so that the two Societies might be
impressed with the absolute necessity of harmonious action, and might agree to a mea¬
sure acceptable to the whole trade.

The meeting shortly after broke up at a late hour, a dinner having been agreed upon
to take place during the winter, to cement the friendly feeling displayed towards each
other by the York chemists.

At a meeting of the Pharmaceutical Chemists, and Chemists and Druggists, held at
the King’s Arms Hotel, York, on the 20th of January, 1865, Mr. George Dennis in the
chair, the following resolution and amended clauses of the proposed Pharmacy Bill were
unanimously agreed to, and ordered to be forwarded to the Council of the Pharma¬
ceutical Society of Great Britain, and the Executive Committee of the United Society
of Chemists and Druggists : —

Resolution. — Moved by Mr. J. Brown, seconded by Mr. Dresser, and carried una¬
nimously, — that the York Pharmaceutical Chemists, and Chemists and Druggists, being in
public meeting assembled to consider the proposed Bills of the Pharmaceutical Society
and the United Society of Chemists and Druggists, for the future regulation of the

T1NCT. FE11RI 1’ERCIILORIDI.

473

trade, cannot agree to either of them as at present proposed, but most strongly recom¬
mend, for the sake of union, in order that a practical measure may be passed by the
Legislature, that the Council and Executive Committee of the two Societies (casting all
jealousy and illwill aside) will mutually agree upon a Bill that will satisfy pharmaceu¬
tists and chemists and druggists.

In order to assist so desirable an object, this meeting would submit that the proposed
Pharmacy Bill of 1865 might be so altered by substituting the amended clauses here¬
after named, by introducing clauses protecting the interests of widows and their fami¬
lies on the death of the registered chemists, and an exempting clause from serving on
juries ; also the striking out, as superfluous and humiliating, the obnoxious sche¬
dule “ C.”

Clauses 1, 5, 6, 8, and Schedule “D.” — Apprentices previous to the passing of the
Act to be registered and placed upon the same footing as assistants, the clauses named
and scheduled to be altered accordingly.

Clause 4. — Any person who before the passing of this Act has been, or who on the
1st day of January, 1866, shall be actually carrying on business in Great Britain as a
chemist and druggist, in the keeping of open shop for the compounding of the prescrip¬
tions of duly qualified medical practitioners, shall be entitled to be registered on pro¬
ducing to the Registrar a declaration according to the form in Schedule “B” to this
Act, signed by him ; or upon transmitting to such Registrar information of his name
and address, and enclosing such declaration as aforesaid.

Clause 6. — All persons who are or shall be duly registered as assistants, associates, or
apprentices under or according to the provisions of the Pharmacy Act, shall, on com¬
mencing business as chemists and druggists, be registered as chemists and druggists on
payment of a fee not exceeding half-a -guinea, to be fixed by the Council of the Phar¬
maceutical Society.

Clause 16. — Every person duly registered as a chemist and druggist, having been in
business as aforesaid, shall be eligible to become a member of the Pharmaceutical Society
of Great Britain ; and every assistant and apprentice, also duly registered previous to the
1st day of January, 1866, may also become an associate of the said Society upon ap¬
plication to the Council thereof, such persons paying the same annual subscriptions as
are at present paid by existing members and associates respectively ; and all such per¬
sons so admitted shall have the same rights and privileges as belong to present mem¬
bers and associates.

Clause . — That all chemists and druggists registered under this Act shall be exempt

from jury service.

Clause . — That on the death of a registered chemist and druggist, his widow or
trustee may carry on the said business, under the management of a duly qualified as¬
sistant, registered under this Act.

Schedule “C” to be struck out.

Signed on behalf of the York Pharmaceutical Chemists, and Chemists and Druggists.

George Dennis, Chairman.

Thomas Cooper, Secretary, Pharmaceutical Society.

John Brown, Secretary , United Society C. P>.

ORIGINAL AND EXTRACTED ARTICLES.

TINCT. TERRI PERCHLORIDI.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir,— In the last number of the Journal I see a suggestion of Mr. Holloway’s
for a formula for the Tinct. Ferri Perchloridi, and though speaking well of the
result, he states that he has not yet had time to test its keeping qualities. As I
make my tincture by a slight modification of the same plan, I beg to say that
it yields a perfectly bright and stable tincture of uniform strength ; and though
the process is somewhat troublesome, the result leaves nothing to be desired.

474

THE PHARMACY BILL.

My plan differs only from Mr. Holloway’s in that I employ the sulphate in¬
stead of the iron itself. I take a calculated quantity of the sulphate of iron,

• Id half an equivalent of sulphuric acid, oxidize by means of nitric acid at a
sufficiently high temperature, precipitate the peroxide with ammonia, wash
thoroughly, and dissolve without drying in the hydrochloric acid ; evaporate
carefully to the required bulk, which must be somewhat over the quantity of
acid first added, to avoid loss, and lastly, make up the quantity with spirits of
wine. There still remains, of course, the action of the acid on the spirit ; but
even allowing this to be an objection, it is not a question for the pharmaceutist
so long as the Pharmacopoeia orders a tincture and not a liquor.

In making the tincture directly from the anhydrous perchloride, as suggested
by Dr. Attfield, would not the difficulty of weighing be overcome by having a
standard solution of specific gravity, which, on dilution with a prescribed quan¬
tity of spirit, would yield a tincture of the required strength?

Your obedient servant,

Charles Ekin, F.C.S.

BatJ;, February 23, 18f>5.

THE PHABMACY BILL.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — As circumstances over which I have no control prevent my going to
London to represent in the Pharmaceutical Council the views which I know
are held by a considerable number of thinking men in our body, I take the
liberty of asking for space to sav a few words about our proposed Pharmacy
Bill.

Towards the conclusion of your leader in the current number of the Journal
you hold up, as unworthy of credence, certain anonymous opinions. I now beg
to claim those opinions as my own, and shall endeavour to show briefly the
grounds of their tenure.

If I am not mistaken, dispensing and the sale of drugs were formerly carried
on almost exclusively by the apothecary ; a restriction was then placed upon the
name u apothecary,” and another class of men sprang up, who now, under the
title of Chemist and Druggist, do this work. At the present time it is proposed
to restrict the titles of Chemist and Druggist, and I have no doubt if this is
done some other title will, in the course of fifty years, become a common desig¬
nation under which our trade will be carried on, excepting in so far as the trade
itself, as well as the title, is placed under restriction.

The only step practically .valuable to the public, 'and permanently elevating to
the trade, will be to place the trade , and not the name, under suitable regula¬
tions.

You appear to think that the business of Chemist and Druggist is not likely
to be carried on under any other title than that just quoted. I expect in some
parts of the country experience already shows the mistake under which you
labour. Taking up a sample book of labels issued by a local printer to his cus¬
tomers, I find a considerable number of labels actually in use in which the
words Chemist and Druggist have been avoided, as if they had already been de¬
barred, and abundant evidence of the many ways in which dealers in drugs
might designate themselves. Take, for example, these from labels on which
neither of the words Chemist or Druggist is used. \There were several on which
the heading was simply u Medical Hall,” the name of the proprietor being at
the foot of the label ; others had u Medical Hall, J. S. proprietor “ National

Medical Hall “F - Street Medical Hall “L - (name of a town) Medical

Hall u B - -’s (name of a person) Medical Hall “ Western Medical Hall

THE PHARMACY BILL.

375

u

Commercial Drug Hall;” “ Apothecaries’ Hall ;” “Medical Establishment ;”
W - ’s Medical Establishment:’’ “Y -

Drug and Chemical Establish¬
ment “ Laboratory,” etc. It is quite unnecessary to argue that if a restric¬
tion were placed upon these designations, the same ingenuity would find abun¬
dance of others under which to carry on the trade, especially when there was
the further inducement to do so, which would follow a restriction not at present
prohibiting the title of Chemist and Druggist.

You do not believe “ that the retail sale of drugs could be profitably conducted
if separated from dispensing, unless under exceptional circumstances.” Had
you expressed the conviction that dispensing the prescriptions of legally quali¬
fied medical practitioners was a branch of business quite unimportant to nine-
tenths of provincial druggists, you would have better expressed the general feel¬
ing of the country. There is not one country druggist in a hundred who could
live by his dispensing. There is not one in a hundred who could not live almost
as well as at present without it. Evidence of this may be found at Bloomsbury
Square by those who are desirous of arriving at the truth. One day last sum¬
mer, when examining a candidate under the Minor examination, I was led to
ask if he ever saw any dispensing; he replied, “ Yes; they made up prescrip¬
tions sometimes.” The form of reply induced me to ask, “How often?” To
which he answered, “ About one in the week.” This did not astonish me,
knowing, as I do, how frequently country towns have many druggists and no
physician. I did not pursue the matter with other students who passed through
my hands, as I had not this argument in view at the time ; but no doubt a
similar tale would have been told by others from the provinces.

I quite agree with you in thinking that “ it was important in framing the
Bill, and submitting it in a tangible form to those who will be most immediately
affected by it, and whose expressed opinions will have much weight with the Le¬
gislature, that it should contain as few debatable points as possible ;” but I do
not agree with you in thinking that “ in this the Council have been eminently
successful.”

I have not succeeded in convincing my fellow -members of Council that some¬
thing better than the proposed Bill could be accomplished, and probably accom¬
plished with less difficulty than the Bill in its present form ; and in retiring
from the governing body, I wish to convey to my electors that though I have
not been successful I have not been unthinking in this matter. I have objected
to the Bill in its present state because I think it will leave the public unpro¬
tected, and the practice of the drug trade almost unaltered ; because it will still
leave the necessity for a Poison Bill, and the probability of our having to oppose
poison bills of an impracticable or obnoxious character. I have objected to the
Bill because it is felt to be unfair towards some of those who do not belong to
our Society, registering them on a list inferior to that occupied by the members
of the Pharmaceutical Society, — the distinction being nominally, but not really,
one of qualification, the inferior register containing many able and well-informed
men, and the superior containing, as it unavoidably will do for years to come,
the names of some who, as far as regards qualifications, are unworthy of the po¬
sition. Thus it will at once do an in justice to the public and to the non-phar-
maceutical members of the trade.

Besides the objections to having the Bill passed in its present form, there are
objections to having it brought forward in its present form ; because it is likely
to rouse the opposition of those wrho belong to the United Society or to no
society, because it will be wanting in that sympathy which a poison bill would
meet with, both at the hands of the Legislature and the public, and because it
gives some grounds for the assertion that it is a selfish measure, having party
objects in view. Nothing is so sure to deprive us of public sympathy and sup¬
port as an apparent desire to pass a public Bill for our own purposes.

476

THE PHARMACY BILL.

You have said that the Council have adopted a middle course, avoiding both
extremes. It must be remembered that good as well as evil is often avoided by
this course. The Society will not gain the numerical strength which the liberal
policy would have ensured, nor will it effect the desirable reformation which the
stringent measure was calculated to bring about. It is also to be remembered
that these extremes are not incompatible. A measure must be liberal towards
existing interests if it is to be stringent in its future action. Both extremes
should have been brought into full play, the utmost liberality towards all now
exercising the calling, and the greatest practicable stringency to prevent the
future practising of the trade by incompetent persons. Such a proceeding
would ensure the hearty support of all parties concerned ; and if, as has been
suggested, Government objected to our again admitting unqualified men to the
register of Pharmaceutical Chemists, that is a point which might be settled in the
Committee of the House of Commons, leaving us at least the credit of having
done what we could in a liberal and neighbourly spirit.

Your correspondent “ O.” proposes to dispose of the registration fees as an
addition to the Benevolent Fund, with the object of disarming the assertion that
we desire to appropriate them selfishly. Under present circumstances, I think
such a course highly desirable, but I would rather have seen our policy so unself¬
ish in its character throughout, as would have superseded the necessity of any
such proposition.

If I were remodelling the Bill, I would prefer to have it rest upon one simple
a point, that of requiring all dealers in poisons enumerated in a schedule to pay
to Government an annual sum for license to deal in such articles, whether the
tradesman applying for it was a Pharmaceutical Chemist or a grocer : that up to
certain date licenses should be granted to any one applying and paying for the
same, and renewable during the life of the holder ; but new licenses not to be
granted to any one without his producing evidence of having passed an exami¬
nation before some legally constituted board. I have been met with the state¬
ment that Government would not institute a license except in connection with
excisable articles. This, however, is a point to be tried, and I see no reason to
think Government so conservative as to refuse a project of this kind, which
would be good in its object, easy in practice, and a source of profit to them¬
selves.

Barnard S. Proctor.

11, Grey Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — The opinion expressed by Mr. Smith at the Liverpool meeting (re¬
ported in the Pharm. Journ. for this month), that the chemists and druggists
are unjustly treated in the new Pharmacy Bill, because it does not propose to
admit them as members of the Pharmaceutical Society at one sweep, without
examination or any other condition, appears to be shared by some of our more
prominent provincial members, who also seem to consider it unwise and unjust,
thus, as they say, to perpetuate two grades amongst the chemists and druggists ;
and argue that as many of the present members have not become so by exami¬
nation, therefore all who wish to join the Society now, ought likewise to be ad¬
mitted without examination.

I cannot bring myself to agree in this view of the matter, and think it must
result from a consideration of one side of the question only. I do not say the
Pharmacy Bill might not be improved, but I trust we shall never see a measur
to abolish the distinction between pharmaceutists and non-pharmaceutists

e

THE PHARMACY BILL.

477

carried into effect. The Pharmaceutical Society might possibly have done more
than has been done, but it should be remembered that it has had to encounter
much (at least passive) opposition and indifference from the trade generally,
and lias in too many instances received only a half-hearted support from many
of its own members. Nevertheless, it has gained such a position and so much
influence, that connection with it is becoming every day more sought after, and
the title of Pharmaceutical Chemist is beginning to be looked upon as an indi¬
cation that the person using it has passed an examination to enable him to do
so, or, at least, that he has had several years’ practical experience in the business.
Were an Act to be passed admitting all in the trade to be members, — and all
must, if any — there could be no exceptions, — the ground already gained would
be entirely lost; the non -pharmaceutist would not be elevated to the position
of the pharmaceutist, but the latter would be dragged down to the level of the
lowest class in the trade, and the man who has passed the most stringent ex¬
amination would have nothing to distinguish him in the eye of the public from
the most ignorant shopkeeper who has put a blue bottle into his window and
calls himself druggist. Would such a result be desirable, or would it be just ?
It is true that many of the members are only so by “ paying for the privilege,”
but their number is annually diminishing, and the majority of them are at least
equal in position and attainments to non-members of the same standing ; be¬
sides, it should be remembered that they are the men who founded the Society
and for many years were its principal supporters, and that when the Society
was established there could only be one course adopted, viz. to admit as mem¬
bers all who w7ere fn the trade and chose to offer themselves, — just as the United
Society does now.

It is much to be regretted that any of our examined members should approve
of or sanction the sneering language used by other parties in speaking of our
older and non-examined members, seeing that had it not been for them the
Society would never have been formed, or at least continued, and that without
their money, which is made a reproach to them, the examinations could not
have been brought into practical effect. I would rather say, give all honour to
those men who for twenty years and more, without any prospect of advantage
to themselves, have furnished the means and appliances whereby wre have been
enabled to prosecute the studies necessary to pass our respective examinations ;
they surely are entitled to our respect, and have earned a right to any privilege
the Pharmaceutical Chemists may possess, and ought never to be spoken of with
the scorn and contempt too often used.

I think it was quite right, and good policy, for a limited period after the
passing of the Pharmacy Act, 1852, to admit those who were then in business,
without requiring them to pass an examination ; because in those early days
many had scarcely heard of the Society, or at any rate had had no opportunity
of joining it before examination wras made the condition of admission, but they
certainly did not expect that it was to confer any great privilege, and numbers
of them dropped off after two or three years, when they found that there wras
“ nothing to be got by it.” But the case is very different now, the Society has
gained a position of such influence as to make it an advantage to be connected
with it ; and these people all want to be Pharmaceutical Chemists.

I cannot see that the non-members have any right to complain, or any reason
to feel aggrieved, because the Society does not propose to admit them as mem¬
bers, seeing that when membership wras of comparatively little advantage and
brought no privilege, they despised and rejected it, and refused either to contri¬
bute to its support or add to its influence by joining it, and I cannot admit the
justice of their claim to be admitted, as one may say, “ duty free ” now, when
membership brings some privilege and influence.

I have no wish to disparage the non-members nor to underrate their influence, -
VOL. VI. 2 M

478

THE PHARMACY BILL.

and am quite ready to admit that there are numbers of them quite as well quali¬
fied to be members as any who are so now, and whom I should be glad to see
amongst us ; but these are precisely the persons on whose account the practical
examination for men established in business was instituted as a means of admis¬
sion, and if they are as well qualified as we are led to suppose, they can have
little difficulty in passing it, which would surely be a much more satisfactory
and more honourable mode of joining the Society than to be floated in on the
same level with those red-and-green- bottle men, whose future admission to the
trade it is considered by all parties desirable to prevent. But admitting all this,
Jcontend that we who are Pharmaceutists ought first to consider the interests
of our own Society, and, when advocating the claims of others, ought to take care
that no injustice is done to our own members. Surely men who have supported
the Society more than twenty years, as well as those who have passed its exami¬
nations, are entitled to any privilege or position it is able to give them, and in
which I cannot admit that persons have any claim to participate who have
neither done one nor the other, but have rather been opposing us all these
years.

As to the supposed injustice of perpetuating two grades, and the consequent
indignity to which the chemist and druggist is thereby subjected, it is, in my
opinion, totally imaginary, and, but for the jury question, would never have
been heard of; that is the great grievance of .the United Society and its sup¬
porters, and were a similar exemption granted them (which for my part I should
be glad to assist them in obtaining), we might use any title we chose without
any objection on their part. Moreover these distinctions exist in all the pro¬
fessions without being thought either unjust or degrading, and there is no
reason why they should be with us. Besides, differences in social position, in
degree of education, and in amount of scientific acquirements, will always exist
amongst chemists, and it cannot surely be considered either a hardship or in¬
justice that the man of talent and industry who strives to elevate himself and to
advance the progress of pharmaceutical knowledge, should have something to
distinguish him from those who are content to be mere sellers of drugs, and who
take no interest in pharmacy unless they can make money by it. I must not
be understood here as speaking of all the non-members, but only of a class of
which there are too many examples.

Let us, then, keep faith with the medical profession, the public, and our own
examined members, by continuing to make examination the condition of admis¬
sion to the Society, and all who are really qualified and desirous of joining us
will find means of doing so ; but let us not, by throwing open the Society to all
in the trade, reduce all to the same level, and thus undo ail that for the last
twenty years we have been endeavouring to do.

Yours truly,

W. Wilkinson.

Manchester , 'February 10, 1865.

P.S. — Since writing the above, I have seen a report of the York meeting in
the 1 Chemist and Druggist.’ I am sure the local secretary there must consider
it a happy thing that in the Pharmaceutical Society the utmost freedom of speech
and opinion is allowed to the local secretaries, and that the Council do not visit
the u moral turpitude” of having and expressing views in opposition to their
own by “ summary dismissal of the delinquents from office.” Had he been an
official appointed by the “ Vehmgericht ” of the Executive Committee, his
punishment and dismissal from office would have been swift and certain. In¬
deed, I almost wonder that this has not been the fate of their own honorary
secretary, seeing that he professed to be disposed to support the Pharmacy Bill
(with amendments) ; but I suppose his delinquency was condoned, and his

THE PRESERVATION OF LEECHES.

479

u moral turpitude” forgiven, in consequence of his having succeeded in playing
first fiddle, and making our local secretary play a very indifferent second.

As to their amendments, I do not see anything to quarrel with, except that in
clause 4 I would suggest that registration and keeping the register must be
attended with some little expense, and that as the United Society require a
guinea for registration and annual payment of ten shillings and sixpence, the
Pharmaceutical Society are not very grasping in requiring a similar fee but no
annual payment.

Clause 16 I need not remark upon.

THE PROPOSED LEGISLATION AND THE BENEVOLENT EUND.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — I think the proposition of your correspondent “ O.” so good, and so
likely, if agreed to, to produce most important results in reference to our com¬
ing Parliamentary campaign, that I cannot forbear asking you to insert this
note calling attention to it, on the part of the principal parties concerned, — «
the Council of the Pharmaceutical Society, and the chemists entitled to regis¬
tration under the proposed Bill.

It is my opinion that our Society, being now tolerably well-off for funds,
could very well afford to incur without assistance the cost of a new Pharmacy
Bill. Let it, then, abstain from profiting by the registration fee, generously
applying it to the much-needed increase of our common benevolent fund.

I believe that by so doing a vast amount of the clamour against the “ ini¬
quitous tax” would be knocked on the head, whilst a permanent good would be
effected to the present and future members of the Pharmaceutical body.

G.

ON THE USE OF LITMUS TINCTURE FOR INDICATING THE
POINT OF NEUTRALIZATION OF ACIDS AND ALKALIES
BY GASLIGHT.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — When litmus tincture is used by gaslight for the purpose of determin¬
ing the point of neutralization of acids and alkalies in volumetrical analysis, it
is difficult, if not impossible, to note the change with any degree of precision, in
consequence of the blue colour of the litmus appearing mauve. This may be
remedied by watching the change through a piece of green glass not too deep in
colour. The faintest trace of blue is then readily discernible, owing to the green
glass absorbing the red ray and transmitting the blue, while the change to red
will show an olive tint.

The glass best suited for the purpose is that used by opticians for green spec-
taclas. It is advisable to select the glass by gaslight, using for the purpose a
few drops of litmus tincture in a tube or phial filled with water.

Charles M. Blades.

52, Edgexvare Road.

TITE PRESERVATION OF LEECHES.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — The constant loss sustained by retail dealers in leeches, especially by
living in small towns where the demand is uncertain, has been a subject of dis¬
cussion for many years. 2 M 2

4S0

THE PRESERVATION OF LEECHES.

Various vessels have been constructed, and many contrivances proposed to
avoid loss, but I do not know of one which has answered perfectly.

The aquarium is perhaps the prettiest and most scientific, but there are diffi¬
culties connected with its use.

For nearly twelve months I have adopted a very simple, but very effectual
remedy for the preservation of these useful creatures in a healthy condition, and
securing me against loss.

I use an ordinary ornamental leech-jar, change the water daily, keep the jar
clean by means of a sponge kept for the purpose ; three-parts fill the jar with
good spring water, and throw in ten, twenty, or thirty grains of the oxide of
manganese, washed and levigated for dispensing purposes.

I consider about thirty grains is enough for 100 leeches, and renewed daily.

I now never see an unhealthy leech in my stock. I was led to adopt this
plan by witnessing the beneficial effects of manganese administered to patients.
If you think the above worth publication in your journal, I hope many chemists
will profit by my experience, and I shall be glad to hear that tkj same experi¬
ment, tried by others, yields results as satisfactory.

I remain, yours truly,

C. F. Bevan.

Harwich, February 14, 1864.

SOME CURIOUS FACTS RELATIVE TO THE PRESERVATION OF

LEECHES.

Although well aware how tenacious of life leeches are, still I was not prepared for the
following fact regarding them: — When we sailed from Australia, in the month of Febru¬
ary, 1862, in the Great Britain steamship, about three dozen Australian leeches were
put into a wide-mouthed green glass bottle, and hung in the surgery of that ship. The
water supplied to them was formed of the condensed steam from the boilers. Sea-water,
as every one must know, is pumped from the sea into the boilers ; and in the 4 Great
Britain/ I presume in other ships also, a condensing apparatus condenses the steam,
which otherwise would escape, and converts it into fresh water, which is in general use
on board. Although this water is not so delicious as “sparkling spring,” still I drank
freely of it, as I knew it was pretty pure. The leeches occasionally seemed uneasy, evi¬
dently from the lack of oxygen in the water, and “ mounted aloft ” above the surface of
the water in the bottle, until, I should say, it had absorbed atmospheric air. The now-
proved universality of the germs of life fully accounted for the source of their nutriment
in the condensed steam of sea-water, else on what could they subsist ? Notwithstanding
the unfavourable circumstances, both as to water, great and sudden changes of climate,
from the ice of Cape Horn to the heat of the tropics, etc., which the leeches had to en¬
dure, still but two leeches died during the entire voyage from Australia to England.

The Australian leech, which abounds in almost every river and lagoon in that country,
differs but little from that in ordinary use with us. The olive streaks of the former are
of a much lighter shade. I do not remember to have seen any maculated. A medical
gentleman from that country told me they are found most excellent for use. They are
taken by throwing a fresh sheepskin into a lagoon, to which they closely stick until it is
drawn out, when they are picked off.

Last year I kept leeches in common distilled water for a long time, and found they
lived very well in it. I would, however, strongly recommend some sub-aquatic weed to
be put into the water with leeches, as, in my experience, and of others who have tried
it, it will be found to lessen the mortality extremely ; while, in addition, it obviates the
necessity for changing the water so often. — Dublin Quarterly Journal of Medical Science.

4S1

ON THE DISCRIMINATION OF ORGANIC BODIES BY THEIR OPTICAL

PROPERTIES.

Delivered at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, on Friday, March 4, 1864.

BY PROFESSOR G. G. STOKES, M.A., D.C.L., SEC. R.S.

The chemist who deals with the chemistry of inorganic substances has ordinarily
under his hands bodies endowed with very definite reactions, and possessing great sta¬
bility, so as to permit of the employment of energetic reagents. Accordingly he may
afford to dispense with the aids supplied by the optical properties of bodies, though even
to him they might be of material assistance. The properties alluded to are such as can
be applied to the scrutiny of organic substances ; and therefore the examination of the
bright lines in flames and incandescent vapours is not considered. This application of
optical observation, though not new in principle (for it was clearly enunciated by Mr.
Fox Talbot more than thirty years ago), was hardly followed out in relation to chemistry,
and remained almost unknown to chemists until the publication of the researches of
Professors Bunsen and Kirchhoff, in consequence of which it has now become universal.

But while the chemist who attends to inorganic compounds may confine himself with¬
out much loss to the generally-recognized modes of research, it is to his cost that the
organic chemist, especially one who occupies himself with proximate analysis, neglects
the immense assistance which in many cases might be afforded him by optical examina¬
tion of the substances under his hands. It is true that the method is of limited applica¬
tion, for a great number of substances possess no marked optical characters; but when
such substances do present themselves, their optical characters afford facilities for their
chemical study of which chemists generally have at present little conception.

Twro distinct objects may be had in view in seeking for such information as optics
can supply relative to the characters of a chemical substance. Among the vast number
of substances which chemists have now succeeded in isolating or preparing, and which
in many cases have been but little studied, it often becomes a question whether two
substances, obtained in different ways, are or are not identical. In such cases an optical
comparison of the bodies will either add to the evidence of their identity, the force of the
additional evidence being greater or less according as their optical characters are more
or less marked, or will establish a difference between substances which might otherwise
erroneously have been supposed to be identical.

The second object is that of enabling us to follow a particular substance through mix¬
tures containing it, and thereby to determine its principal reactions before it has been
isolated, or even when there is small hope of being able to isolate it ; and to demonstrate
the existence of a common proximate element in mixtures obtained from two different
sources. Under this head should be classed the detection of mixtures in what were sup¬
posed to be solutions of single substances.*

Setting aside the labour of quantitative determinations carried out by well-recognized
methods, the second object is that the attainment of which is by far the more difficult.
It involves the methods of examination required for the first object, and more besides ;
and it is that which is chiefly kept in view in the present discourse.

The optical properties of bodies, properly speaking, include every relation of the bodies
to light ; but it is by no means every such relation that is available for the object in view.
Refractive power, for instance, though constituting, like specific gravity, etc., one of the
characters of any particular pure substance, is useless for the purpose of following a sub¬
stance in a mixture containing it. The same may be said of dispersive power. The pro¬
perties which are of most use for our object are, first absorption, and secondly fluorescence.

Colour has long been employed as a distinctive character of bodies ; as, for example,
we say that the salts of oxide of copper are mostly blue. The colour, however, of a
body, gives but very imperfect infonnation respecting that property on which the colour
depends ; for the same tint may be made up in an infinite number of ways from the con¬
stituents of white light. In order to observe what it is that the body does to each con-

* The detection of mixtures by the microscopic examination of intermingled crystals
properly belongs to the first head, the question which the observer proposes to himself
being, in fact, whether the pure substances forming the individual crystals are or are not
identical.

4S2

THE DISCRIMINATION OF ORGANIC BODIES

stituent, we must examine it in a pure spectrum. [The formation, of a pure spectrum
was then explained, and such a spectrum was formed on a screen by the aid of the
electric light. On holding a cell containing a salt of copper in front of the screen, and
moving it from the red to the violet, it was shown to cast a shadow' in the red as if the
fluid had been ink, while in the blue rays it might have been supposed to have been
water. Chromate of potash similarly treated gave the reverse effect, being transparent
in the red and opaque in the blue. Of course the' transition from transparency to opacity
was not abrupt ; and for intermediate colours the fluids caused a partial darkening. In¬
deed, to speak with mathematical rigour, the darkening is not absolute even when it ap¬
pears the greatest ; but the light let through is so feeble that it eludes our senses. In
this wray the behaviour of the substance may be examined with reference to the various
kinds of light one after another ; but in order to see at one glance its behaviour with re¬
spect to all kinds, it is merely requisite to hold the body so as to intercept the whole
beam which forms the spectrum, — to place it, for instance, immediately in front of the
slit.]

To judge from the two examples just given, it might be supposed that the observation
of the colour would give almost as much information as analysis by the prism. To show
how far this is from being the case, two fluids very similar in colour, port-wine and a
solution of blood, were next examined. The former merely caused a general absorption
of the more refrangible rays ; the latter exhibited two well-marked dark bands in the
yellow and green. These bands, first noticed by Hoppe, are eminently characteristic of
blood, and afford a good example of the facilities which optical examination affords for
following a substance which possesses distinctive characters of this nature. On adding
to a solution of blood a particular salt of copper (any ordinary copper salt, with the ad¬
dition of a tartrate to prevent precipitation, and then carbonate of soda), a fluid wras
obtained utterly unlike blood in colour, but showing the characteristic bands of blood,
while at the same time a good deal of red was absorbed, as it would have been by the
copper salt alone. On adding, on the other hand, acetic acid to a solution of blood, the
colour was merely changed to a browner red, without any precipitate being produced.
Nevertheless, in the spectrum of this fluid the bands of blood had w'holly vanished, while
another set of bands less intense, but still very characteristic, made their appearance.
This alone, however, does not decide whether the colouring-matter is decomposed or not
by the acid ; for as blood is an alkaline fluid, the change might be supposed to be merely
analogous to the reddening of litmus. To decide the question, we must examine the
spectrum when the fluid is again rendered alkaline, suppose by ammonia, which does not
affect the absorption bands of blood. The direct addition of ammonia to the acid mix¬
ture causes a dense precipitate, which contains the colouring-matter, which may, how¬
ever, be separated by the use merely of acetic acid and ether, of wrhich the former was
already used, and the latter does not affect the colouring-matter of blood. This solution
gives the same characteristic spectrum as blood to which acetic acid has been added ; but
now' there is no difficulty in obtaining the colouring-matter in an ammoniacal solution.
In the spectrum of this solution, the sharp absorption-bands of blood do not appear, but
instead thereof there is a single band a little nearer to the red, and comparatively vague
[this was shown on a screen]. This difference of spectra decides the question, and proves
that hgematin (the colouring-matter prepared by acid, etc.) is, as Hoppe stated, a product
of decomposition.

The spectrum of blood may be turned to account still further in relation to the chemi¬
cal nature of that substance. The colouring-matter contains, as is well known, a large
quantity of iron ; and it might be supposed that the colour was due to some salt of iron,
more especially as some salts of peroxide of iron, sulphocyanide for instance, have a blood-
red colour. But there is found a strong general resemblance between salts of the same
metallic oxide as regards the character of their absorption. Thus the salts of sesquioxide
of uranium show a remarkable system of bands of absorption in the more refrangible
part of the spectrum. The numberjand position of the bands differ a little from one
salt to another ; but there is the strongest family likeness between the different salts.
Salts of sesquioxide of iron in a similar manner have a family likeness in the vagueness
of the absorption, which creeps on from one part of the spectrum to another without
presenting any rapid transitions from comparative transparency to opacity and the con¬
verse. [The spectrum of sulphocyanide of peroxide of iron was shown for the sake of
contrasting with blood.] Hence the appearance of such a peculiar system bands of

BY THEIR OPTICAL PROPERTIES.

483

absorption in blood would negative the supposition that its colour is due to a salt of
iron as such, even had we no other means of deciding. The assemblage of the facts with
which we are acquainted seems to show that the colouring-matter is some complex com¬
pound of the five elements, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and iron, which, under
the action of acids and otherwise, splits into haematin and globulin.

This example was dwelt on, not for its own sake, but because general methods are
most readily apprehended in their application to particular examples. To show one
example of the discrimination which may be effected by the prism, the spectra were ex¬
hibited of the two kinds of red glass which (not to mention certain inferior kinds) are in
common use, and which are coloured, one by gold, and the other by suboxide of copper.
Both kinds exhibit a single band of absorption near the yellowr or green ; but the band
of the gold glass is situated very sensibly nearer to the blue end of the spectrum than
that of the copper glass.

In the experiments actually shown, a battery of fifty cells and complex apparatus
were employed, involving much trouble and expense. But this was only required for
projecting the spectra on a screen, so as to be visible to a whole audience. To see
them, nothing more is required than to place the fluid to be examined (contained, sup¬
pose) in a test tube, behind a slit, and to view it through a small prism applied to the
naked eye, different strengths of solution being tried in succession. In this way the
bands may be seen by any one in far greater perfection than when, for the purpose of a
lecture, they are thrown on a screen.

In order to be able to examine the peculiarities which a substance may possess in the
mode in which it absorbs light, if is not essential that the substance should be in solu¬
tion, and viewed by transmission. Thus, for example, when a pure spectrum is thrown
on a sheet of paper painted with blood, the same bands are seen in the yellow and green
region as when the light is transmitted through a solution of blood, and the spectrum
thrown on a wThite screen. This indicates that the colour of such a paper is in fact due
to absorption, although the paper is viewed by reflected light. Indeed, by far the greater
number of coloured objects which are presented to us, such as green leaves, flowers, dyed
cloths, though ordinarily seen by reflection, owe their colour to absorption. The light by
which they are seen is, it is true, reflected, but it is not in reflection that the preferential
selection of certain kinds of rays is made wrhich causes the objects to appear coloured.
Take, for example, red cloth. A small portion of the incident light is reflected at the outer
surfaces of the fibres, and this portion, if it could be observed alone, would be found to
be colourless. The greater part of the light penetrates into the fibres, when it immedi¬
ately begins to suffer absorption on the part of the colouring-matter. On arriving at the
second surface of the fibre, a portion is reflected and a portion passes on, to be afterwards
reflected from, or absorbed by, fibres lying more deeply. At each reflection the various
kinds of light are reflected in as nearly as possible the same proportion ; but in passing
across the fibres, in going and returning, they suffer very unequal absorption on the part
of the colouring-matter, so that in the aggregate of the light perceived the different com¬
ponents of white light are present in proportions widely different from those they bear
to each other in white light itself, and the result is a vivid colouring.

There are, however, cases in which the different components of white light are reflected
with different degrees of intensity, and the light becomes coloured by regular reflection.
Gold and copper may be referred to as examples. In ordinary language we speak of -a
soldier’s coat as red, and gold as yellow. But these colours belong to the substances in
two totally different senses. In the former case the colour is due to absorption, in the
latter case to reflection. In the same sense, physically speaking, in which a soldier’s coat
is red, gold is not yellow but blue or green. Such is, in faet, the colour of gold by trans¬
mission, and therefore as the result of absorption, as is seen in the case of gold leaf, which
transmits a bluish-green light, or of a weak solution of chloride of gold after the addition
of protosulphate of iron, when the precipitated metallic gold remains in suspension in a
finely-divided state, and causes the mixture to have a blue appearance when seen by
transmitted light. In this case we see that while the substanee copiously reflects and
intensely absorbs rays of all kinds, it more copiously reflects the less refrangible rays,
with respect to which it is more intensely opaque.

All metals are, however, highly opaque with regard to rays of all colours. But cer¬
tain non-metallic substances present themselves which are at the same time intensely
opaque with regard to one part of the spectrum, and only moderately opaque or even

THE DISCRIMINATION OF ORGANIC BODIES

434.

pretty transparent with regard to another part. Carthamine, murexide, platino- cyanide
of magnesium may he mentioned as examples. Such substances reflect copiously, like a
metal, those rays with respect to which they are intensely opaque, but more feebly, like
a vitreous substance, those rays for which they are tolerably transparent, Hence, when
white light is incident upon them the regularly-reflected light is coloured, often vividly,
those colours preponderating which the substance is capable of absorbing with intense
avidity. But perhaps the most remarkable example known of the connection between
intense absorption and copious reflection occurs in the case of crystals of permanganate
of potash. These crystals have a metallic appearance, and reflect a greenish light. They
are too dark to allow the transmitted light to be examined ; and even when they are
pulverized, the fine purple powder they yield is too dark for convenient analysis of the
transmitted light. But the splendid purple solution which they yield may be diluted at
pleasure, and the analysis of the light transmitted by it presents no difficulty. The
solution absorbs principally the green part of the spectrum ; and when it is not too strong,
or used in too great thickness, five bands of absorption, indicating minima of transpa¬
rency, make their appearance (these were shown on a screen). Now, when the green
light reflected from the crystals is analysed by a prism, there are observed bright bands,
indicating maxima of reflecting power, corresponding in position to the dark bands in
the light transmitted by the solution. The fifth bright band, indeed, can hardly, if at
all, be made out, but the corresponding dark band is both less strong than the others and
occurs in a fainter part of the spectrum. When the light is reflected at a suitable angle,
and is analysed both by a Nicol’s prism, placed with its principal section in the plane of
incidence, and by an ordinary prism, the whole spectrum is reduced to the bands just
mentioned. The Nicol’s prism would, under these circumstances, extinguish the light
reflected from a vitreous substance, and transmit a large part of the light reflected from a
metal. Hence we see that as the refrangibility of the light gradually increases, the sub¬
stance changes repeatedly, as regards the character of its reflecting power, from vitreous
to metallic and back again, as the solution (and therefore it may be presumed the sub¬
stance itself) changes from moderately to intensely opaque, and conversely.

These considerations leave little doubt as to the chemical state of the copper present
in a certain glass which was exhibited. This glass was coloured only in a very thin
stratum on one face. By transmission it cut off a great deal of light, and was bluish.
By reflection, especially when the colourless face was next the eye, it showed a reddish
light visible in ell directions, and having the appearance of coming from a fine precipi¬
tate, though it was not resolved by the microscope, at least with the power tried. It
evidently came from a failure in an attempt to make one of the ordinary red glasses
coloured by suboxide of copper, and the only question was as to the state in which the
copper was present. It could not be oxide, for the quantity was too small to account for
the blueness, and in fact the glass became sensibly colourless in the outer flame of a
blowpipe. Analysis of the transmitted light by the prism showed a small band of ab¬
sorption in the place of the band seen in those copper-red glasses which are not too deep,
and therefore a small portion of copper was present in the state of suboxide, i. e. a silicate
of that base. The rest was doubtless present as metallic copper, arising from over-reduc¬
tion in the manufacture, and accordingly the blue colour, which would have been purer
if the suboxide had been away, indicates the true colour of copper by transmitted light,
•quite in conformity with what we have seen in the case of gold. Hence, in both metals
alike, the absorbing and the reflecting powers are, on the whole, greater for the less than
for the more refrangible colours, the law of variation with refrangibility being of course
somewhat different in the two eases.

Time would not permit of more than a very brief reference to the second property to
which the speaker had referred as useful in tracing substances in impure solutions — that
of fluorescence. The phenomenon of fluorescence consists in this, that certain substances,
when placed in rays of one refrangibility, emit during the time of exposure compound
light of lower refrangibility. When a pure fluorescent substance (as distinguished from
a mixture) is examined in a pure spectrum, it is found that on passing from the extreme
red to the violet and beyond, the fluorescence commences at a certain point of the spec¬
trum, varying from one substance to another, and continues from thence onwards, more
or less strongly in one part or another according to the particular substance. The colour
of the fluorescent light is found to be nearly constant throughout the spectrum. Hence,
when in a solution presented to us, and examined in a pure spectrum, we notice tha

BY THEIR OPTICAL PROPERTIES. 4S5

fluorescence taking, as it were, a fresh start, with a different colour, we may be pretty
sure that we have to deal with a mixture of two fluorescent substances.

It might be inferred a priori, that fluorescence at any particular part of the spectrum
would necessarily be accompanied by absorption, since otherwise there would be a crea¬
tion of vis viva ; and experience shows that rapid absorption (such as corresponds to a
well-marked minimum of transparency indicated by a determinate band of absorption in
the transmitted light) is accompanied by copious fluorescence. But experience has
hitherto also shown, what could not have been predicted, and may not be universally
true,# that conversely, absorption is accompanied, in the case of a fluorescent substance,
by fluorescence.

From what precedes it follows that the colour of the fluorescent light of a solution,
even when the incident light is white, or merely sifted by absorption, may be a useful
character. To illustrate this, the electric light, after transmission through a deep-blue
glass, was thrown on solutions in weak ammonia of two crystallized substances, sesculin
and fraxin, obtained from the bark of the horse-chestnut, and of which the latter occurs
also in the bark of the ash, in which, indeed, it was first discovered. Both solutions ex¬
hibited a lively fluorescence ; but the colour was different, being blue in the case of
aesculin, and bluish-green in the case of fraxin. A purified solution obtained from the
bark exhibits a fluorescence of an intermediate colour, which would suffice to show that
scsculin would not alone account for the fluorescence of the solution of the bark.

When a substance possesses well-marked optical properties, it is in general nearly as
easy to follow it in a mixture as in a pure solution. But if the problem which the
observer proposes to himself be : — Given a solution of unknown substances which presents
well-marked characters with reference to different parts of the spectrum, to determine
what portion of these characters belongs to one substance, and what portion to another,
— it presents much greater difficulties. It was with reference to this subject that the second
of the objects mentioned at the beginning of the discourse had been spoken of as that
the attainment of which was by far the more difficult. The problem can, in general, be
solved only by combining processes of chemical separation, especially fractional separa¬
tion, with optical observation. When a solution has thus been sufficiently tested, those
characters which are found always to accompany one another, in, as nearly as can be
judged, a constant proportion, may, with the highest probability, be regarded as belong¬
ing to one and the same substance. But while a combination of chemistry and optics is
in general required, important information may sometimes be obtained from optics alone.
This is especially the case when one at least of the substances present is at the same time
fluorescent and peculiar in its mode of absorption.

To illustrate this the case of chlorophyll was referred to. An eminent French chemist,
M. Fremy, proposed to himself to examine whether the green colour were due to a single
substance, or to a mixture of a yellow and a blue substance. By the use of merely
neutral bodies, he succeeded in separating chlorophyll into a yellow substance, and
another which was green, but inclining a little to blue ; but he could not in this way get
further in the direction of blue. He conceived, however, that he had attained his object
by dissolving chlorophyll in a mechanical mixture of ether and hydrochloric acid, the
acid on separation showing a fine blue colour, while the ether was yellow. Now solu¬
tions of chlorophyll in neutral solvents, such as alcohol, ether, etc., show a lively fluor¬
escence of a blood-red colour ; and when the solution is examined in a pure spectrum,
the red fluorescence, very copious in parts of the red, comparatively feeble in most of the
green, is found to be very lively again in the blue and violet. Now a substance of a pure

* Fluorescent substances, like others, doubtless absorb the invisible heat-rays lying beyond
the extreme red, in a manner varying from one substance to another. Hence, if we include
such rays in the incident spectrum, we have an example of absorption not accompanied by
fluorescence. But the invisible heat-rays differ from those of the visible spectrum (as there
is every reason to believe) only in the way that the visible rays of one part of the spectrum
differ from those of another, that is, by wave length, and consequently by refrangibility,
which depends on wave length. Hence it is not improbable that substances may be dis¬
covered which absorb the visible rays in some parts of the spectrum less refrangible than
that at which the fluorescence commences ; and mixtures possessing this property may be
made at pleasure. Nevertheless, the speaker has not yet met with a pure fluorescent sub¬
stance which exhibits this phenomenon.

486

USES OF THE HORSE-CHESTNUT.

yellow colour, and exercising its absorption therefore, as such substances do, on the more
refrangible rays, would not show a pure red fluorescence. Either it would be non-fluor-
escent, or the fluorescence of its solution would contain (as experience shows) rays of re-
frangibilities reaching, or nearly so, to the part of the spectrum at which the fluorescence,
and therefore the absorption, commences ; and therefore the fluorescent light could not
be pure red, as that of chlorophyll is found to be even in the blue and violet. The
yellow substance separated by M. Fremy, by the aid of neutral reagents, is, in fact, non-
fluorescent. Hence the powerful red fluorescence in the blue and violet can only be
attributed to the substance exercising the well-known powerful absorption in the red,
which substance must therefore powerfully absorb the blue and violet. We can affirm,
therefore, a priori , that if this substance were isolated, it would not be blue, but only
a somewhat bluer green. The blue solution obtained by M. Fremy owes, in fact, its
colour to a product of decomposition, which when dissolved in neutral solvents is not
blue at all, but of a nearly neutral tint, showing, however, in its spectrum extremely
sharp bands of absorption.

USES OF THE HOUSE- CHESTNUT.

Of all the waste substances which might be profitably employed in domestic eco¬
nomy, there is none which has given rise to more discussion or on which so many
attempts have been made as the fruit of the horse-chestnut, which contains a
large quantity of starch. At various periods the utilization of this product has at¬
tracted public attention, and many speculator’s have essayed to make it an object of
commerce.

When first introduced from Constantinople, the fruit of the horse-chestnut was
considered edible • and Parkinson, writing in 1629, included it among his fruit-trees,
and described the nut as of “ a sweet taste, and agreeable to eat when roasted.” Very
little use has ever been made of the nuts in this country ; though in Turkey they are
mixed with horse food, and are considered good for horses which are broken- winded.
When ground into flour, they are used in some places to whiten linen cloth, and are
said to add to the strength of bookbinders’ paste. They contain, moreover, so large a
quantity of potash, as to be a useful substitute for soap, and on the latter account they
were formerly extensively employed in the process of bleaching. The nuts contain a
great deal of starch.

In March, 1776, Lord William Murray obtained a patent for extracting starch from
horse-chestnuts, which was merely by peeling them, grating the nuts, washing the
pulp several times, and baking it or drying it.

Various attempts have been made to utilize them by producing sugar and spirit
from them ; and on removal of the bitter principle, excellent edible fecula and mac-
caroni have been made from horse-chestnuts in France.

“Fecule de marrons d’lnde” is now made by H. de Callias, sold at twenty-two-
francs the kilo., 18, Hue de Bellevue, Passy, near Paris. The process adopted by this
maker permits the purifying of the fecula without having recourse to the peeling,
which was formerly considered indispensable, and hence the extraction of the starch is
as easy and cheap as that from the potato. The following is given as the cost : —

* Francs.

Collection of 20,000 kilogrammes of horse-chestnuts in the park

of St. Cloud . 400

Conveyance to the factory of the Abbey de Val (Seine-et-Oise),
belonging to M. Becappe ....... 280

Manufacture and total other charges . 200

880

Horse-chestnuts are much used on the Continent, especially in the Rhine districts,
for fattening cattle and for feeding milch cows. Hermstadt gives the following ana¬
lysis of a sample dried in the air, and with 2P8 per cent, of the shell removed

USES OF THE HORSE-CHESTNUT.

4S7

Starch . 35-42

Flour fibre .......... 19-78

Albumen . 17-19

Bitter extract . 11-45

Oil . 1-21

Gum . 1354

Total . 98-57

Pabet estimates that 100 lb. of dried horse-chestnuts are equal in nutritive value
to 1501b. of average hay. Another authority, Petri, makes them equal, weight for
weight, to oatmeal.

The starch obtained from the horse-chestnut is white, and when thoroughly washed
perfectly free from any bitterness. They yield 29 to 30 per cent., and sometimes
nearly 35 per cent., and contain besides a glutinous matter, which, according to
Liebig, possesses eminently nutritive properties, but, which experience proves, very
inferior to the gluten of cereals. Adopting the analysis of M. Chevallier and M. Le-
frage, 17 per cent, may be taken as the mean yield of starch with operations con¬
ducted on a large scale ; and therefore, in its starch produce, the horse-chestnut may
be taken to be equivalent to the potato, which root contains about 25 per cent, in the
solid state, but after deducting the pulp rarely yields more than 18 per cent, of
starch.

M. Mercandier, in the ‘Journal Economique’ for December, 1757, stated that
horse-chestnuts furnish a soapy water, proper for bleaching linen. The same observer
remarks, that the pulp or residue of the starch furnishes an excellent food for the
poultry of the farm-yard, and which can be employed as a fuel.

In 1780 M. Bon, President of the Boyal Society of Montpellier, published a process
founded on the use of alkaline leys “ for softening horse-chestnuts and rendering them
fit for fattening cattle in countries where acorns and pulse are not used for that pur¬
pose.” About the same period an abbot of Anchin, in French Flanders, discovered a
means of extracting from horse-chestnuts a good oil for burning, and obtained from
their flour a weaver’s starch, which was used subsequently by the weavers of Geneva.

In 1783 the ‘ Bibliotheque Physico-Economique’ (p. 412) mentioned a means of
thoroughly depriving the fruit of the horse-chestnut, by grafting and transplanting,
of their natural bitterness, and thus obtaining from this tree chestnuts as sweet and
palatable as those of Lyons.

At the same time the ‘ Decade Philosophique,’ t. viii. p. 454, made known a process
for removing, by simple washing in water, the bitterness and acidity of the flour of the
horse-chestnut.

We find also in the Dictionary of Agriculture of Abbe Bogier, t. vi. p. 442 (1785),
that a M. du Francheville obtained from the horse-chestnut the farinaceous and nu¬
tritive part which the fruit contains, by applying the process used by the South
Americans for making manioc or cassava.

“ In August, 1794,” observes M. Chevallier, “ the Lyceum of Arts informed the
National Convention that, among the means of supplying the place of flour for the
manufacture of paste, the Lyceum had found in the horse-chestnut materials admi¬
rably fitted for making the best pasteboard.”

In another memoir, the same Institution demonstrated that in burning the horse-
chestnut potash could be obtained, and that 12% ounces of ashes yielded 9 ounces of
fixed alkali (potash) of the first quality.

In a publication issued in Silesia, Biblioth. Physico-ficonom., 1806, p. 150, it was
showm that it is possible to obtain from the fruit of the horse-chestnut oil, flour or
meal for paste, and a black colour resulting from the carbonization of the husk or
envelope. These numerous citations are sufficient to prove that the idea of utilizing
these fruits is by no means new.

It is stated by those well-informed, that a horse-chestnut tree of twenty years old
will yield a hectolitre of fruit, and an adult tree three hectolitres ; but this estimate
is necessarily subject to variations according to local and climative circumstances. In
France there are a large number of these trees, and in Belgium and other European
countries it is quite possible to extend them wdiere land is not valuable, or more pro¬
fitably occupied.

438

USES OF THE HOUSE. CHESTNUT.

In 1778, Parmentier, in the investigation which he set on foot at the request of the
States of Languedoc, on the alimentary resources of Prance, placed the horse-chestnut
at the head of the list of vegetable products capable of being utilized for the support
of man.

Somewhat later, in 1795, Baume directed also prominent attention to this fruit ;
and in the complete treatise which he published on the horse-chestnut, and its use as
food, he proposed, for depriving it of its bitterness, first to peel them, and subse¬
quently to treat the pulp by repeated washings in alcohol ; but this could scarcely be
employed profitably on a large scale, and at the same time. Parmentier (‘ Cours
d’ Agriculture,’ t. viii. p. 202) pointed out that water could be employed with equal
advantage in the place of spirits.

The experience of M. Calmus, in a memoir presented to the Societe d’Encourage-
ment of Paris, also fully demonstrated that it was quite superfluous to seek to deprive
the chestnuts of their bitterness by means of agents more or less costly than simple
washing in water. M. Calmus, in the memoir alluded to, proposed to utilize the
water in which the fruit had been washed for lixiviating and bleaching linen, the husk
or perisperm for tanning, and the marc or residue for fattening poultry and domestic
animals.

Notwithstanding these well-known facts, M. Elandin pointed out in 1849 (‘ Comptes
Rendus,’ t. xxvii. p. 349) a method of removing the bitterness from horse-chestnut
starch, by mixing with. 100 kilogrammes of pulp one or two kilogrammes of carbonate
of soda ; then washing in several waters, and afterwards straining. The product thus
obtained was mixed with other farinaceous substances, and constituted, according to
M. Elandin, another food resource. It is probable that the employment of the soda
was recommended by Hischermist, because in summer the washing-water of the fecula
acidifies very quickly, and leads to the formation of a certain quantity of dextrine,
which involves a notable loss of starch.

But although the removal of this bitter principle is indispensable when the starch
is intended for alimentation, it is quite unnecessary if the starch is to be used for in¬
dustrial or manufacturing purposes. Parmentier, in proposing to employ horse-
chestnut starch to supply the place of paste made with food grains, very justly re¬
marks that it has the advantage of not being attacked by insects on account of its bit¬
terness ; and bookbinders and makers of pasteboard frequently mix in their paste
some aloes, with the object of keeping off* insects and mould. It has been suggested
by Parmentier and others that the fruit might also be utilized for its potash. The
chestnuts are dried and burnt, and the salt obtained by lixiviating the ashes. Or, if
preferred, the ashes may be employed direct in bleaching linen. Mercandier, in his
‘ Treatise on Hemp,’ states that in Switzerland, and in some parts of France, they em¬
ploy the water in which horse-chestnuts have been boiled for bleaching hemp, flax, and
other fabrics, and it also supplies the place of soap.

For a great number of years M. Xlose, of Berlin, has operated on a large scale on
the horse-chestnut, and obtained the following products : —

1. From the burnt pericarp an alkaline ley.

2. From the skin or husk of the peach the episperm, a very fine charcoal, which
forms the base of different printing inks.

3. From the amylaceous pulp is extracted the fecula, which can be transformed into
dextrine, glucose, alcohol, or vinegar, and which are all adapted to industrial use.

4. The fatty matter extracted serves to make a kind of soap, and to render certain
mineral colours more fixed and solid.

5. A yellow colouring-matter which serves for different purposes.

In 1833, M. Vergnaud, of Romagnesi, contributed a very interesting paper on the
horse-chestnuts and its products to the 28th volume of the ‘Recueil Industriel’ of
Paris.

Twenty-seven essays on the horse-chestnut were sent in to the Belgian Commission
in 1856, in competition for the premium for the best substitute for edible substances
for starch for industrial purposes, but they contained very little new matter, and were
for the most part a repetition of previous information and experiments.

The use of the horse-chestnut was commenced on a large scale in France in 1855
by M. de Callias, and is still continued. He operated, as we have seen, on more than
twenty million kilogrammes annually. — The Technologist.

4S9

MISCELLANEA.

Explosion of Benzine. — A terrible accident occurred in the port of Havre on board
the Glasgow steamer ‘ Athanasian.’ That vessel was being unloaded in the afternoon
when a cask of benzine fell from the crane back into the hold, and burst, the contents
running out into the bottom of the steamer. The labourers shortly after left, but re¬
turned in the evening to work by candle-light, and four men had gone into the hold with
lanterns, when a loud explosion took place, and the spirit becoming ignited, the flames
rushed up the hatchway. One man only, named Elie, could be rescued, and he was
shockingly burnt. The other three must have perished immediately. The flames were
shortly after got under, and two firemen, attached to ropes, were let down into the hold
to see that the fire was quite extinguished, and at the same time endeavour to recover
the bodies ; but at that moment a spark from a torch fell down the hatchway and a se¬
cond explosion occurred. The two firemen were quickly drawn up, but, being severely
burnt, were removed to the hospital with Elie. The last named is in a critical state,
but the other two are believed to be out of danger. The flames were got under a second
time, and the vessel, being of iron, is not greatly damaged.

Beer Poisoned by Browsing on Yew. — It is stated that the Duke of Beaufort
has lost nearly forty head of deer from their browsing on yew, the boughs of which were
bent down within their reach by the snow.

Poisoning by Yew-tree Berries. — An inquest has been held at Finchley on the
body of Emily Arkhurst, aged three years, who died from eating yew-tree berries in
Finchley Cemetery. The child was observed by her father to eat some of the berries
from an Irish yew-tree in the cemetery, but he thought nothing of it. Shortly after¬
wards the child was taken with faintness, and the mother administered brandy and
other restoratives, also a dose of castor oil, but a relapse having taken place medical aid
was obtained; however death ensued. Mr. White, surgeon, deposed that a post-mortem
examination plainly proved that death was caused by poison. From twenty to fifty of
the berries were found, some of which had passed into the intestines. Verdict — “Death
by accidental poisoning.”

"Unalterable Nitrate of Silver Pills. — The following formulae for preserving
nitrate of silver when required in the form of pills are given in the ‘Dublin Medical
Press ’ of August 3, 1864. It is recommended that the pills should be kept in wooden *
boxes.

Nitrate of Silver Pills with Silica. — p. Argenti nitratis gr. iij. ; Silicae prcecipitat.
pur. gr. xxx. ; Mucilag. gummi tragacanthi quantum minimum. Mix the nitrate of silver
and the silica with due care, and make 20 pills.

Nitrate of Silver Pills with Nitrate of Potash. — P Argenti nitratis gr. iij.; Nitratis
potassse gr. xxx. ; Mucilag. gummi tragacanthi quantum minimum. Prepared like the
preceding one.

Accidental Poisoning by Phosphorus. — On Monday, August 15th, an inquest
was held at Warner Place, Hackney Road, on the body of Thomas Hill, aged 4 years,
who is said to have died from the effects of phosphorus, which had been placed between
slices of bread-and-butter by the father, for the purpose of poisoning rats ; and it was
supposed that the child had taken the poisoned bread-and-butter from the shelf and eaten
it, as he was found in great agony, the fumes of the phosphorus issuing from his mouth.
Dr. Latham was called in, but was unable to give any relief, and the child died the next
day. The jury returned a verdict of accidental death from phosphorus, but severely cen¬
sured the parents of the child for their great carelessness.

Why Bees Work in the Dark.— A lifetime might be spent in investigating
the mysteries hidden in a beehive, and still half of the secrets would be undiscovered. The
formation, of the cell has long been a celebrated problem for the mathematician, whilst
the changes which the honey undergoes offers at least an equal interest to the chemist.
.Every one knows what honey is like when fresh from the comb. It is a clear yellow
syrup, without a trace of solid sugar in it. Upon standing, however, it gradually as¬
sumes a crystalline appearance, — it cardies , as the saying is, and ultimately becomes ^
solid mass of sugar. It has been suspected that the change was due to a photographic

490

MISCELLANEA.

action ; that the same agent which alters the molecular arrangement of the iodide of
silver on the excited collodion plate, and determines the formation of camphor and
iodine crystals in a bottle, also causes the syrupy honey to assume a crystalline form.
This, however, is the case. M. Scheibler* has enclosed honey in stoppered flasks, some
of which he has kept in perfect darkness, whilst others have been exposed to the light.
The invariable result has been that the sunned portion rapidly crystallizes, whilst that
kept in the dark has remained perfectly liquid. We now see why bees are so careful to
work in perfect darkness, and why they are so careful to obscure the glass windows
which are sometimes placed in their hives. The existence of their young depends on
the liquidity of the saccharine food presented to them, and if light were allowed access
to this, the syrup would gradually acquire a more or less solid consistency ; it would
seal up the cells, and in all probability prove fatal to the inmates of the hive. — Quarterly
Journal of Science , April, 1864.

Substitutes for Gutta-Percha. — A new insulating material has been recently
imported by Sir W. Holmes from Demarara, which bids fair to be a formidable rival to
gutta-percha. It is the dried juice of the bullet tree ( Sapota Muller i), and is called
Balata. It appears likely to be more valuable than india-rubber or gutta-percha by
themselves, as it possesses much of the elasticity of the one and the ductility of the
other, without the intractibility of india-rubber, or the brittleness and friability of gutta ¬
percha, whilst it requires a much higher temperature to melt or soften it. . . . There
appears to be every probability that balata will become an important article of com¬
merce. supplying the great want of the day — a good insulating medium for telegraphic
purposes. Professor Wheatstone is now investigating its electrical and insulating pro¬
perties. Another substitute for gutta-percha, the juice of the Alstonia scholar is , a tree
belonging to the natural order Apocynea, has been forwarded from Ceylon by Mr.
Ondaatjie ; it is stated to possess the same properties, and to be as workable as gutta¬
percha. It readily softens when plunged in boiling water, is soluble in turpentine and
chloroform, receives and retains impressions permanently, and is adapted for seals to
documents. These specimens are sent in response to premiums offered by the Society
of Arts for the discovery of a substitute for gutta-percha. — Ibid.

A Ijarge Dose of Quinine. — The following case is communicated to the ‘Medical
Times and Gazette,’ in a letter from Dr. Taussey of Rome, to Dr. Clapton of St. Thomas’s
Hospital : — “ Dr. Hayier, a military medical man, visited in barracks a soldier, suffering
from a relapse of ague, and administered to him a small dose of sulphate of quinine. At
the same time, he directed a man to fetch one ounce of the same remedy from the hos¬
pital, in order that he might have it in readiness for any emergency. The man received
the bottle ; but, supposing that it was ordered for the patient just mentioned, he took it
to him. In the presence of their comrades, they put the whole into a cup, adding suf¬
ficient water to make a paste of it ; and the patient, although he found the medicine
uncommonly bitter, did not leave oil until he had taken it all.” The only inconvenience
experienced was a complete deafness and a kind of stupor; and no antidote was adminis¬
tered. The ague disappeared ; and the man left the hospital in a week, in the best state
of health.

Silkworms. — M. Onesti has found that wood-soot, if sprinkled over silkworms at¬
tacked with febrine , effects an almost certain cure, or, at all events, prolongs their lives
until the cocoons are finished. The Minister of Agriculture has addressed a circular to
the prefets of the sericultural departments of France, and has requested that a commis¬
sion be formed to report on the value of M. Onesti’s discovery. Avery interesting letter
from M. Guerin-Menneville, printed in a recent number of ‘ Les Mondes,’ gives many
particulars of the progress of sericulture in France. Among other things; it is mentioned
that M. Simon, charged with a mission to China to report on the best breeds of worms,
inter alia , has sent home a box of eggs vid Siberia, which have arrived safely, and are
now being distributed, and are also being experimented on at the Imperial farm at
Vincennes.

Suicide by Cyanide of Potassium. — A coroner’s inquest took place on Saturday^

* Journ. de Pharm. et de Cliimie, 1863.

MISCELLANEA.

491

Oct. 8th, at No. 1, Richmond Terrace, Hackney, before Mr. Humphreys, on the body of
Mr. William James Groves, aged 42 years. He was a merchant in the City, and his
transactions were principally on the Corn Exchange and with New York. The evidence
showed that he had sustained very severe losses in connection with America, which had
preyed upon his mind in a most distressing manner. On Thursday last he came to his
father’s house earlier in the day than the hour at which his father and brother were
usually there. He asked the servant if they were at home, and, ascertaining that they
were not, he went into the dining-room, ordering that a glass and some water should be
brought. He then closed the door, and the room was not entered till later, when his
father returned. He was then discovered lying on the couch, as though asleep, but
dead. On the table stood a bottle containing a quantity of cyanide of potassium, and
the tumbler in which he had mixed a supply of the poison, and from which he had drunk
as much as he was able before the poison took effect. On the table beside the glass
were two letters, in which he stated that his mind was going, and that he could not
bear his troubles any longer, as well as a kindly and anxious reference to his wife. The
medical evidence established that the deceased had been poisoned with cyanide of potas¬
sium. The jury found “That the deceased committed suicide by poisoning himstlf with
cyanide of potassium while in a state of unsound mind; and the jury desire to draw
attention to the danger of permitting the indiscriminate sale of cyanide of potassium to
unknown persons, and to suggest that in all cases the purpose to which so deadly a drug
is to be applied should be carefully ascertained.”

%

Alleged Poisoning by Strychnine. — A trial has lately taken place before the
Assize Court of Berne, in Switzerland, bearing someyesemblance to the La Pommerais
case in Paris. Charles Hermann Demme, doctor of medicine, practising at Berne, was one
of the accused parties, and Sophia Elizabeth Triimpi, the widow of Gaspard Triimpi, of
Glaris, banker, also of Berne, was charged with being the accomplice of Dr. Demme in
the murder of her husband. On the night of the 15th of February last, Gaspard
Triimpi died, and on the following day it was rumoured that he had died by his own
hand, and in consequence of this and of another report that Triimpi had met with foul
play, an inquest was ordered by the authorities, and Dr. Demme, as the family physi¬
cian, was called upon for a report of the circumstances relating to Triimpi’s death. In
this report death was attributed to an apoplectic stroke. The Procureur-General of
Berne ordered a post-mortem examination to be made by Dr. Charles Emmert and Dr.
Kupper, both of Berne, and an analysis of the intestines, which was conducted by MM.
Fliichigcr and Schwalbach, resulted in the discovery of more than ten grains of strych¬
nine. The notion of accidental death was therefore rejected, and the supposition of
self-murder was not admitted. As it was known that Dr. Demme had been alone in the
house of the deceased the night he died, and that a criminal intimacy had existed be¬
tween him and Madame Triimpi, the authorities issued warrants for the apprehension of
both parties. For the defence it was alleged, that although death had undoubtedly
been caused by strychnine, the fact was concealed by Dr. Demme in order to spare the
feelings of the family. The medical questions were again discussed before the College
of Health, who came to the conclusion that the poisoning was not accidental, but that
there were some grounds for believing in suicide. It was finally resolved that the case
should be sent before the Assize Court, and left to the jury to pronounce on the guilt
or innocence of the parties. This resulted in the acquittal of both, Dr. Demine having
to pay half the costs of the trial. As if to darken a picture already black enough, it was
reported that Dr. Demme and Mademoiselle Flora Triimpi, daughter of Gaspard Triimpi,
had committed suicide by drowning in the Lake of Geneva ; but this was without
foundation, and it is now stated that Dr. Demme and Mademoiselle Triimpi committed
suicide by taking poison at the Hotel d’Angleterre, Genoa.

Poisoning by Absorption. — A curious case of poisoning by absorption of tobacco
through the skin was mentioned at a recent meeting of the Academie des Sciences by
M. Cl. Barnard, who received the information from M. Namias. A smuggler had placed
a quantity of unmanufactured tobacco next his skin, and the heat and perspiration pro¬
duced by walking caused the absorption of the poisonous properties of the tobacco, the
consequences of which were very serious.

492

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

Alleged Poisoning lay Morphia. — It is stated in the Registrar-General’s Report
that “ an infant, aged three weeks, was poisoned by a lozenge which contained the forty-
eighth part of a grain of morphia.”

BOOKS RECEIVED.

The Book of Perfumes. By Eugene Rimmel. With above 250 Illustrations by Bour-
delin, Thomas, etc. London : Chapman and Hall, 193, Piccadilly. To be had also
of the Author, 96, Strand ; 128, Regent Street ; 24, Cornhill, London ; 17, Boulevard
des Italiens, Paris. 1865.

A Companion to the Weather-Glass, designed to record, numerically and graphically,
the natural phenomena presented by the Barometer, Thermometers, Rain-Gauge,
Clouds, Wind, etc. ; with a Calendar for the year 1865. By a Meteorological
Student. London: Bemrose and Sons, 21, Paternoster Row. Edinburgh: John
Menzies.

The Spirit of Nursing. By Harry Jones, M. A. London: Robert Hardwicke, Picca¬
dilly.

For and Against Tobacco. By Benjamin Ward Richardson, M.A., M.D. London :

John Churchill and Sons, New Burlington Street.

On Food as a Means of Prevention of Disease. By Erasmus Wilson, F.R.S.
London : John Churchill and Sons.

The Irrationale of Speech. By a Minute Philosopher. Reprinted from ‘ Fraser’s
Magazine.’ London : Longman and Co.

Dr. Guy’s Contributions to Sanitary Science. — 1. The Case of the Journeymen

- V

Bakers. Third Edition. London : Henry Renshaw.

Photographs (Coloured from Life) of the Diseases of the Skin. By Alex.
Balmanno Squire, M.B. Lond., etc. London: John Churchill and Sons. No. 1.
The Photograph in the present Number is admirably executed, and is a most faithful
delineation of the Disease it is intended to represent.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

C. L. P. (Grantham). — Ammoniated Solution of Quinine. Vol. XIII. p. 344.

M. Dees wishes for “ a recipe for a wash to revive faded pencil writing.” We fear
it would be rather difficult to restore that which has been mechanically removed.

0. P. S. (Atherton). — We are unable to give the information.

M. J. S. (Liverpool). — Apply by letter, giving name and address, to the Secretary,
who will forward the necessary instructions. J\J. J. S. is thanked for his enclosure.

Inquirer (Kirwaun). — (1) Lindley’s ‘ School Botany,’ price 5s. 6d. (2) Fownes’s

‘Manual of Chemistry,’ price 12s. 6d. (3) We do not know the work you refer to.

J3. P. (Liverpool). — Fownes’s ‘Manual of Chemistry ;’ Bentley’s ‘Manual of Botany.’

II. W. (Worcester). — If our correspondent means Unguentum Hydrargyri Alitius ,
this was proposed by Mr. Donovan to be made by rubbing together lard and black
oxide of mercury at the temperature of 350° Fahr., continuing the friction for two
hours.

W.J. 0. (Birmingham). — The Quinine in Tinctura Quinice Composita is said to be
almost entirely dissolved when digested for seven days, but practically this is found not
to be the case, and a small quantity of acid is generally added to render the solution
complete.

“ Codex.” (Birmingham). — Yes.

Several articles are postponed for want of space.

Instructions from Members and Associates respecting the transmission of the
Journal before the 25th of the month, to Elias Bremridge, Secretary, 17,
Bloomsbury Square, W.C.

Advertisements (not later than the 23rd) to Messrs. Churchill, New Bur¬
lington Street. Other communications to the Editors, 17, Bloomsbury Square.

THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

SECOND SERIES.

VOL. VI.— No. X. — APRIL 1st, 1865.

THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY AND CHEMISTS AND

DRUGGISTS.

Two Bills for regulating the qualifications of Chemists and Druggists are-
now fairly launched in the House of Commons, and the present Session will
probably witness the settlement of the question which has so long agitated the
drug trade. Throughout the discussion which has been carried on we have
always carefully endeavoured to avoid any angry expressions in this Journal,
and have even abstained from contradicting many erroneous assertions which
have been made regarding the Pharmaceutical Society, until members of that
Society charged us almost with a dereliction of duty in neglecting to uphold its
honour. We must confess that we have thought, and still think, that honour
too well established to be really imperilled by the attacks to which it has been
subjected ; and we have thought, and still think, that those attacks, although
put forth officially as coming from a Society which claims to represent a
majority of our brothers in the trade, did not express the real feeling of those
gentlemen. Now this suggests to us one of the first and greatest misstatements,
viz. that the Pharmaceutical Society does not represent the drug trade, either
in feeling or by its numerical strength. We were, perhaps, content to think our
proportion small when it was the fashion to speak of the Chemists and Druggists
as amounting to 35,000, but when the census returns of 1861 came forth to
the public we found, by a fair computation, that our members, men really and
truly in business on their own account, amounted to one-third of the Chemists
and Druggists in business in England and Wales. The register of these men,
with their addresses, is annually published ; they must be members at the
time of publishing, not gentlemen who may have been enrolled at some previous
time and have been satisfied with one year’s connection with the Society, and
we should like to know whether any other association can produce such a register
of actual subscribing members who are de facto Chemists and Druggists in busi-.
ness on their own account? The agents of the u United Society” seem to have
slightly modified the reading of, u He ivho is not with me is against me f pre¬
ferring, as men often do, to apply great truths to their neighbours rather than
themselves, and translating the passage, “ He who is not with you is with me.'1
We dissent from such a conclusion, and have ample evidence on our side in the
recent memorials, which were sent to the Council, expressing approval of the
Bill now introduced by Sir Eitzroy Kelly.

But does the Pharmaceutical Society represent the Chemists and Druggists in
feeling? All sorts of flattering terms were used regarding its members two
years ago. They were called the u elite of the trade.” Sometimes wTe hear of

VOL. vi. 2 N

494 PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY AND CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS.

the “ upper ten thousand,” and we can, perhaps, imagine that there may be ten.
thousand persons in this kingdom, or might have been when patricians and
plebeians were more widely separated than they are now, so far removed from
the ordinary cares of life as to be indifferent on many things nearly concerning
the “ people but it is beyond imagination that there can be an “ upper ten
millions ” who can be indifferent to the common weal ; and that would be about
the proportion, as regards the population of Great Britain, that the Pharma¬
ceutical Society bears to the whole chemists and druggists. Pharmaceutical
Chemists are chemists and druggists like unto others in all that regards their
interest in the trade ; an interference with pharmacy by the Medical Council,
or any other authority, would be as objectionable to them as to the smallest
druggist who can fairly claim the title — perhaps more so, — and it is for that very
reason that the Pharmaceutical Society has worked for the last quarter of a
century, regardless of time, trouble, and treasure, to elevate the whole trade to
such a position that its own members may be chosen, and claim to be chosen, to
undertake the duties of such management as is declared to be necessary now.
And if in doing all this the Pharmaceutical Society has gained the confidence of
the Government, the higher branches of the medical profession, and the public,
should it thereby forfeit, or has it forfeited, the goodwill of the men whom it
has advanced ? We assert fearlessly that the Pharmaceutical Society does more
fully represent the “trade” than any other association. The very fact of the
means provided by the trade for this work is a proof of it.

It concerns us to uphold the Council and Local Secretaries as well as the
Society. We cannot avoid remarking on the gratuitous insult which was offered
to both by one of the deputation from the United Society to Sir George Grey,
who talked of the “ misrepresentations"' which had been used to obtain signa¬
tures to the recent memorials. Some correspondence from Walsall bearing on
this subject will be found in another part of this Journal. lie did not venture
to describe the misrepresentations, but we do venture to describe his accusation
as slanderous and untrue. The publication of the Bill, drawn by the Council of
the Pharmaceutical Society, preceded the issuing of the memorials from Blooms¬
bury Square, and there was no representation made that any deviation from
that Bill was contemplated. Chemists and Druggists, whether Pharmaceutical
or not, were asked for an expression of approval, and they gave it, much more
heartily we think than their soi-disant representatives expected or approved.

Sir George Grey was informed that Sir Fitzroy Kelly’s Bill demanded “ that
persons should have a knowledge of Latin , Botany , Materia Medic a, Pharmacy ,
and Chemistry but that Sir John Shelley’s Bill only required an examination
as to “ the nature and doses of medicines, \ and an ability “ to read prescriptions
with ease and accuracy .” The former must certainly be the science of Materia
Medica, with some Pharmacy and Chemistry, if not Botany ; and the latter,
we think, necessitates an acquaintance with the language in which prescrip¬
tions are written. Wherein, then, lies the great difference which makes one
examination oppressive, and the other altogether acceptable? Perhaps in the-
presumption that the United Society, which "was formed without any reference
to education, may be expected to make their examinations so complete a farce
that they will afford neither safety to the public nor honour to the examined.

The Pharmaceutical Society is next charged with a desire to arrogate for its
members a superiority which only exists in name. If the gentleman who said
this will take the trouble to read the Bill, he will find the Pharmaceutical
Society is bound to give the same trading titles to all who shall pass its examina¬
tions, whether connected with it or not; and the enactment of Sir John
Shelley’s Bill would no more abolish the distinction between “ Pharmaceutical
Chemists” and “ Chemists and Druggists” than does Sir Fitzroy Kelly’s.

If anything can perpetuate a division — or, if no division exist, create one—

THE TWO BILLS.

495

in our trade, it must surely be the establishment of an upper and lower Board
of Examiners. A multiplication of grades of persons examined by one Board is
common throughout the professions of Law, Physic, and Divinity, and creates no
jealousy. M.D., M.B., F.B.C.S., and M.B.C.S. are all honourable distinctions ;
but when we find by the ‘ Medical Directory’ that Dr. Dash went to the world’s
end to take a degree which might have been granted to him of better quality at
home, we begin to institute comparisons.

Lastly, is Sir Fitzroy Kelly’s Bill oppressive to the men at present constituting
the u trade” '?

It proposes to place them on a register for as moderate a fee as may be, and
has not an atom of future authority over them. Their present rights and
privileges will be effectually preserved by this registration. The Pharmaceutical
Society would gladly welcome.them into its ranks as members, and the way in
is neither difficult nor degrading.

THE TWO BILLS FOB BEGULATING THE QUALIFICATIONS

OF CHEMISTS AND DBUGGISTS.

We have inserted elsewhere two Bills -which are now before Parliament,
both of which bear the same title, namely, “ A Bill to regulate the Qualifi¬
cations of Chemists and Druggists,” and each of which, if enacted, is to be
styled, “ The Chemists and Druggists Act.” The Bill No. 1 was introduced
by Sir Fitzroy Kelly on the 17th of March. It is substantially the Bill of
the Pharmaceutical Society, and is strictly an educational measure. It pro¬
vides for the registration of all existing chemists and druggists, and assistants
to chemists and druggists, in addition to Pharmaceutical Chemists who are
already registered, and it secures to these the rights and privileges they at
present possess. It provides that registered Chemists and Druggists shall be
eligible to be elected Associates of the Pharmaceutical Society, but that
those who in future enter the business shall be so elected only after passing
the Minor Examination. It provides that Associates as well as Members of
the Pharmaceutical Society shall have the privilege of attending all meetings
of the Society, of voting thereat, and otherw ise of taking part in the proceed¬
ings of such meetings, but that Associates shall not otherwise have or exercise
the rights or privileges which now are or may be possessed by members of
the Society. It provides that any person keeping open shop for the sale or
compounding of drugs by retail, wTho shall use the name or title of Pharma¬
ceutical Chemist, or Chemist and Druggist, or Chemist or Druggist, etc.,
without being registered as such, shall be subject to a penalty. And lastly,
it provides that no person, unless he be registered under this Act, shall keep
open shop for compounding the prescriptions of duly qualified medical prac¬
titioners, and it imposes a penalty of five pounds upon those who infringe this
provision.

It will thus be seen that the objects of this Bill, the Chemists and Druggists
Bill No. 1, of which Sir Fitzroy Kelly has charge, are to establish a register
of all those who at present have a vested interest in the business of a Chemist
and Druggist, and to require from all who in future use any of the titles
specified, that they shall pass an examination and prove their qualification.
It leaves the mere sale of drugs and simple medicines unrestricted as at pre¬
sent, so that the little village shopkeeper may supply salts and senna, and
brimstone and cream of tartar as hitherto, provided he does not assume a

4 9 G

THE TWO BILLS FOB REGULATING

title indicating that he is qualified for the higher duties of pharmacy. The
dispensing of physicians’ prescriptions is considered to be a higher duty, re¬
quiring a qualification that ought to be tested by examination, and no one
will therefore be allowed, in future, to enter upon this duty without a certi¬
ficate of qualification.

A register of qualified medical practitioners has already been established,
so that the public may be able to distinguish between the regularly educated
and examined man, and the mere pretender.

The Bill of Sir Fitzroy Kelly aims at the establishment of a similar
register of qualified dispensers, to whom the responsible duty of acting as
agents between physicians and their patients may be safely entrusted. The
legally qualified medical practitioner would thus have some guarantee for
the exercise of the knowledge and skill required for carrying out his in¬
structions, and the public would be protected against accidents arising from
ignorance.

There are some points connected with the sale of dangerous drugs which
would be left for subsequent legislation, but the provisions of this Bill would
greatly facilitate the attainment of what is required in that direction.

The Chemists and Druggists Bill Ho. 2, which has been introduced by
Sir John Shelley, is a far more sweeping measure than the one to which we
have just alluded. It emanates from the United Society of Chemists and
Druggists ; but as this body has been but imperfectly organized, and is wholly
deficient in the arrangements for conducting examinations and otherwise
realizing objects which are contemplated by the Bill, it would be necessary to
create a corporate body for that purpose. There was the Pharmaceutical
Society, it is true, with all the mechanism that was required, in full, active,
and vigorous operation, but of course it would not have answered the purpose
of the originators of the measure to seek assistance in that quarter ; so they
propose the appointment by the Government, of a Lord High Commissioner
with power to summon all the Chemists and Druggists in England and Wales
by public advertisement, and those answering to the summons, without any
further question, are to be assumed to be the Chemists and Druggists of
England and Wales, — just as the individuals of all ages, both sexes, and
various occupations, including Crosse and Blackwell the picklemongers,
Bowerbank the distiller, Bowles the printer, Howlett the cabinetmaker,
Rimmel the perfumer, Howland’s Macassar Oil, Brett’s Brandy, Harper
Twelvetrees’s Washing Powder, Lady Clifton, Mrs. D’Aubney, Miss Totten¬
ham, etc., have been similarly represented, to swell out a list of members by
the Society from which the proposition emanates. These assembled so-called
Chemists are to elect a President and Vice-President, and a Council of twenty-
one Members, — the Commissioner, however, with the Secretary of State, having
the power, if they are dissatisfied with the proceedings, of annulling them and
ordering a new election, and of repeating this for an unlimited number of times
— a very necessary provision under the circumstances. Then the body thus in¬
corporated, which would be distinct from, and wholly unconnected with the
Pharmaceutical Society, wrould have to appoint a Registrar and have a
Register made of all Chemists and Druggists not connected with the Phar¬
maceutical Society, over which body they would have no control whatever.
There would thus be two Societies having similar objects, and two separate
registers prepared by different registrars and kept in different places, but
both containing the names of men engaged in the same occupation, although
assuming different titles. There would be the Register of Pharmaceutical
Chemists, kept by the Registrar of the Pharmaceutical Society, already com¬
prising the names of more than one-third of all the Chemists and Druggists
in England and Wales, and representing probably two-thirds of the legitimate

THE QUALIFICATIONS OF CHEMISTS AND DHUGGJSTS.

497

pharmaceutical business of the country. And then there would be the Be-
gister of Chemists and Druggists, — of the men who have hitherto held
themselves aloof from those of their brethren who, for a long series of years,
have been carrying out successfully the principles which are now so tardily
and reluctantly acknowledged by this section of the trade. This register of
Chemists and Druggists would comprise those not belonging to the Pharma¬
ceutical Society, and as it would be unnecessary for any man to have lus
name on more than’ one register, and it would be optional with every one
which examination he underwent, there would of course be a competition
between the two Societies as to which should get the greater number of
names.

As far as registration is concerned, the difference between the two Bills is,
that Bill No. 1 provides for a mere extension of a system already in existence,
which would be carried out by existing arrangements, without any new
mechanism, and would then supply a complete and undivided register, easy
of reference, and available for all required purposes ; whereas Bill No. 2
contemplates the organization of a new mechanism, which would have to be
created at great cost, by a cumbrous arrangement, for the purpose of pro¬
ducing a register, which would necessarily be imperfect and would very in¬
adequately fulfil the required object.

There can surely be no question between the relative advantages of these
two methods of effecting registration.

But Bill No. 2, as well as Bill No. 1, contemplates something more than
registration-. It provides for the examination of those who hereafter shall
become chemists and druggists ; but this part of the Bill is extremely loose,
crude, and imperfect. Clause 13 gives to the Council the power of appointing
examiners in such parts of England and Wales as they shall think ht, and of
making rules and regulations for conducting the examination of persons
applying to be registered as chemists and druggists as to their knowledge of
the nature of drugs and medicines in general use, with their doses. It does
not appear that these rules and regulations are to be of the nature of by¬
laws requiring the confirmation of the Secretary of State ; but, on the con¬
trary, the object appears to be to leave the subject to the uncontrolled discre¬
tion of the Council, with a very vague indication of what sort of an examination
is intended. It may be inferred, indeed, from its being stated that the exami¬
nation is to be on the nature of drugs and medicines in general use, with their
doses, that it is not intended to include a knowledge of Latin, even such a
knowledge as is required for reading prescriptions, but merely a general
smattering about the nature of drugs and their doses, such as most appren¬
tices, without much study, would be likely to possess. If this is what is
meant by “ regulating the qualifications of chemists and druggists,” we have
no hesitation in saying that such “ regulation ” would be worse than useless ;
it would be a mere sham and delusion, tending, not to the advancement of
pharmacy and the elevation of those engaged in its practice, but rather to the
discouragement of the efforts which have been so successfully made in that
direction for many years past by the Pharmaceutical Society. If one part
of the Bill more than another was required to be clearly defined, and made
subject to the control of some higher authority than that of a Council elected
by a sort of universal suffrage, it was that which defines the nature and
regulations of the proposed examinations.

But even if the proposed examinations were satisfactory, the existence of
two examining boards, such as there would be for the examination of chemists
and druggists if Bill No. 2 were enacted, would be subject to grave objec¬
tion. The board of examiners under the Pharmacy Act, and the separate
board under the Chemists and Druggists Act No. 2, would both have the

THE TWO BILLS.

493

same ostensible object of testing the qualification of chemists and druggists.
There would necessarily be a tendency to competition between two such
boards, and there might be some underbidding with a view to business, which
would not contribute to the accomplishment in the most satisfactory manner
of the objects for which such examinations are established. This objection
was successfully urged against the Bill introduced some years ago by Lord
Derby, and we believe it especially applies to one of the Bills now before
Parliament.

In Bill No. 2, registration and examination are made the basis of a propo¬
sition for restricting the sale of drugs, such as cannot be expected to be re¬
ceived with much favour by a legislature recognizing the principles of free
trade. The dealers in drugs in England and Wales, or rather a section of
them, — the very men who up to the present time had refused to assist in the
efforts which have been made by their brethren to improve the qualification
of those engaged in the business, — now modestly ask that they should be
allowed to “ regulate the qualification of chemists and druggists,” and for
this purpose they propose that the sale of drugs should be limited to them¬
selves and those whom they may choose to license for the purpose. They
propose to elect a Council and appoint a board of examiners, with a very
elastic programme of examination, and then they will not allow any one to sell a
pound of sulphur or an ounce of cream of tartar without a license from their
board or from ours. We wish for no such restriction, because we consider
it to be unnecessary, unreasonable, and unjust. It is a method of re¬
gulating the trade in drugs which we think the Legislature will be slow to
sanction.

Pharmaceutical Chemists, it appears, would be allowed by the framers of
this Bill No. 2, to sell drugs without the necessity of being examined by the
Chemists and Druggists’ Board, — a most considerate and liberal concession
certainly, especially when taken in connection with clause 16, by which they
are deprived of the power of recovering debts that may be due to them for
such sales, unless they be registered under the Chemists and Druggists
Act.

It would be easy to demonstrate in other respects the unreasonableness and
impracticability of this measure, but we cannot think it is necessary to occupy
any more space in doing so, feeling assured that what we have said will suf¬
ficiently show the great superiority of Bill No. 1 over No. 2. The one is a
safe, moderate, consistent, most liberal, and, as we believe, perfectly efficient
measure, — a measure that would contribute to the safety of the public without
infringing any rights, interfering with any vested interests, or violating the
recognized principles of legislation in this country ; while the other is a mea¬
sure of stringent restrictions which are directly opposed to free-trade prin¬
ciples, an attempt at the usurpation of power by a body who are not entitled
to its exercise in the manner proposed, and a crude and undigested mass of
inconsistencies, which, if carried into law, would disgrace the statute book.

499

THE TWO SOCIETIES, FROM WHICH TIIE BILLS FOR RE¬
GULATING THE QUALIFICATIONS OF CHEMISTS AND
DRUGGISTS HAVE EMANATED.

The two Bills now Before Parliament for regulating the qualifications of
Chemists and Druggists have emanated from, and are promoted by, two in¬
dependent associations or Societies, both of which claim to represent in this
matter the prevailing opinion of the members of the trade to which the Bills
relate. Statements have been made with reference to this point, by persons
representing each of these Societies, which statements are greatly at variance
with each other, and some of which are calculated to convey a very errone¬
ous impression of the real facts of the case. The Government and the Legis- «

lature are very naturally desirous of knowing the feelings of those who would
be most directly and materially affected by the proposed alteration of the
law. They expect in such cases to have application made to them in the
shape of solicitation or remonstrance, by deputation, petition or otherwise,
and the value attached to such communications is influenced in a great mea¬
sure by the number, position, and character of those by whom they are
made.

The Chemists and Druggists Bill No. 1 is the result of long and mature
deliberation of the Council and Members of the Pharmaceutical Society, by
whom it is recommended for support to the body of Chemists and Druggists
throughout the country. A deputation from this Societjr having appealed to
the Secretary of State in favour of the measure, was asked for some tangible
indication of the general feeling of the trade with reference to it, and they
accordingly applied through their Local Secretaries to all the Chemists and
Druggists in the principal towns for a declaration in favour of this Bill, which
was responded to with a remarkable amount of unanimity. In most of the
great centres of commerce and intelligence, not only a real but an over¬
whelming majority of Chemists and Druggists of every grade willingly
signed the declaration, and in a great many instances every individual joined
in this expression of approbation. The result of this application was commu¬
nicated to Sir George Grey, and, founded upon it, the representatives of this
Society claimed for themselves the character in this matter of representatives
of the trade.

But, meanwhile, the Chemists and Druggists Bill No. 2 was being pro¬
duced as a rival measure emanating from a rival Society, “The United
Society of Chemists and Druggists,” who appear to claim that they represent
all the Chemists and Druggists not belonging to the Pharmaceutical Society.

This Bill No. 2, although aiming at similar objects to those contemplated by
Bill No. 1, proposes to carry them out in a different way, as we have explained
in the preceding article. Its promoters having personal interest in the result
have made strenuous efforts to promote their own object by throwing discredit, .
not only upon the means resorted to, but upon the very character and position
of their competitors. Some of the statements that have been thus made wrc
have alluded to elsewhere ; those we wish now to deal with relate to the re¬
lative numerical strength, position, and character of the tw^o Societies.

It has been stated, and positively asserted over and over again, that not only
does the United Society more fully and really represent the body of Chemists
and Druggists than the Pharmaceutical Society does, but that it also com¬
prises a larger number of members, and therefore that its position and cha¬
racter are such as to claim at least equal consideration, while its influence is
far greater than that of the Pharmaceutical Society.

500

TIIE TWO SOCIETIES.

We most strongly deny the truth of these statements, and will endeavour
to show, by an appeal to undoubted facts, that there is no more reliance to
be placed in them than in the assertions which emanated from the same
quarter a few years ago with reference to the total number of Chemists and
Druggists in England and Wales. It will be recollected how contemptuously
the representatives of the United Society used to speak of the Pharmaceuti¬
cal Society as a very small section of the Chemists and Druggists, whom they
represented as numbering about 40,000 ; and, assigning 2000 to the Pharma¬
ceutical Society, they assumed that they represented the remaining 38,000.
The hollowness of this vain boasting was only equalled by its folly, for, having
used it as an argument in support of their claim for exemption from serving
on juries, it was turned against them as affording sufficient ground for reject¬
ing the claim. Having been positively asserted, however, it was for a time
received as a truthful statement, even by the Government, until we were en¬
abled, by a reference to the undoubted evidence afforded by the census
returns, to dissipate so absurd a delusion or misrepresentation. We have
shown that the number of Chemists and Druggists of all sorts in business on
their own account in England and Wales is less than 6000, of whom more-
than 2000 are members of the Pharmaceutical Society. But we are told — and
this statement was made by the deputation who waited on Sir George Grey
— that the United Society are a larger body than the Pharmaceutical Society.
Now, let us see what evidence there is in support of this assertion.

In estimating the relative importance and influence of the two Societies, it
is necessary to look in either case to something more than a mere array of
names purporting to represent the numerical strength of the body. Who are
the individuals whose names are used to swell a list, and give the appearance
of strength to a Society ? What are the circumstances under which these
names have been obtained ? What grounds are there for calling them mem¬
bers of the Society ? What are the conditions of membership, and how far
have these conditions been fulfilled P If these questions be asked and truth¬
fully answered with reference to the respective lists of the Pharmaceutical
Society and of the United Society of Chemists and Druggists, something like
a just estimate may be formed of the relative importance and influence of
these two bodies.

The Pharmaceutical Society was founded in 1841 ; it has been in existence,
therefore, for nearly a quarter of a century, during which period its ostensible
objects and aim have been to advance and elevate the study and practice of
Chemistry and Pharmacy, to promote a uniform and efficient system of edu¬
cation among those who practise Pharmacy, to protect the interests of
Chemists and Druggists, and to provide a fund for the relief of the distressed
Members and Associates of the Society, and their widows and orphans. These
objects have been steadily and successfully carried into effect in every par¬
ticular. No pains or expense have been spared in providing for and pro¬
moting an improved system of professional education for the rising genera¬
tion of Chemists and Druggists, nor has- anything been done in the same
direction by any other body. Means have also been provided for those of
all ages, whose occupations would not admit of their otherwise extending
their acquaintance with Chemistry and Pharmacy, whereby they might keep
pace with the progress of improvement. Valuable assistance has been
rendered on numerous occasions, not only to the body of Chemists and Drug¬
gists, but to individuals, and even to those unconnected with the Society,
when the interests of the trade have been unjustly assailed from any quarter.
And lastly, the members, by their individual and united efforts, have created
a fund for the relief of distressed members, of which fund there is now an.
available surplus of more than £7000.

THE TWO SOCIETIES.

501

Tlie men who united their means and applied their energies for the carry¬
ing out of these objects, comprised all the leading members of the drug trade,
both wholesale and retail, in town and country. Many of these men may
now be spoken of as belonging to a past generation, including the venerable
William Allen, the first President of the Society, and Charles J ames Payne,
the second President, and John Barry, and Bichard Battley, and John Bell,
and Jacob Bell, and Joseph Gifford, and Thomas Herring, and William Hud¬
son, and William Ince, and Bichard Hotliam Pigeon, — all of whom were men
of mark, some of them ranking among the great benefactors of their race ; and
these, with many hundreds more of similar position, who are still active mem¬
bers, were among the founders of the Society. Around them were gathered
in association about sixteen hundred druggists, men engaged in business
throughout the country, and a still larger number of assistants and appren¬
tices, making altogether about four thousand individuals, who for several years
subscribed — the members two guineas, and the assistants one guinea each, per
annum — for the establishment and support of the Society. The result has been
the formation of a great institution which ranks now among the best appointed
and most efficient of the institutions of a similar description not only in this
metropolis, but in the world. Here are extensive museums and library, and labo¬
ratories, and examination and lecture arrangements, all in full and active and effi¬
cient operation, contributing to stimulate those who are either practising or pre¬
paring to practise pharmacy, to the acquirement of the knowledge by which
alone they can become qualified for their occupation, and not only stimulating
them, but also helping them to its acquirement. Ho other society but the Phar¬
maceutical Society has contributed to this result, or has independently under¬
taken anything of the same sort, and, had it not been for the work thus clone, the
Chemists and Druggists of Great Britain would have remained to the present
day what they were before 1S4T, a disunited body, calling themselves Chemists
and Druggists, but having little or no knowledge of chemistry, and a ver}r
inadequate knowledge of drugs, and of the means by which they should be
prepared for use in medicine. The association of good and earnest men who
commenced the good work in 1841, and who in 1843 numbered sixteen hundred
members, besides associates and apprentices, continued at about this number
until in 1852 the Pharmacy Act was passed. At that time one of the con¬
ditions to membership involved the passing of an examination, which limited
the number joining the Society, but helped to raise the character of the asso¬
ciation, by making professional qualification the basis of membership.

While the Pharmacy Act of 1852 was before the Legislature, the value of
the services which had been rendered by the Pharmaceutical Society was
fully acknowledged, and to this Society was entrusted the carrying out of the
provisions of that Act, the Members of the Society being made the basis of
the privileged body of Pharmaceutical Chemists. The members, however,
instead of keeping the conferred privilege to themselves, and admitting only
by examination, the way by which alone they were compelled to admit others
to a participation with them, threw the door open and said, “ Come, you of
our brethren who have like standing with ourselves in the business, enter now
freely and partake with us of what the Legislature offers, and with it
partake also of all the benefits of our institution.” Many hundreds of Che¬
mists and Druggists responded to this invitation, and consequently in
1853 the number of subscribing members of the Society rose to 2455, which
is the largest number there has been in any year. Since that time no one
has been admitted without examination, and through the influence of the So¬
ciety thus exerted a large number of well-educated and fully qualified men
have been added to those engaged in the practice of pharmacy throughout
the country. It is true that the number above stated has not been fully kept

5 02

T1IE TWO SOCIETIES.

up since 1853, as the admissions by examination every year have not quite
equalled the losses from death and various other causes ; but the defalcation may
principally be ascribed, we believe, to the fact that the Society contained
most of the best men in the trade at the time of the passing of the Pharmacy
Act, and that many of those who then entered the Society, on the door being
freely opened, were in their hearts, or from their limited means, but luke¬
warm or constrained supporters of the recognized principles of the Society.
With such members the necessity of paying an annual subscription out¬
weighed their zeal in the cause, and they gradually dropped off. But although
after the spirt which took place in 1853, there was an annual falling off for
several years, yet such has not latterly been the case, and the Society is now
numerically as well as financially, in a more healthy, vigorous, and prosperous
condition than it has ever been in since the early days of its formation. It
still contains the zealous and united men who have laboured so long and so
successfully in carrying out its objects ; it comprises nearly all the men of
prominent position and of greatest influence in the trade, and although from
peculiarities of temperament or some other cause, there are a few who have
held aloof and refused to join the association, which must almost necessarily
be the case with a voluntary society, yet the Pharmaceutical Society certainly
does represent the intelligence and the moral and professional influence, as well
as the bulk of the legitimate business of the drug trade.

And now, having looked at this picture, let us look at the other.

The United Society of Chemists and Druggists was commenced in 1861,
and in the First Annual Iteport, dated February 27, 1862, the objects of the
Society are thus explained : —

“ The Society is based upon the principle of co-operation, as essential to
the strength and progress of Chemists and Druggists as a trading commu¬
nity, with the following objects : —

“ 1st. The establishment of a Benevolent Fund for the assistance of Mem¬
bers in sickness, destitution, and death.

“ 2nd. To carry out, by district meetings and combined action, any improve¬
ment that may be deemed necessary for the welfare of the Trade.

“ 3rd. To promote early and Sunday closing.

“ 4th. To watch the progress of, and support or oppose, any legislative en¬
actment that may affect the interests of Chemists and Druggists as a trading
community.

“5th. To answer any legal questions relating to the trade rights of Mem¬
bers, free of cost.

“ 6th. To keep a [Register of the Transfer of Businesses, required Partner¬
ships, and Situations for Assistants, etc., and to be the general recipient and
■exponent of any other Trade requirement.5’

The Committee in this Beport state that, “to place the Society upon a
broad numerical basis was their immediate object ; and to enable them to do
so successfully, they determined that the admission fee should be within the
means of the poorest member of the trade!’ They accordingly fixed the
members’ subscription at 5s. a year, and with this small payment as the only
condition to membership they endeavoured to extend the Society, upon the
broad numerical basis alluded to. At the end of the first year’s operations,
the Committee announced the receipt of subscriptions amounting to £218.
14 s. 6d., which would represent 875 members at 5s. each ; but it seems very
doubtful from the statement published, which, like everything else emanating
from the same source, is vague and unsatisfactory in the extreme, whether
this amount does not comprise donations to the Benevolent Fund. Assuming,
however, that the £218 represents the subscriptions of Members, it is obvious
that these were not bond fide Chemists and Druggists, but any persons who

TIIE TWO SOCIETIES.

503

-could be induced to subscribe for the objects stated. Not only Chemists,
but their shopmen and apprentices were actively canvassed all over the coun¬
try, and besides those in any way employed in the drug trade, tradesmen
employed by druggists, but not themselves connected with the trade, were
often induced to give something to the concern and forthwith were dubbed
Members. In the second year’s report, after much touting through the
country, the amount reported to have been received in subscriptions, dona¬
tions , and members' fees, was altogether £430. 17s. 10 d. This was the
amount received in 1862, and reported at the annual meeting held in 1SG3.
A large proportion of this was paid to the Benevolent Fund, and the greater
part of it, as far as one can judge from a very obscure statement of ac¬
counts, was subscribed for that special object, and much of it either by
wholesale Druggists, or by persons having no claim to the title of Chemist
.and Druggist, — such as Western Wood, Esq., M.P. ; William Edwards, Esq. .
St. Paul’s Churchyard, dealer in patent medicines ; Francis Newbery and
Sons, dealers in patent medicines ; Thomas Holloway, Esq., Temple Bar,
quack doctor ; Beaufoy and Co., vinegar makers ; Bowerbank and Sons, dis¬
tillers ; Crosse and Blackwell, Italian warehousemen, etc. If we take half
the sum announced as representing the subscriptions of members or members’
fees, we shall still have about the same number of eight or nine hundred as
the outside of the numerical strength of the Society, made up of all sorts of
persons. The last B-eport was presented in 1864, and it represents the “ sub¬
scriptions, donations, and members' fees, — town and country," to have been
£447. 14^. 2 d. In this case again we are left in doubt, as before, as to how
much consisted of subscriptions and how much of donations. If we were to
deduct from it all that is specially reported as donations, there would be very
little left for subscriptions. It is quite obvious that it was not all subscrip¬
tions, and most probably much less than half of it was such, so that we are
still left with about the same, or at any rate not a larger number of subscribing
members, if we calculate them from this datum. The real fact of the matter is,
that although the agents of the Society have been most active in hunting over
the country for recruits, enlisting them on any terms, the only condition to
membership being a payment of 5s., with the prospect of relief from the
Benevolent Fund held out as an inducement to subscribe or give some small
donation, yet the largest amount collected in any year has been considerably
under £500. If, as the representatives of the Society say, they are a more
numerous and influential body than the Pharmaceutical Society, let us know
who and what they are P What are their principles, and how have they jus¬
tified them? What are the conditions of membership, and how far have
these conditions been fulfilled ?

The Society have an office and a paid agent, who is most active in his voca¬
tion, and is very badly paid out of the two or three hundred a year he is able
to collect in subscriptions ; they have also a list of names which they are very
fond of talking about, but do not like to show, and beyond this they have
absolutely nothing to refer to, either in work done or preparation for work
to be done. Even their tardy recognition of the importance of making pro¬
fessional qualification the basis of pharmaceutical legislation was not spon¬
taneous, but was adopted from expediency, as will be seen from the following
resolutions passed by the Manchester Committee in October, 1862 : —

1. “ This Meeting regrets that the praiseworthy exertions made by the
Executive Committee of the United Society of Chemists and Druggists, to
get the clause exempting members of the trade from serving on juries, were
not crowned with success.”

2. “ That in the opinion of this Committee, the principal cause of failure
arose from the difficulty of defining, to the satisfaction of Her Majesty’s
Government, the qualifications of a Chemist and Druggist.”

504

THE TWO SOCIETIES.

3. “ That to obviate this difficulty, it is desirable some qualification should
be named, upon which future legislation may be based ; and this Committee,
in correspondence with the Central Committee, pledges itself earnestly to
consider this subject before the next meeting of Parliament.”

This was the origin of the Chemists and .Druggists’ Bill Ho. 2, and it will
serve to explain the objects for which it has been introduced. It has, no
doubt, enabled them to add to their list of members, but we deny that even
at the present time they have anything like 2000 bond fide Chemists and
Druggists on their list.

If they have 3000 members paying an annual subscription of five shillings,
we ask what has been done with the proceeds of these subscriptions ; for, al¬
though each item is but a paltry pittance, the aggregate amount ought to be
somewhere. It is not sufficient that they publish an array of names with little
or no means of identifying the individuals, and nothing to show what has
been done, and when it was done, to justify the appearance of such names in
the list. We have tried to analyse this list, but find it a hopeless task to do
so to more than a small extent. We can discover, however, that it is not a
list of bond fide Chemists and Druggists, but contains the names of persons of
all ages, both sexes, and various occupations, including printers, soapmakers,
ironmongers, cabinet-makers, perfumers, Italian warehousemen, quack doc¬
tors, distillers, vinegar-makers, solicitors, etc. etc. ; and, besides these, as if
to justify more fully the character of its authors for powers of mystification,
there are a certain number of anonymous entries, such as Gr. F. (B. F.) ; a
Friend, etc. There are, it is true, the names of a few respectable Chemists
in the list, some of whom are as much surprised to find their names there as
we have been to see them, and they say they have done nothing more to jus¬
tify it than having at some former period given a small donation to the
agent to appease his solicitations ; but in this case, as in that of the Church,
“ once a parson always a parson and thus, after a lapse of years, by dint
of much touting, the list may be swelled up to a respectable length. We
may apply to it the definition of the Chancellor of the Exchequer for the
word deputation — “ A noun of multitude signifying many, but not signifying
much.”

Until the present time we have avoided making any direct allusion to the
United Society or their proceedings. There are among them those whom we
recognize as brethren, and for whom we feel the respect due to fellow-workers
in the same cause and occupation, with many feelings and interests in com¬
mon. We regret to find ourselves in a position antagonistic to such, and
especially to find that their names are used to give the semblance of respect¬
ability to a list that cannot be otherwise viewed by those who are acquainted
with the facts of the case than as a most unreal representation of even a
section of the bond fide Chemists and Druggists of this country. We should
have been glad to have been spared the duty of referring to this subject, but
the present circumstances of the case demand that we should state the truth
and the whole truth, as far as we know it.

505

TRANSACTIONS

OE

THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

AT A MEETING- OF THE COUNCIL, March 1st, 1865,

Present — Messrs. Bird, Bottle, Davenport, George Edwards, Evans, Hanbury,
Haselden, Hills, Mackay, Morson, Orridge, Reynolds, Sandford, Squire, and Waugh, —
The following Pharmaceutical Chemists were elected

MEMBERS.

Colby, John . Brighton.

Harvey, Sidney . Canterbury.

Currie, John . Glasgow.

Tugwell, William Henry . Greenwich.

Bingley, John . Northampton.

Whiteway, William Henry . Torquay.

Sells, Robert James . Tunbridge Wells.

Francis, John . Wrexham.

The following having paid their arrears were restored to Membership: —

King, Robert . London.

Watts, Henry . Chatham.

Watts, Henry Thomas . . Manchester.

EXAMINATION, March loth, 1865.
MAJOR (Registered as a Pharmaceutical Chemist).

Balch, Edwin . Bideford.

MINOR (Registered as Assistants).

Bateman, Thomas Henry . Salisbury.

Brough, Henry James . . Windsor.

Clayton, Francis Corder . Leeds.

Harris, Henry William . Reading.

Rayner, Gilmour George . Swansea.

Richardson, Joseph Hancock . Plymouth.

Thomas, John Aslilin . Harrogate.

REGISTERED APPRENTICES.

Name. Residing with Address.

Chantry, George . Mr. Chantry . Goole.

Ellinor, George . , . Mr. Knight . Bath.

Fripp, Percival Kossuth ...Mr. Pollock . London.

Hughes, Henry Martyn ...Mr. Thomas . Newcastle Emlyn.

Preston, Alfred . Mr. Smith . Abingdon.

Rickett, Arthur . Mr. Cornish . Brighton.

Walker, William Mott . Mr. Munday . Worthing.

Wright, Wm. Thompson ...Messrs. Wright, Francis, & Co.... London.

Erratum: page 396, line 1, for “Rees, Thomas,” read “Thorras, Rees.”

FINANCIAL STATEMENT. — From 1st January to 31.^ December , 1864..

Receipts.

Balance in Treasurer’s hands . . . .
Benevolent Fund :

Subscriptions . 16G 15 0

Interest . ISO 13 11

Life Members’ Fund :

Fees . 78 15 0

Interest . 70 10 1

Government Securities:

Interest .

Rent .

Arrears of Subscription .

Donation to the Society .

Subscriptions :

352 London Members 3G9 12 0
1418 Country Members 14S8 IS 0

104 Associates . 54 12 0

113 Apprentices .... 59 6 6

Fees :

65 Pharmaceutical > „ A

Chemists . . . \ ° 0

58 Assistants . 243 12 0

103 Apprentices .... 21G 6 0
38 Registration Cer- \ A

tificates . J 1

£. s. <L

443 6 11

347 8 11

149 5 1

29 3 9
83 10 0
186 7 6

110

1972 8 6

- 932 4 0

Fees :

Lecture . 152 15 6

Laboratory . 494 s 0

Balance due to Secretary . 9 n

Expenditure.
Benevolent Fund :

Relief granted .... £115 0 0
Investment . ; . 232 8 11

Life Members’ Fund :

Investment .

Government Securities’ ) r? < -.<>

Investment . f 0 ' 0

Conversazione . G7 G 4

Gratuity to Redwood, jun. 5 5 0
Pharmaceutical Meetings . 13 11 2£

Repayments . 2 2 0

Sundries . 13 13 0

House Expenses .

Rent, Rates, Taxes, and Insurance .

Repairs and Alterations .

Fixtures and Fittings .

Apparatus .

Library .

Museum ...... s .

Furniture .

Stationery . . . . .

Postage .

Printing and Engraving .

Advertisements .

Journals: Balance of Account . . . .

Carriage .

Collector’s Commission . .

Travelling Expenses .

Secretary and Registrar’s Salary . .
Gratuity to Secretary and Registrar

Wages . • .

Expenses of Society in Scotland . . .

Board of Examiners .

Professor of Chemistry and I’har-h
macy, including duties as Cu- >

rator, etc . )

Professor of Botany and Material
Medica, including duties as Cu- S

rator, etc . *. .)

Special Lectures .

Subscription to Royal Botanic)

Gardens . . . )

Prize Medals, etc .

Laboratory :

Director’s Salary and )

Percentage on Fees ) 293 14 3

Demonstrator . 100 0 0

Porter’s Wages .... 53 0 0

Chemicals, etc . 106 11 2

Repayment to Secretary .

Balance in Treasurer’s hands . . . .

£. s. d.

347 8 11

78 15 0
500 0 0

101 17 6|
41 5 5
446 14 7
28 19 1
50 10 3

15 2 8
47 10 5

0 12 10
14 9 9

16 7 81
56 1 1
95 5 3
23 4 0
47 S 9

2 2S
31 4 0
137 18 11
300 0 0
21 0 0
1G6 1 0
61 11 0
120 15 0

300 0 0

250 0 0

IS 12 0
21 0 0
GIG

553 5 5
5 5 1

815 0 10

£4724 10 S

We, the undersigned Auditors, have examined the Accounts of the Pharmaceutical
Society, and find them correct agreeably with the foregoing statement, and that, as
shown by the Books of the Society, there was standing in the names of the Trustees
of the Society, at the Bank of England, on the 31st of December, 1861* : — •

On Account of the General Fund, New 3 per Cents . £1564 19 5

Life Members’ Fund, 3 per Cent. Consols . 2563 11 11

Benevolent Fund, 3 per Cent. Consols . 6440 5 4

Bell Memorial Fund, 3 per Cent. Consols . 2050 0 0

Frederick Barron,
James Burgoyne,
Michael Carte ighe,
James Crispe,

John Gable.

>Audifcors.

February 21, 1865

BOTANICAL PRIZE FOR I860.

A Silver Council Medal is offered for the best Herbarium, collected in any
part of the United Kingdom between the first day of May, 1865, and the first
day of June, 1866; and should there be more than one collection possessing
such an amount of merit as to entitle the collector to reward, a second prize,
consisting of a Bronze Medal, and also Certificates of Merit, will be given at
the discretion of the Council. In the event of none of the collections possess¬
ing such an amount of merit as to warrant the Council in awarding Medals or
Certificates, none will be given.

The collections to consist of Phanerogamous plants and Ferns, arranged ac¬
cording to the Natural System of De Candolle, or any other natural method in
common use, and to be accompanied by lists, arranged according to the same
method, with the species numbered.

The collector to follow some work on British Botany (such as that of Babing-
ton, or Hooker and Arnott), and to state the work which he adopts. The name
of each plant, its habitat, and the date of collection, to be stated on the paper
on which it is preserved.

Each collection to be accompanied by a note, containing a declaration, signed
by the collector, and certified by his employer, or a pharmaceutical chemist to
whom the collector is known, to the following effect : — The plants which accom¬
pany this note were collected by myself, between the first day of May, 1865.
and the first day of June, 1866, and were named and arranged without any
assistance but that derived from books.

In estimating the merits of the collections, not only will the number of species
lie taken into account, but also their rarity or otherwise, and the manner in
which they are preserved, and should a specimen be wrongly named, this will
be erased from the list.

The collections to be forwarded to the Secretary of the Society, 17, Blooms¬
bury Square, on or before the first day of .July, 1866, indorsed u Herbarium for
Competition for the Botanical Prizes.” After the announcement of the award,
they will be retained one month, under the care of the Curator of the Museum,
for the inspection of persons connected with the Society, and then returned to
the collectors, if reauired.

No candidate will be allowed to compete unless he be an Associate, Regis¬
tered Apprentice, or a Student of the Society, or if ' his age exceed twenty-one
years.

FREE ADMISSIONS TO THE ROYAL BOTANIC SOCIETY’S

GARDENS, REGENT’S PARK.

The following pupils of the Class of Materia Medica and Botany, in the
Pharmaceutical Society, after examination in the Elements of Structural and
Physiological Botany, were recommended by Professor Bentley to Mr. Sower -
by, the Secretary of the Royal Botanic Society, for free admission to the
Gardens in the Regent’s Park, and the privilege was at once liberally accorded
to them : —

T. H. Bateman,
II. J. Brough,

F. C. Clayton,

W. T. Fincham,
C. Gorton,

H. W. Harris.

W. Heale,

A. W. Hitchcock.

F. Oldfield,

M. H. Payne,
A. Rose,

W. G. Selfe,

T. F. Shephard,
A. Smith,

J. A. Thom a ;,
A. Towerzey.

508

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

The above are arranged alphabetically, and without any reference to actual
merit exhibited at the examination.

These orders will admit the above students to the gardens upon ordinary
days in the months of March, April, and August, from nine a.m. till one p.m. ;
and in May, June, and July, from seven a.m. till one p.m. Such orders, there¬
fore, give every facility to those who possess them of making themselves prac¬
tically acquainted with plants.

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING,

Wednesday, March 8 th, 1805.

MR. T. II. HILLS, VICE-PRESIDENT, IN THE CHAIR.

The minutes of the previous meeting having been read, the following

DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY AND MUSEUM

were announced, and the thanks of the meeting given to the respective donors
thereof : —

The Chemical News.

The Chemist and Druggist.

The Technologist.

The Photographic Journal.

The Medical Circular.

The Dental lieoiew.

The Pritish Journal of Dental Science.

The Journal of the Chemical Society.

The Proceedings of the Linnean Society.

The Dducalional Times.

The Veterinarian.

Bulletin de la Societe Chimique de Paris. From the respective Editors.
Proceedings of the British Pharmaceutical Conference. Bath Meeting , 1804.
From the Conference.

Des Quinquinas. Par Dr. Gr. Planchon.

Be. Kermes du Chene. Par Dr. Gf. Planchon.

Commentar zur Preussischen Pharmacopoeia. Yon Friedrich Mohr, Ph.D. From
the respective Authors.

Specimen of Cape Saffron. From Mr. David Bain.

Specimen of Hashish Sweetmeat. From Mr. P. Squire.

Mr. Shillcock, of Bromley, exhibited and explained to the meeting a Bottle
with a Stopper-protector, which he had designed for the prevention of accidental
poisoning. This led to a discussion, in which the Chairman and Messrs. Mackay
and Morson took part. The general feeling of the meeting was, that although
some protection was afforded by poison -bottles, and more especially by poison-
cupboards, the great safeguard was in the intelligence and care exhibited by
those to whom the handling of remedies was confided.

The following papers were read : —

ON THE “ PHOSPHATE OF AMMONIA ” OF THE BRITISH

PIIARMACOPCEIA.

BY MR. JOHN WATTS, SENIOR BELL SCHOLAR.

It was not my intention, in the first instance, to have laid this paper before

THE “PHOSPHATE OF AMMONIA ” OF BRITISH PHARMACOPOEIA. 509

the Pharmaceutical evening meeting, as being a subject which scarcely war¬
ranted such attention ; but' as Dr. Redwood at the last meeting of the “ Chemical
Discussion Association ” seemed particularly to desire it, I have ventured, with
some further analyses and addenda, to present it again this evening. That the
field for criticism of the Pharmacopeia is almost exhausted, is obvious to any
one who has read the ‘Pharmaceutical Journal,’ or analogous transactions;
still one or two minor subjects remain which might be investigated, though,
even their investigation is of no particular importance, either in a chemical or
medical point of view. Now, as regards some substances, the statements of the
Pharmacopoeia could only be called in question by a practical application of its
processes for the production of the article required, and ascertaining by that
means how such a method answered, whether it yielded a good product, etc.,
or otherwise, as we have had exemplified in the various criticisms on perchlo-
ride of iron, nitrite of soda, etc. ; but again, on the other hand, we find some
points, especially those connected with the formulae adopted, where a few con¬
cise experiments are all that are required to set the matter, where the doubt
exists, at once at rest ; as was the case with the experiments concerning the
“ hydration of sulphuric acid,” the “ water of crystallization in granulated
sulphate of iron,” etc., and also, as in the present instance, is the case with
the “phosphate of ammonia.”

Medicinally, phosphate of ammonia is a salt of but little importance, and
administered probably more for the sake of its phosphoric acid than for that of
the ammonia ; still the composition assigned to it by the Pharmacopoeia was
doubtful, and although an unimportant salt, that is no reason why it should
have an incorrect formula. It was therefore to ascertain the true composition of
this salt, more especially its proportion of ammonia, when made according to the
directions of the British Pharmacopoeia, that the present series of experiments
were made and noticed. I would first mention its preparation, as officinally given,
which is the following : — 20 oz. of dilute phosphoric acid are taken of sp.
gr. 1-08, and 8 oz. of strong liquid ammonia added; the crystalline precipitate
which forms, is ordered to be redissolved with a gentle heat, and the solution
set aside to crystallize ; the crystals to be rapidly dried without heat, and en¬
closed in a stoppered bottle. As regards the criticism of its preparation, — here¬
after ; at present its composition, when this particular method is employed as
its source, is the question at issue. By referring to the Pharmacopoeia, we find
it there stated to consist of 3 KII40, P 05 + 5 HO. Now generally speaking,
when neutralizing phosphoric acid with an alkali, we do not get a salt contain¬
ing 3 atoms of base, but one consisting of 2 atoms of base, 1 of basic water, and
1 of acid, and in the present instance its composition is still more doubtful, in¬
asmuch as authentic works state that the triammoniac salt, even should it be
formed, cannot be dried and preserved so as to retain the same composition.
My own experience bears out this latter fact, within certain limits, for I found
that even in preparing the salt for analysis, using merely ordinary precautions,
ammonia was so rapidly given off that the estimated NII40 was therefore
somewhat too low, and consequently the P 05 rather too high, giving to the
analysis rather an unscientific appearance ; still, I am happy to say that the
results show that for once the formula given by the Pharmacopoeia is correct.
Of salt so prepared,—

•393 gramme gave 38-06 percent, of POr>.

•407 „ „ 38-02

These were estimated by a volumetric solution of nitrate of uranium ; and
again, -532 gramme gave 37-89 per cent. P05, estimated as pyrophosphate of
magnesia. By combustion with soda-lime by Varentrapp’s process, —

•255 gramme gave 39-05 percent. NII40.

•410

38-2

jj

2 o

VOL. VI.

11

510 PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

The percentage composition of the Pharmacopoeia salt containing —

3 NH4 0 = 40*20
r05 = 36-59
5 HO = 23*21

100-00

it will be seen therefore, as before stated, that the ammonia is a trifle lower,
and the acid higher, in a proportionate degree ; moreover, it would have taken
a great deal of trouble to have prevented this loss, which the importance of the
subject scarcely warranted, even if it could have been done ; otherwise these
percentage compositions would without doubt have absolutely agreed. Only
in one case does the difference amount to more than 1^- per cent., and a loss
of only one milligramme (*001) in the substance operated on becomes increased
to nearly one per cent, when multiplied so many times in order to obtain the
percentage. It is obvious then from these analyses that the phosphate of the
Pharmacopoeia is decidedly a triammonic salt, or one which contains 3 atoms of
ammonia united with 1 atom of phosphoric acid ; and it is also a curious fact
that no analysis of such salt has been published, possibly from the errors which
arise from the loss of ammonia. Mitsclierlick, who examined these phosphates,
published results only of the di- and monammonic varieties ; and Gmelin, quoting
Berzelius as his authority, mentions concerning the triammonic, merely that it
is precipitated from a solution of the disalt, by mixing it with excess of am¬
monia, without saying anything about the possibility of its being redissolved
and crystallized. Prom the words he uses, I conclude he thought it impracticable.
In analysing these phosphates it is impossible to ascertain whether the sample
be tri- or diammonic by estimating merely the ammonia, since both salts con¬
tain it in almost the same proportion as regards weight, owing to the fact that
one contains 5 atoms of water of crystallization, the other none ; by estimating the
phosphoric acid instead, we of course immediately see which sample we have in
hand. It was mentioned the other evening as being rather an unlikely fact,
that the salt would contain an uneven number of atoms of water of crystalliza¬
tion. Now I did not undertake so much to establish a formula for the salt, as to
ascertain whether, when made according as the Pharmacopoeia directed, it con¬
tained 3 atoms of ammonia or no. Moreover, the analysis would have to be con¬
ducted differently to speak definitively upon this latter point, as the water
must be directly determined ; still the reasons advanced are, I think, scarcely
tenable, inasmuch as we have a very great number of salts which do contain
uneven atoms, and as regards the possibility of writing the formula with the
double oxygen atom, it would stand 2 [(NH4)3, P 04] -f-5 II20, — a formula truly
somewhat complex, yet nevertheless correct. I next analysed some commercial
specimens of the phosphate, to see the composition of the salt in general use.
I confess I did not expect to find 3 atoms of base, nor was I disappointed, for
the mean of several experiments gave 53-29 per cent, of P05, the percentage
composition of the diammonic salt containing 53*79, P05; the formula of
these salts exactly coincided. As the specimens examined were purchased since
the British Pharmacopoeia came out, it is obvious that either the salt was not
made according to its directions, or else that it was old stock in hand previous
to its appearance. It is scarcely likely, I think, that a salt made with 3 atoms
of NII40, unless very carelessly kept, would become so entirely converted into
that containing only 2 atoms, as to give a percentage agreeing so exactly with
the calculated one.

Seeing therefore the difference in composition between the commercial and
officinal varieties, the next point to be considered is which is the best salt for
medicinal use, and which can be most readily and economically prepared. The

THE “PHOSPHATE OF AMMONIA” OF BRITISH PHARMaCOP(EIA. 5lP

mention of a very few facts will, I think, at once decide in favour of the former.
In preparing the Pharmacopoeia salt, a very large excess of 'ammonia is used to
neutralize the phosphoric acid, consequently, when the solution is warmed to
redissolve the precipitated phosphate, a considerable quantity is evolved ; that
is, to say the least, wasteful, considering that ammonia is rather a valuable
alkali ; and again, when evaporating the liquor down from the first crystalliza¬
tion, so much ammonia is lost that one-fourth part more has to be added to bring
the salt back again to the triammonic state, it having of course passed during
evaporation to the diammonic. The product also obtained is exceedingly un¬
stable. Now this is after all the great point, for what is the use of getting a salt
containing an extra atom of ammonia, if when we have got it we cannot
keep it there. A sliop-bottle continually dispensed from would soon contain a
considerable portion of the disalt, and on the large scale it would be found im¬
practicable to dry the salt properly, and bring it into a saleable state, as it re¬
quires to be put under a bell-jar on a porous tile for some days, — an imprac¬
ticable proceeding when operating on much more than a pound. As an instance
of the rapidity with which the salt loses ammonia, some crystals exposed to the
air for two hours had entirely lost the third atom ; and in one of the specimens
on the table many of the crystals will be seen to have affloresced, from being-
left for a couple of days under a bell- jar, with a capsule containing sulphuric
acid. Now the salt containing 2 atoms of NII40 is open to none of these dis¬
advantages ; it is perfectly stable, very readily prepared, and no great loss
occurs in its manufacture. It may be made from bone-ash on the commercial
scale, by the same process as “ phosphate of soda” is now prepared ; or phar¬
maceutically, from phosphoric acid, by neutralizing with ammonia, and evapo¬
rating to crystallization, taking care to keep the solution neutral, or faintly
alkaline. When this latter point is carefully observed the resulting crystals
have the exact composition, 2 NII40, II0,P05. If the solution be allowed to
get acid, the result is not 'the same ; several analyses showed them to be a
mixture of di- and monammonic varieties.

•4665 gramme gave 57*9 per cent, of P05,

•4565 ,, ,, 5rb4 ,, ,,

a percentage exactly intermediate between the two mentioned compositions.

There is little doubt then, I think, but that the diammonic salt is the one
which will always be used in pharmacy ; and it is rather remarkable that a
member of the Pharmacopoeia Committee, the only person I can remember
having prescribed the salt, which he used to do in combination with Potass.
Bicarb, and Lithise Cit., always directed the phosphate and carbonate to be
well dried previous to mixing the -whole together, which drying was effected by
wrapping the*salts loosely, and placing before a fire, or in a warm situation.
Plow could the triammonic salt exist in such a condition, when even a consider¬
able portion of the ammonia of the diammonic was volatilized ? Perhaps the next
edition of the Pharmacopoeia may correct such incongruity.

There is only one more subject which I wish slightly to notice, and which
moreover being so intimately connected with the phosphates, is perhaps not out
• of place, viz. the arseniates of the same base. Now every word that has been
mentioned regarding the phosphates is applicable in all its cases to the arse¬
niates, of course substituting As05 for POs. The triammonic arseniate is pro¬
duced in the same way, has the same composition, and agrees in every respect
with its corresponding phosphate : the same notice is applicable to the other
varieties.

The arseniate of commerce proved from analysis to be a mixture of di-
and monammonic salts ; its solution was faintly acid, and was most probably
made by crystallizing a solution of arseniate, without seeing that it was slightly

2 o 2

512

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

alkaline before setting it aside. The composition of the arseniate used in ana¬
lysis, as given in most chemical works, is 3 N H40, As05 ; this therefore is ob¬
viously incorrect.

Dr. Attfield inquired if Mr. Watts had made any experiments on the solu¬
bility of uric acid, and the urates of soda and lime, in solution of phosphate of
ammonia. We were told that this salt was given in gout and rheumatism, to
render these bodies soluble. There certainly would be a probability of urate of
ammonia being formed, if the alkaline salt ever came in contact with the uric
acid or urates in the blood or urine ; but unfortunately urate of ammonia was
even less soluble than the original urates, hence the pain and inconvenience
attending gouty concretions, and calculi might be increased rather than dimi¬
nished by the administration of phosphate of ammonia. In the absence of evi¬
dence to the contrary, chemical facts would suggest that bicarbonate of potash
would be the salt whose exhibition would offer the greatest advantages, as urate
of potash was more soluble than any other urate.

Mr. Watts said he had not made any experiments in the direction suggested
by Dr. Attfield.

ON A BETTER MODE OF PREPARING RED OXIDE OF MER¬
CURY OINTMENT FOR APPLICATION IN CERTAIN CUTANE¬
OUS DISEASES.

BY ALEX. BALM ANNO SQUIRE, M.B., ETC.

Having had frequent occasion to make use of ointments containing the red
oxide of mercury in the treatment of chronic disease of the skin, it occurred to
me that the activity of that ingredient might be greatly increased by its being
prepared in a different manner to that directed in the British Pharmacopoeia. On
making trial of my new preparation, I found it not only more pleasant to the
patient, but decidedly more efficient as a remedy.

My original opinion has now been confirmed by a pretty extensive use of both
preparations, and as a revised edition of the Pharmacopoeia is expected shortly,
and the remedy is one of extensive use, I have thought the subject worthy of
the attention of the Pharmaceutical Society.

It will be well, in the first place, to review the modes in which the binoxide has
been directed to be prepared in the British, and in the preceding London Phar¬
macopoeias.

In the British Pharmacopoeia, under the name of red oxide of mercury, it is
directed to be prepared by the action of nitric acid on metallic mercury, and the
subsequent application of heat to a mixture of the resulting nitrate with me¬
tallic mercury.

In the last London Pharmacopoeia, under the name of nitric oxide of mercury,
it is prepared by the application of heat to the nitrate.

In the last London Pharmacopoeia but one, two different processes are given :
the one is almost identical with the process last mentioned, and its product is
called the nitric oxide ; the other is the decomposition of a solution of corro¬
sive sublimate by a solution of potash, and its product is termed the binoxide.

The ointment in this last-mentioned Pharmacopoeia is prepared from the nitric
oxide, the binoxide being used only in the preparation of the bicyanide of
mercury. It is my object this evening to show that the binoxide should have
been chosen for the ointment rather than the nitric oxide, and to give what
I trust may be thought sufficient reasons for advocating the revival of the former

ON RED OXIDE OF MERCURY OINTMENT.

K 1 O

olo

in the British Pharmacopoeia, not indeed for the purpose for which it was for¬
merly introduced, but as an infinitely better substance than that now used for
the preparation of the red oxide of mercury ointment.

Oxide of mercury ointment appears always to have been prepared with the
nitric oxide ; it is so directed not only in the British Pharmacopoeia, but in the
London Pharmacopoeias of 1851, 1836, 1824, and 1809.

One possible reason for this preference for the nitric oxide is, that in the con¬
dition of scales, the oxide of mercury is less capable of adulteration, since its
physical properties, e. g. the reflection of light from the glittering scales, enable
it to be more readily recognized.

But one can readily understand how the so-called binoxide should be a more
active remedy.

A mere comparison of the naked-eye appearance of the one with that of the
other will suffice to show how much smaller the particles of the binoxide are :
theirs is a paler and a duller colour. There is, in fact, just the difference that is
seen between coarsely-pounded coloured glass and the same glass finely pul¬
verized.

Under the microscope this difference is yet more clearly perceptible. An
•examination of the precipitated oxide shows that none of its particles exceed the
thirty-thousandth of an inch in diameter ; while the same scrutiny applied
to the best levigated nitric oxide shows that although a great number of its par¬
ticles scarcely exceed the size just mentioned, many of them are as large as the
five-hundredth of an inch. The diameter of a large proportion of the particles
of the unlevigated nitric oxide is as much as the one-hundredth of an inch.

The advantages of ointment made with the precipitated oxide of mercury, over
that made with the so-called nitric oxide, are, in the first place, that supposing
ointments of equal therapeutical value be used, greater economy is gained by
the use of the precipitated oxide, since a less proportion of it will suffice in the
same quantity of ointment.

But there is a more serious objection to be urged against the use of the nitric
oxide, and that is, that the presence of a quantity of gritty particles in an
ointment which is to be rubbed in over a raw and irritable portion of skin, pro¬
duces a totally different action in it to wliat is sought for when an ointment of
the red oxide of mercury is employed.

One of the uses of the ointment of the flowers of sulphur in the treatment of
scabies is, that the gritty particles of sulphur do, as it is rubbed in over the skin,
actually ^rupture the tunnels in the epidermis in which the acarus scabiei resides,
and so lay bare the itch-mite to the poisonous influence of the sulphur; and
although the particles of well-levigated oxide are much less coarse than those of
the sulphur, still it must be remembered that they are applied usually to much
more delicate surfaces.

This disadvantage in the use of nitric oxide I have more especially noticed in
hospital and dispensary practice, where the oxide employed, except for ophthal¬
mic use, is often by no means carefully levigated, and where the introduction of
ointment made with the precipitated oxide would ensure, irrespective of quality,
a fine division of the particles.

But I have also often had occasion to observe on the skins of persons for whom
I had prescribed ointment containing the levigated nitric oxide, and whose pre¬
scriptions had been made up by the first chemists, very obvious glittering red
scales.

Here is some of the red oxide of mercury ointment of the British Pharmaco¬
poeia, and here again is the same preparation, except that precipitated has been
substituted for nitric oxide ; you may observe how much “ smoother ” an oint¬
ment the precipitated oxide makes.

However, although the fine state of division of the particles of the binoxide,

514

NOTE ON CHINESE SAL AMMONIAC.

and tlie consequent “ smoothness” of the ointment made from it, are strong pre¬
sumptive proofs in its favour, the absolute proof of its superiority over the
nitric oxide is to be found in the fact, that patients who have first made use of
the latter and then of the former, always declare, and that without any prompt¬
ing, in favour of the binoxide.

A lady lately under my care accidentally underwent a threefold change, from
nitric oxide to binoxide, and then back to nitric oxide again. She had suffered
for the last sixteen years from a chronic cutaneous disease, which, notwithstand¬
ing that she had been under treatment the greater part of that time, had slowly
but steadily got worse. The irritation occasioned by it was so intense and so
unremitting, that it was a constant source of torment. In conjunction with
other remedies, I directed the use of an ointment containing the nitric oxide.
Although considerable improvement took place, it did not progress so rapidly as
I desired ; finding this, I wrote for precipitated oxide in place of nitric oxide, the
treatment, except in this particular, being continued as before. The result was
not only much more decided relief from the distress occasioned by the disease,
and a more marked alteration in its appearance, but the ointment was praised as
a much more agreeable application. A short time after this alteration had been
made, the ointment, whose colour was masked by the presence of other ingre¬
dients, was accidentally made up by her chemist with the nitric oxide, and there
being- nothing in its appearance to indicate the difference it was used as before,
but she complained that it seemed to have lost much of its efficacy, and the ap¬
pearance of the diseased skin confirmed her statement. On examining the oint¬
ment and making inquiry of the dispenser, the cause appeared.

I mention this case, since it affords an instance where neither patient nor
practitioner were aware of a change until it declared itself by its effects, and
where a difference (in favour of the yellow oxide) was first noticed by a person
who, having no theory to prove, was perfectly free from all prejudice.

I have since then frequently tried in appropriate cases ointments containing
merely one or the other of the oxides, and the result has been uniformly in favour
of the precipitated yellow oxide of mercury.

Dr. Attfield said, that not the least important point in any proposition to
introduce a new substance into pharmacy was the character of the name by
which it was designated. Mr. Squire had brought before their notice two
varieties of the red oxide of mercury ; one prepared by the old method of heating-
nitrate of mercury, the other by precipitation of solution of corrosive sublimate
by potash. Mr. Squire had apparently experienced some difficulty in distin¬
guishing between these varieties, and had not yet succeeded in stating the true
distinction. The fact was that the old kind was perfectly free from water, while-
that precipitated from solution contained twenty per cent. ; the one was an¬
hydrous red oxide , the other hydrated red oxide.

Mr. Daniel H anbury said that the house with which he was connected had
many years since prepared for a well-known practitioner in skin diseases, a simi¬
lar ointment to that now suggested by Mr. Balmanno Squire, but the old sort
had been returned to.

NOTE ON CHINESE SAL AMMONIAC.

BY DANIEL H ANBURY, F.L.S.

Among a numerous collection of Chinese drugs, a report upon which I pub¬
lished in the ‘Pharmaceutical Journal’ in the years 1860, 61, and 62, was a
substance called Naou ska , which particularly excited my curiosity, on account

515

PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

of the enormous price at which it is valued by the Chinese, and the remarkable
virtues ascribed to it. But as is the case with many similar substances (of
which we are not without parallels in European medicine) the value of this
drug proved to be due, not to its peculiar properties, so much as to the super¬
stition and ignorance of those who sell or administer it.

The first sample I received was accompanied with the inquiry if it were not
iodide of potassium, and had it been that substance one could hardly be sur¬
prised that even twenty dollars an ounce might be paid for it. It was a rounded
fragment of a substance of dark colour and compact crystalline structure, which
chemical examination proved to be chloride of sodium. Since his return from
China, my friend Mr. Lockhart has kindly placed in my hands a more ample
supply of this substance, the examination of which has shown that though
essentially chloride of sodium, it contains traces of alkaline sulphuret, and that
it resembles in composition and general appearance one of the forms of impure
chloride of sodium found in the bazaars of India under the name of Black Salt.

Tatarinov in his ‘Catalogue of Chinese Medicines’* represents the name
Naou-sJia , to be applied to sal ammoniac of volcanic origin, and in Pekin at
least such is truly the case. When my friend Mr. Lockhart was residing in
that capital in charge of the hospital established under the auspices of the
London Missionary Society, he took the opportunity of making some inquiries
regarding the drug in question, and very recently he has handed me several
specimens of it obtained in the Pekin shops. The information Mr. L. eli¬
cited was not very copious, in fact all he could learn amounted to this, — that
Naou-sha is brought from certain volcanic springs in the province of Sze-chuen,
and in Thibet, and that the various kinds of it, differing from one another chiefly
in their degrees of purity, are distinguished by the names Naou-slia , Yen-naou ,
and Shih-naou.

The specimens received from Mr. Lockhart were of three kinds, the purest of
which consisted of a compact, crystalline, colourless, saline mass, which analysis
proved to be chloride of ammonium. The second kind was also chloride of am¬
monium but of different appearance, having more of the aspect of a natural pro¬
duction than the first. The third specimen was likewise chloride of ammonium,
but much contaminated with earthy matter.

There can be no doubt, I think, that this Chinese sal ammoniac is a volcanic
product, such as is known to occur on Etna, Vesuvius, and Hecla, as well as in
the vicinity of ignited coal-seams. Whether it is by ignorance or design that
the Chinese confound with an impure form of common salt, I cannot affirm ; but
the circumstance calls to mind the fact proved by Beckmann, f that the sal am¬
moniac of the ancients was common rock-salt, dug from pits near the temple of
Jupiter Ammon in Egypt, and that the name was subsequently transferred so
chloride of ammonium manufactured in that country from the dung of camels.

PHAEMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBUBGPI.

A meeting was held in St. George’s Hall, on Wednesday evening, March 15th, at
9 o’clock ; Mr. Kemp, President, in the chair.

Mr. D. R. Brown, Vice-President, made a communication ' on Specific Gravity, and
illustrated many of his observations by sundry experiments. At the conclusion of Mr.
Brown’s address, Mr. Stevenson, F.R.S.S.A., entered more fully into the practical part
of the subject, showing and explaining a great variety of instruments foimerly in use,
as well as most of those at present recognised by distillers, brewers, and others. Amongst
the most interesting illustrations were some very ancient, and now obsolete contrivances for
taking specific gravity, and Mr. Stevenson’s own simple but ingenious invention, which

* Catal. Med. Sinens., p. 41.

f History of Inventions and Discoveries.

A BILL TO REGULATE THE

51 G

he described to the Society several years ago, and a woodcut of which appeared in the
Journal, along with a full description of its use and application. Mr. Stephenson
moved a vote of thanks both to Mr. Brown and Mr. Stevenson, which was ^seconded by
Mr. Mackay, and carried with acclamation.

The meeting thereafter adjourned.

PROVINCIAL TRANSACTIONS.

GLASGOW CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS’ FESTIVAL.

The Fifth Annual Soiree, Concert, and Assembly of the Glasgow Chemists and Drug¬
gists, under the auspices of the Glasgow Chemists and Druggists’ Association, was held
in the Merchants’ Hall, on Thursday evening, February 2nd. Hugh Hart, Esq., occupied
the chair. He was accompanied to the platform by a deputation from the Pharmaceutical
Society, Edinburgh, consisting of Messrs. Kemp (President), Gardner, Blanshard, and
Brown ; by Drs. A. M. Robertson, Paterson, Wilson, Morton, Tannerhill, Milner, etc.,
and Messrs. William Murdoch, Kinninmont, Campbell, Maccall, Moffat, Taite, Jardine,
Black, Brodie, etc.

There was a large assemblage of ladies and gentlemen present, amounting to 446, who,
after listening to an address from the President (which we are compelled to omit for want
of space), were entertained in a manner that proved highly satisfactory and edifying.

ORIGINAL AND EXTRACTED ARTICLES,

Preamble.

After the 1st
January, 1866,
all Chemists and
Druggists, if not
Pharmaceutical
Chemists, to be
examined. — Sav¬
ing rights of
Chemists and
Druggists then
in business.

A BILL TO REGULATE THE QUALIFICATIONS OF
CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS.

Bill No. 1, introduced by Sir Fitzroy Kelly.

Whereas it is expedient for the safety of the public that persons carry¬
ing on the business of a Chemist and Druggist, by retail, in the keeping
of open shop for the compounding of the prescriptions of duly qualified
medical practitioners, should possess a competent practical knowledge of
such business, and to that end that persons before commencing such
business should be duly examined as to their skill and knowledge, and
that a Register should be established and kept of all persons carrying on
such business ; and also, that the Act passed in the fifteenth and six¬
teenth years of the reign of Her present Majesty, intituled “ An Act for
Regulating the Qualifications of Pharmaceutical Chemists,” hereinafter
described as the Pharmacy Act, should be amended : Be it enacted by
the Queen’s Most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent
of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present
Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same :

1. From and after th q first day of January, one thousand eight hundred
and sixty-six, it shall not be lawful for any person to carry on the busi¬
ness of a chemist and druggist in the keeping of open shop for the
compounding of the prescriptions of duly qualified medical practitioners
in any part of Great Britain, unless such person shall be a Pharmaceu¬
tical Chemist within the meaning of the Pharmacy Act, or shall be
duly registered as a Chemist and Druggist under this Act ; and no per¬
son shall be registered as a Chemist and Druggist under this Act unless
he shall before the first of January, one thousand eight hundred and sixty-
six, have carried on business as a Chemist and Druggist, or shall have
been registered as an Assistant as herein provided, or shall have been
examined by examiners, and have received a certificate of competent skill
and knowledge.

QUALIFICATIONS OF CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS.

517

2. All such persons as shall from time to time have been appointed to Examiners under
conduct examinations under the Pharmacy Act shall be and are hereby theExaminers
declared to be examiners for the purposes of this Act, and are hereby under this Act.—
empowered and required to examine all such persons as shall tender them- Certificate of
selves for examination under the provisions of this Act ; and any person competent skill,
who shall have been examined by such examiners, and shall have ob¬
tained from them a certificate of competent skill and knowledge and
qualification to be registered as a Chemist and Druggist, shall be en¬
titled to be registered as a Chemist and Druggist under this Act ; and

the examination aforesaid shall be such as is now in use under the Phar¬
macy Act for the purposes of a qualification to be registered as Assistant
under that Act, or as the same may be varied from time to time by any
Bye-law to be made in accordance with the Pharmacy Act, with the ap¬
probation of one of Her Majesty’s Principal Secretaries of State.

3. The Registrar appointed or to be appointed under or by virtue of Registrar under
the Pharmacy Act shall be the Registrar for the purposes of this Act. Pharmacy Act to

4. Any person who before the passing of this Act has been or wrho under this Act.

before t\iQ first day of January , one thousand eight hundred and sixty -six, -

shall be actually carrying on business in Great Britain as a Chemist and Chemists and^
Druggist, in the keeping of open shop for the compounding of the pre- Beilin* Great*"
scriptions of duly qualified medical practitioners, shall be entitled to be Britain before
registered, on producing to the Registrar a declaration according to the 1st January,
form in the Schedule (B.) to this Act, signed by him, and also a declara-

tion according to the form in the Schedule (C.) to this Act, signed by a chemists and
duly qualified medical practitioner, or upon transmitting to such Regis- Druggists,
trar information of his name and address, and enclosing such declarations
as aforesaid.

5. Every person who before the passing of this Act has been actually Assistants may
engaged and employed as an Assistant to any “ Chemist and Druggist ” be registered as
in Great Britain, and has attained the age of twenty-one years, and who uruggists^nder
shall prior to the first day of January , one thousand eight hundred and this Act.
sixty -six, present or cause to be presented to the said Registrar a certifi¬
cate according to the form set forth in Schedule (D.) to this Act, signed

by himself and by any Chemist and Druggist, shall be entitled to be re¬
gistered as a Chemist and Druggist under this Act.

6. All persons who are or shall be duly registered as Assistants or Assistants and

Associates under or according to the provisions of the Pharmacy Act p^rmacy Act °r
shall be entitled to be registered as Chemists and Druggists under this may be register-
Act. ed as Chemists

7. The Council of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain shall, arul Druggets,

with all convenient speed after the passimg of this Act, and from time council of Phar-
to time as occasion may require, make orders or regulations for regulat- maceutical So-
ing the Register to be kept under this Act, as nearly as conveniently Q^erlTforre6 u
may be in accordance with the form set forth in the Schedule (A.) to Jatin^Eegisters*
this Act, or to the like effect. t-o be kept.

8. It shall be the duty of the Registrar to make and keep a correct — ~ .

Register, in accordance with the provisions of this Act, of all persons make* and

who on or after the first day of January , one thousand eight hundred and ^eep correct
sixty-six, shall be entitled to be registered as Chemists and Druggists Registers,
under this Act, and to erase the names of all registered persons who

shall have died, and from time to time to make the necessary alterations in
the addresses of the persons registered under this Act; and to enable the
Registrar duly to fulfil the duties imposed upon him it shall be lawful
for the Registrar to wrrite a letter to any registered person, addressed to
him according to his address on the Register, to inquire whether he has
ceased to carry on business or has changed his residence ; and if no
answer shall be returned to such letter within the period of six months
from the sending of the letter, it shall be lawful to erase the name of such
person from the Register : Provided always, that the same may be re¬
stored, by direction of the Council of the Pharmaceutical Society of
Great Britain, should they think fit to make an order to that effect.

518

A BILL TO REGULATE THE

Evidence of
qualification to
be given before
registration.

Annual Register
to be published
and be evidence.

Penalty on wilful
falsification of
Register.

Penalty for ob¬
taining Registra¬
tion by false re¬
presentations.

Penalty for false¬
ly pretending to
be a registered
person, or keep¬
ing open shop
for dispensing
said prescrip¬
tions, not being
registered.

Application of
fees to purpose c
Pharmaceutical
Society.

Application of
penalties as Se¬
cretary of State
may direct.

0. No name shall be entered in the Register unless the Registrar be
satisfied by the proper evidence that the person claiming is entitled to it ;
and any appeal from the decision of the Registrar may be decided by
the Council of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain ; and any
entry which shall be proved to the satisfaction of such Council to have
been fraudulently or incorrectly made may be erased from or amended in
the Register by order in writing of such Council.

10. The Registrar shall in every year cause to be printed, published,
and sold a correct Register of the names of all Pharmaceutical Chemists,
and a correct Register of all persons entitled to carry on the business of
Chemists and Druggists ; and in such Registers respectively the names
shall be in alphabetical order according to the surnames, with the respective
residences, in the form set forth in Schedule (A.) to this Act, or to the
like effect, of all persons appearing on the Register of Pharmaceutical
Chemists, and on the Register of persons entitled to carry on the busi¬
ness of Chemists and Druggists, on the first day of January in every
year ; and such Register shall be called “ The Register of Pharmaceutical
Chemists and Chemists and Druggists and a copy of such Registers
for the time being, purporting to be so printed and published as afore¬
said, shall be evidence in all Courts and before all Justices of the Peace
and others that the persons therein specified are registered according to
the provisions of the Pharmacy Act and of this Act respectively ; and
the absence of the name of any person from such copy ghall be evidence,
until the contrary shall be made to appear, that such person is not regis¬
tered according to provisions of the Pharmacy Act or of this Act.

11. Any Registrar who shall wilfully make or cause to be made any
falsification in any matter relating to the said Registers shall de deemed
guilty of a misdemeanor in England, and in Scotland of a crime or
offence punishable by fine or imprisonment, and shall on conviction
thereof be imprisoned for any term not exceeding twelve months.

12. If any person shall wilfully procure or attempt to procure him¬
self to be registered under the Pharmacy Act or under this Act, by mak¬
ing or producing or causing to be made or produced any false or fraudu¬
lent representation or declaration, either verbally or in writing, every
such person so offending, and every person aiding or assisting him therein,
shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor in England, and in Scotland of
a crime or offence punishable by fine or imprisonment, and shall on
conviction thereof be sentenced to be imprisoned for any term not ex¬
ceeding twelve months.

13. Any person keeping open shop for the sale or compounding of
drugs by retail who shall wilfully and falsely pretend to be, or take, use,
or exhibit the name or title of a Pharmaceutical Chemist, or Chemist
and Druggist, or Chemist or Druggist, or any name, title, addition, or
description implying that he is registered under the Pharmacy Act or
this Act, or that he is recognised by law as a Pharmaceutical Chemist,
or a Chemist and Druggist ; and any person not duly registered as a
Pharmaceutical Chemist, or a Chemist and Druggist, who shall keep
open shop for the compounding of the prescriptions of any duly qualified
medical practitioner, shall for every such offence be liable to pay a
penalty or sum of Jive pounds.

14. Such fees shall be payable upon every such examination and regu¬
lation as aforesaid as shall from time to time be fixed and determined by
any bye-law to be made in accordance with the Pharmacy Act, with the
approbation of one of Her Majesty’s principal Secretaries of State, and
shall be paid to the Treasurer of the said Society, for the purposes of the
said Society.

15. Any sum or sums of money arising from the recovery of penalties
as aforesaid, shall be paid as the Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Trea¬
sury shall direct, and the same may be sued for and recovered in the
manner provided by the Pharmacy Act for the recovery of penalties under
that Act.

QUALIFICATIONS OF CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS.

519

1 G. Every person duly registered as a Chemist and Druggist, and Registered Che-
having (whether before or after such registration) been examined and ^vin"US*
certified as aforesaid, shall be eligible to continue or to be elected an As- passed Minor
sociate as aforesaid, and may publicly use the title or description Asso- Examination,
ciate of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain ; and every such ^Jnd.6 ontimm
person so continuing or elected as such Associate shall have the privilege and^se titlVof
of attending all meetings of the said Society, and of voting thereat, and Associate of
otherwise taking part in the proceedings of such meetings in the same Pharmaceutical
manner as members of the said Society, but shall not have or exercise vote^fme^inas
any other of the rights or privileges of such members. of the Society **

17. Nothing in this Act contained shall extend, or be construed to ex- -

tend, to lessen or prejudice, or in anywise to interfere with, any of the of dul" ° ualifi* I
rights, authorities, privileges, and immunities heretofore vested in and medicid praeti-'
exercised and enjoyed by any duly qualified medical practitioner. tioners.

IS. And, whereas by the Charter of incorporation of the said Pharma- ~ —

ceutical Society of Great Britain, it is provided that the Council of the ^ayb- applied0
said Society shall have the sole control and management of the real and t,0 past members
personal property of the said Society, subject to the bye-laws thereof, and and Associates,
shall make provision thereout, or out of such part thereof as they shall ceuticafehe11181"
think proper, for the relief of the distressed Members or Associates of the mists, and regis-
said Society and their widows and orphans, subject to the regulations and tered Chemists
bye-laws of the said Society ; and whereas, for extending the benefits and Druggists,
which have resulted from the said provision in the said Charter of Incor¬
poration, it is desirable that additionable powers shall be granted to the
said Council : be it enacted, that from and after the said 1st day of Ja¬
nuary, 1866, the said Council may make provision out of the real and per¬
sonal property aforesaid, and out of any special fund known as the Bene¬
volent Fund, not only for the relief of the distressed Members or Associ¬
ates of the said Society and their widows and orphans, subject to the said
regulations and bye-laws, but also for all persons who may have been and
have ceased to be Members or Associates of the said Society, or who may
be or have been duly registered as “Pharmaceutical Chemists” or “ Che¬
mists and Druggists,” and the widows and orphans of such persons, sub¬
ject to the regulations and bye-laws of the said Society.

19. This Act maybe described as the Chemists and Druggists Act, Title of Ac-t.
1865.

SCHEDULE

A.

Name.

Residence.

Qualification.

A. B.

Oxford Street, London.

In business prior to January, 1866.

C. D.

George Street, Edinburgh.

Examined and certified.

SCHEDULE B.

j Declaration required of a 'person tvho claims to be registered as a Chemist and Drug¬
gist , upon the ground that lue was in business as a Chemist and Druggist in Great
Britain before the 1st day of January , 1866.

To the Registrar of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain.

I, , residing at , in the County of , hereby

declare that I was in business as a Chemist and Druggist, in the keeping of open shop
for the compounding of the Prescriptions of duly qualified Medical Practitioners at
, in the County of , on or before the 1st day of January, 1866.

• Signed (Name.)

Dated this day of , 18 .

520

A BILL FOR REGULATING TIIE

SCHEDULE C.

Declaration to he signed hg a duly qualified Medical Practitioner respecting a person
who claims to he registered as a Chemist and Druggist , upon the ground ' that he
was in business as a Chemist and Druggist in Great Britain before the day
of January , 1866.

To the Registrar of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain.

I, • , residing at , in the County of , hereby

declare that I am a duly qualified Medical Practitioner, and that to my knowledge
, residing at , in the County of , was in business

as a Chemist and Druggist, and in the keeping of open shop for the compounding of the
Prescriptions of duly qualified Medical Practitioners, before the 1st day of January, 1866.

Signed

SCHEDULE D.

To the Registrar of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain.

We hereby declare that the undersigned , residing at ?

in the County of , had before the passing of the Chemists and Druggists Act,

1 865, been actually employed as an Assistant to a Pharmaceutical Chemist or Chemist
and Druggist, and attained the age of twenty-one years.

As witness our hands, this day of , 1865.

A. B., Assistant.

C. D., Chemist and Druggist.

A BILL LOR REGULATING THE QUALIFICATIONS
OF CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS IN ENGLAND
AND WALES.

*

Bill No. 2, introduced by Sir John Shelley.

Preamble. Whereas it is expedient for the safety of the public, and to prevent

and avoid the mischief of ignorant and incompetent persons carrying on
the trade of Chemists and Druggists, that persons exercising the business
or calling of Chemists and Druggists, retailing or dispensing drugs and
medicines, should possess a competent practical knowledge of drugs and
medicines and other branches of knowledge, and should be duly examined
as to their skill and knowledge by competent persons : Be it therefore
enacted by the Queen's Most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice
and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this
present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as
follows

Title of Act. l. That this Act shall for all purposes be cited as “The Chemists and

Druggists Act.”

“CCmCn 2. This Act shall commence and take effect from the
- — day of

Constitution of 3. A Council, which shall be styled “ The Council of Chemists and
Registered Che- Druggists Society of England and Wales,” shall be formed, to consist of
mists and Drug- a President, Vice-President, and in addition thereto of not less than

gists to vote for twenty-one gentlemen, to be annually elected from the general body of

Members of the Chemists and Druggists registered under this Act : that all registered
Chemists and Druggists shall be entitled to vote for members of the said
Council of Chemists and Druggists, and may give their votes either
personally or by voting papers, signed by them in such form as shall be
defined in the bye-laws of the said Council, such voting papers being

transmitted under cover to the Secretary of the Council not less thau

clear days prior to the day on which the election is to take

place.

QUALIFICATIONS OF CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS.

521

• 4. One calendar month's notice of all meetings for the annual election One month’s
of Members of the Council shall he given by advertisement, which shall tigement'ofiVer"
specify the place, the day, and the hour of meeting, and the names of all Election of the
gentlemen who may have been nominated as candidates for the office of Council,
members of the said Council ; that after the first election of members of
the Council as hereinafter provided for, the nomination of candidates
shall be made in such form and at such time as shall he provided by the
bye-laws of the Company.

5. The President and Vice-President of the Council of Chemists and President and
Druggists, and their successors, shall hold their offices for the term of ^Toi^Office **
three years respectively, and it shall be lawful for the General Council Three Years.—
from time to time, as often as it may be necessary in case of the death, In case of Death,
resignation, or incapacity to act of the president and vice-president, or n’ et<n ’

either of them, before the expiration of their term of office, to nominate ^appoint0™01
and appoint a successor or successors to fill the said offices of president successors,
and vice-president, or either of them, for the remainder of the term of
office.

G. Upon the day of in the year following One-third of the

the first election of Councillors under this Act, and in every succeeding 0f office annually,
year, one third part of the ordinary members of the General Council
shall go out of office ; and in the said year following the first election of
councillors under this Act those who shall go out of office shall be the
councillors who were elected under the provisions of such Act at the first
election by the smallest number of votes ; and in the next succeeding
year those who shall go out of office shall be the councillors who were
elected under the provisions of this Act at such first election by the next
smallest number of votes, the majority of the whole Council always
determining, when the votes for any such person shall have been equal,
who shall be the persons so to go out of office, and thereafter those who
shall so go out of office shall always be the councillors who have been
for the longest time in office without re-election : provided always, that
any councillor so going out of office shall be capable of being forthwith
re-elected if then qualified as herein provided.

7. In case of the death, resignation, or incapacity to act of any mem- Jn ,case of death,
ber of the said Council before the expiration of his term of office, the oOlembers of '
other members of the Council may, from time to time, and as often the Council, the
as any such vacancies may arise, nominate and appoint a duly registered other Members
member of the Society to fill such vacancy for the remainder of the said lessors for the*

term. _ remainder of

8. For the purpose of putting the provisions of this Act in operation, term.

it shall be lawful for one of Her Majesty’s principal Secretaries of State TJig s^7tar rQf
to nominate and appoint a Commissioner, who shall by public advertise- state to appoint
ment in the ‘ London Gazette,’ and in such public newspapers published a Commissioner
and circulated in such of the principal towns and cities of England and to put the Act in
Wales as he shall deem expedient, call a meeting of all persons carrying commissioner to
on the trade and business of Chemists and Druggists in England and can a public
Wales, such meeting to be held at some convenient place in the metro- meeting of Che-
polis, at a day and hour to be specified in such advertisement in the
‘ London Gazette,’ not earlier than one calendar month from the date of cseraent, to be
the publication of the advertisement in the ‘ London Gazette,’ for the first held in the me-
election of a President and Vice-President and the members of the tropolis.

Council.

9. At such meeting so called, the said Commissioner shall proceed to At such meeting

the election of a President, Vice-President, and the twent/j-one members and6*

of the Council, and shall determine the said election by the votes of the Members of the
Chemists and Druggists present at such meeting ; that the names of all Council to be
persons, with their addresses and occupations, intended to be proposed as elected,
candidates, shall be sent in to the said Commissioner at the Secretary of

State’s Office at the least one week before the day of the said election,
and that no other candidates shall be put up for election at the said

522

A FILL FOR REGULATING THE

on to the Secre¬
tary of State.

In case of dis- meeting ; that in case of any dispute of what nature soever affecting the
pute, the Com- result of the said election, the said Commissioner shall have power to
pointed6^1 hear hear and determine the same in such manner and at such time after the
and determine said meeting as he shall think fit, and shall have power to examine wit-
nesses> an(l if necessary on oath, and having heard and determined the
same, he shall thereupon determine and report to one of Her Majesty’s
principal Secretaries of State on whom the said election has fallen, and
the number of votes recorded for each successful candidate, and thereupon
it shall be lawful for Her Majesty’s said principal Secretary of State to
S tat e'mafcoii-°i' ratify and confirm the said election or to annul the same, and direct the
firm or annul the said Commissioner to proceed forthwith to another election: Provided
election, and always, that in case of the said election being annulled and a fresh elec-
£rder another to tion directed, the said Commissioner shall proceed in the manner herein-
a e p ace. before provided, and Her Majesty’s said principal Secretary of State shall
have power to ratify or annul such fresh election, and direct another
fresh election, and shall have further power to direct any number of
fresh elections until he shall be satisfied that the said President, Yice-
henakeiTin^m t0 President, and the twenty-one members of the Council have been fairly
Court of Law or elected ; provided always, that when the said election of President, Vice-
President, and the twenty-one members of the Council have been ratified
by Her Majesty’s said principal Secretary of State, such election shall be
deemed valid and effectual for all purposes, and no proceeding shall be
taken in any of Her Majesty’s Courts of Law or Equity for the purpose
of reviewing or annulling the same.

10. Upon such first election, so ratified as aforesaid, the President. and
Vice-President, and the members of the Council of the Chemists and

Equity to annul
election when
ratified by Seere
tary of State.

Upon such first
election the Pre¬
sident and Coun-

cessors to be
come a body
corporate.

A registrar and
officers to be ap¬
pointed by the
Council.

Treasurer to be
elected.

cil and their sue- Druggists* Society of England and Wales, and their successors, shall be¬
come and be a body corporate, and shall become and are hereby in¬
corporated by the name of the Chemists and Druggists’ Society of
England and Wales, for the purposes of this Act, and shall have a com¬
mon seal, and shall and may sue and be sued, and prosecute and be
prosecuted by and in that name, either civilly or criminally, at law or in
equity, and have, hold, and enjoy all the property and effects from time
to time belonging or accruing to the said Society, and the same shall and
are hereby vested in them and their successors as such corporate body.

11. The said Council shall have power to nominate and appoint a Regis¬
trar, and such officers and assistants as they may from time to time deem
necessary for the purpose of the business of the said Society, and the
said Registrar, officers, and assistants shall be removable from their offices
at the will and pleasure of the said Council.

12. The said Council shall from time to time elect a Treasurer, whose
duties and qualifications shall be such as the Council shall from time to
time direct ; that no Councillor for the time being shall be eligible to
the office of Treasurer, and that the Treasurer shall be removable from
his office at the will and pleasure of the Council.

Council to ap- 13. It shall be lawful for the said Council of Chemists and Druggists
point Examiners. from time to time to nominate and appoint Examiners in such parts of
England and Wales as they shall think fit, and to make rules and regu¬
lations for conducting the examinations of persons applying to be
registered as Chemists and Druggists under this Act as to their know¬
ledge of the nature of Drugs and Medicines in general use, with their
Doses, and such Examiners are to report the result of such examination
in each case to the said Council of Chemists and Druggists, who are
hereby empowered to grant or refuse to such persons as in their decision
may seem fit Certificates of competent skill and knowledge and qualifica¬
tion to exercise the business or calling of Chemists and Druggists, or, as
the case may require, to be engaged or employed as apprentices or
assistants respectively.

Drimfno^being 1L All persons now keeping or who shall hereafter keep shop or store
qualified PLysi- for the retailing of Drugs, and all persons wTho shall be in any manner

QUALIFICATIONS OF CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS

5:23

engaged in retailing or dispensing dangerous drugs, simple or com¬
pounded, as enumerated in Schedule (A.) of this Act or in the Bye-laws
made as hereinafter empowered to be made, or in the retailing of other
than patented medicines, such persons not being licenciates of the
Royal College of Physicians of London, or the Royal College of Surgeons
of England, or of the Society of Apothecaries of London, or persons re¬
gistered under The Medical Act of 1858 or the Pharmacy Act of 1852,
or apprentices to persons properly qualified within the meaning of this
Act, shall produce to the Registrar appointed under this Act Certificates
from duly appointed examiners of their competent knowledge of drugs
and medicines in general use, with their doses, and of their ability to
read physicians’ prescriptions with ease and accuracy, and be registered
as chemists and druggists upon payment of a sum of money to be fixed
by the Council, not exceeding one guinea , for registration.

15. Provided always, that any persons failing to produce certificates
from examiners, as in the fourteenth section of this Act provided, but
nevertheless claiming to be Chemists and Druggists or Chemists and
Druggists’ assistants and apprentices at the time of this Act coming into
operation, shall and are hereby required to be registered as such upon
making a declaration in the form specified in Schedule (B.) to this Act
annexed, and the payment of a sum of money not exceeding one guinea
for registration ; and any person wilfully making a false declaration for
the purpose aforesaid, shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding fifty
pounds , to be recoverable in a summary way, by information and summons
before any two of Her Majesty’s Justices of the Peace, at the suit of the
Chemists and Druggists’ Society of England and Wales.

10. No person who is required to be registered under the provisions of
this Act shall be entitled to recover in any Court of Law or Equity any
charge accruing after the coming into operation of this Act for any
drugs or medicines as per Schedules (A.) and (C.) or the dispensing
thereof, unless he shall prove upon the trial, by the production of a
certificate purporting to be duly certified, that he is registered under this
Act; and every person who shall offend against the provisions of this
Act by retailing, dispensing, or compounding drugs and medicines, or by
being engaged and employed in the retailing, dispensing, or compounding
thereof, as provided in section fourteen, or employing unregistered as¬
sistants, shall be liable to a penalty or penalties not exceeding five pounds
for every distinct act of retailing, dispensing, or compounding of which
he may be guilty.

17. It shall be lawful for the Council and they are hereby authorized
and empowered to transact all business under this Act, and to make and
establish such Bye-laws as they shall deem proper and necessary for the
purposes contemplated by this Act, and from time to time to repeal,
alter, and amend the same, or make new and additional Bye-laws :
provided always, that all such Bye-laws, and all altered, amended, or
additional Bye-laws, shall be confirmed and approved by one of Her
Majesty’s principal Secretaries of State ; and it shall be lawful for the
said Council to call Meetings of the registered Members of the Society
of Chemists and Druggists from time to time for such objects connected
with the purposes of this Act as they shall deem fit.

18. All the Drugs and Chemicals enumerated and specified in Schedule
(C.) to this Act annexed, or in the Bye-laws to be made hereafter, enu¬
merated and specified as Poisons, shall, for the purposes of this Act, be
deemed Active Poisons ; and that no person shall knowingly sell the
same, or any of them, in any quantities to any person, whom they may
have reasonable grounds to believe to be under the age of twenty-one
years, or to any person who is unknown to the seller, unless the sale is
made in the presence of a witness who is known to the person selling
the same, and to whom the purchaser is known, and who shall sign his
name, together with his place of abode, in a book or books to be kept by

cians, Surgeons,
or Apothecaries,
or registered
under the Medi¬
cal or Pharmacy
Act, or Appren¬
tices, to produce
Certificates from
Examiners as to
their compe¬
tency, and to be
registered under
this Act.

Chemists and
Druggists at the
passing of this
Act to be regis¬
tered.

No person to re¬
cover for Drugs
unless he pro¬
duce on trial a
Certificate of
Registration.

Penalty on un¬
qualified persons,
and on employing
unregistered
Assistants.

Power for the
Council to make
Bye-laws, to be
confirmed by the
Secretary of
State.

Power to call
Meetings of
Chemists and
Druggists.

Restrictions and
Penalty on the
sale of Poisons.

524

A BILL FOR REGULATING THE

Penalty on un¬
qualified Che¬
mists and Drug¬
gists.

Mode of recover¬
ing Penalties.

Certificates of
Registration to
be given by the
Registrar on ap¬
plication..

A Register of
Chemists and
Druggists to be
kept.

Exemption of re-
gisteredChemists
and Druggists
from serving on
Juries.

Annual fee and
appropriation of
surplus funds of
the Society.

the seller for such purpose to entries made at the time of sale therein of
the day of such sale, and the quantities sold, and the purpose for which
required : Provided always, that this provision shall not extend to the
sale of any such Drugs or Chemicals when the same form part of the
ingredients of any medicine required to be made up or compounded
according to the prescription of any legally qualified Medical Practitioner
or to the sale of such Drugs and Chemicals by wholesale and retail
Chemists and Druggists upon orders in writing in the ordinary course of
their business : Provided also, that any person offending against the
aforesaid enactments shall be liable to a penalty, recoverable upon sum¬
mary conviction before two Justices of the Peace, not exceeding twenty
pounds , at the suit of the Chemists and Druggists’ Society of England
and Wales.

19. Any person or persons who shall keep shop, store, or other place
for the retailing of drugs and medicines, and shall wilfully and falsely
hold himself or themselves out or pretend to be or take or use the name
or title of a Chemist and Druggist, or any name, title, addition, or
description, such person or persons, being required by this Act to be
registered under the provisions thereof, shall upon a summary conviction
before two Justices of the Peace for any such offence pay and forfeit a
sum of money not exceeding twenty pounds.

20. All proceedings for the recovery of penalties under this Act shall
be brought and carried on by the Council in their corporate name, and
by no other persons ; and any sums or sum of money recovered or ad¬
judged to be paid by way of penalty under the provisions of this Act
shall be paid to the Treasurer of the Council for the use and benefit of
the said corporate body.

21. The Registrar shall be bound, on the application of any person
paying one shilling, to certify under his hand whether or no any person
whose name and address shall be furnished to him appears in the said
register of Chemists and Druggists or not ; the certificate of such Regis¬
trar, purporting to be signed by the said Registrar and sealed with the
corporate seal of any entries in the said register, shall in the absence of
evidence to the contrary be sufficient evidence of the facts therein stated
up to the date of the said certificate.

22. The Registrar shall from time to time make out and maintain a
complete register, and enter therein the names and addresses of all
persons being Chemists and Druggists entitled to be registered under
this Act, and also of all persons being registered assistants and appren¬
tices respectively, and shall keep a proper index of the register, and all
such other registers and books as may be necessary for the purposes of
this Act, or required by the Council of the said Society.

23. Every person who shall be registered under the provisions of this
Act shall be exempt, if he so shall so desire, from serving on any jury
or inquest whatsoever, and from serving in the militia.

24. An annual fee of half- a- guinea shall be paid by all Chemists and
Druggists registered under this Act engaged in business as principals,
and that any surplus monies remaining in the hand of the Treasurer
after liquidating all demands and charges to be from time to time in¬
curred in carrying out the objects of this Act, shall and may from
time to time, and in such manner as the said Council shall see fit to set
apart and appropriate to the formation and maintenance of a charity for
the relief and benefit of poor Chemists and Druggists who may have
been registered under this Act, and their families.

PHARMACEUTICAL LEGISLATION .

525

SCHEDULES TO WHICH THIS ACT REFERS.

SCHEDULE (A.)

Dangerous Drugs.

The following are dangerous drugs to which Section 14 of this Act relates : —

Almonds, Essential Oil of.

Pharmaceutical

Antimony

of.

Arnica „

Barium „

Bromine „

Chloroform and „

Cocculus Indicus ,,

Creasote.

Croton Oil.

Deadly Nightshade and
Foxglove and „

Grains of Paradise.
Hellebore and
Hemlock and
Henbane and
Indian Hemp
Iodine and.

Preparations

11

11

11

11

11

11

11

11

11

11

11

Ipecacuanha

Lettuce
Lobelia and
Lead

Male Fern
Meadow Saffron
Mercury

Nux Vomica and
Opium and
Oxalic Acid
Potash
Savin

Spanish Fly and
Thorn Apple
Tobacco
Wild Cucumber

J Pharmaceutical
parations of.

11

•

11

11

11

11

11

11

11

11

11

11

11

11

11

11

11

11

ll

11

H

11

« 5

11

11

11

• 7

11

11

11

and

Pre-

SCHEDULE (B.)

Notice of Claim by existing Chemists and Druggists.

To the Registrar of the Chemists and Druggists' Society of England and Wales. *

I hereby give you notice that I claim to be registered as a Chemist and Druggist in
the Register Book of the Chemists and Druggists’ Society of England and Wales ; and I
hereby declare that I was a Chemist and Druggist [or was an Assistant or an Apprentice
to a Chemist and Druggist, os the case may be\ at the time of the Chemists and Druggists
Act coming into operation.

Dated the day of the year .

Signed

SCHEDULE (C.)
Active Poisons.

The following are Active Poisons referred to in Section 18 of this Act :

. ., f Pharmaceutical Preparations

Aconite -< ^ 1

Arsenic and
Atropine

11

11

_ , f T5 Pharmaceutical Pre-

Ergot ot Rye and > ,. r

° J parations ot.

Strychnine and

Veratrine

11

11

11

11

PHARMACEUTICAL LEGISLATION.

TO TIIE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — Your columns are freely open to all varieties of opinion, about the Phar¬
macy Bill as well as other things connected with our Society, but few letters
published there will be read, I think, with greater surprise than that of Mr.
Proctor in your last number. That he failed to convince his brother members
of the Council will be less strange by far than that any member of the Council
should hold the opinions he has advanced.

He says that unless the trade of a Chemist be placed under restrictions as
well as the title, some other body of men will spring up under some other name,

VOL. vi. 2 p

526

PHARMACEUTICAL LEGISLATION.

to take the place of the present Chemists and Druggists. Now, the great
object of the present Bill is to place the trade of Chemists under complete re¬
striction as far as the making up of prescriptions is concerned ; Mr. Proctor
wishes, instead of this, that the sale of a certain number of poisons should be
prohibited. Whether this last plan would protect the trade more than the first
we shall probably see as we go on ; but at all events, protection to the trade is
the object of one plan as much as the other.

If any man will take the trouble to draw up what he calls a Schedule of
Poisons, which are in future only to be sold by Chemists who have passed an
examination, and then will make inquiry of some practical man acquainted with
the real requirements of the arts and manufactures of the country, and with
the necessities of the public in all localities, in villages, hamlets, and thinly-
peopled districts as well as large towns, he will find himself obliged to strike off
one thing after another, until he feels that his Schedule, as “ the one point to
model a Bill upon to protect the trade,” is a perfect absurdity.

He will see that the quantities used by Chemists of some of our most common
and dangerous poisons are perfectly insignificant compared with those used in
manufactures and compounds of daily need ; that, to the makers of them, it
would be hardly noticeable if the whole body of Chemists were to drop out of
existence ; that you must enact an examination for the painter, the dyer, the
calico-printer, the paper-stainer, the photographer, the workers in glass and
metal and a host of others, who all demand to buy their articles where they
please and how they please, and where they can get them cheapest and most
conveniently, and who would not tolerate any interference with their business
by Chemists or anybody else. The list would be reduced still further by the
requirements of the public who live far from towns, and who would claim to get
at hand anything they stood in need of in case of emergency 5 and the Schedule
of Poisons would be left in such a state that, if the trade could only be pro¬
tected by prohibiting the sale of these , it would be a miserable protection indeed.
iL Parturiunt montes, nascitur ridiculus mus” would certainly be written upon
the Bill whose “ one simple point ” was this.

Mr. Proctor says that in the provinces many Druggists make up prescriptions so
seldom that the prohibition would be a thing they did not care for. Very well,
then the Bill would leave them, in that respect where it found them, but it
would still meet the complaint made by the public and the medical profession :
that the lives of the sick are continually imperilled because the prescriptions,
upon which their life or death may depend, may be made up by persons totally
incompetent, and that there is no way by which the friends of the sufferer may
guard themselves from this, for they can neither read the prescription themselves
nor know by any title or distinction the educated naan from the pretender. And
if a prohibition to make up prescriptions would not seriously affect the trade of
a Druggist, depend upon it, the Schedule which the former inquiry would have
left would make very little difference to him.

Mr. Proctor says that there will be no difficulty in finding other titles than
Chemist and Druggist to evade the Act, such as Medical Hall, etc. No doubt of
it, and that is why the Bill does not confine itself to protecting a title, but pro¬
tects also the trade, and awards a penalty for keeping open shop, under any name ,
for the making up of prescriptions. In every town the man who has a right to
make up prescriptions will stand higher than the man who has not, whatever
tirie he may give his establishment ; he will have the best trade, whether the
prescriptions that come be many or few.

I say but little upon the plan Mr. Proctor proposes as the practical result of
all his arguments, viz. to give everybody, whoever he may be, ignorant or not,

“ Pharmaceutical Chemist or Grocer,” the power to sell all sorts of poisons as
long as he lives, if he apply for it up to a certain date, and pay a license to the

FALSE ACCUSATION AGAINST A LOCAL SECRETARY. 527

’Government. I will only express my astonishment that such a proposal should be
put forth, and add, that if this lie the superior way of benefiting the public and
protecting the trade , the more completely we are delivered from this protection the
better.

One other recommendation remains, garnished with all the titles of libera¬
lity, etc., which is, Mr. Proctor says, to “ensure the hearty support of all con¬
cerned,” and that is to admit to perfect equality with the present Pharmaceutist
“ everybody now exercising the calling.” Will it meet with the “ hearty
support” of the 800 men who have been examined — who have, with industry
and application, and at cost and inconvenience to themselves, won by examina¬
tion the title they possess? One of them told us in a letter to the Journal, a
few months ago, that the Council did not dare to set forth such a proposition,
and that if it were thought to be seriously contemplated, it would raise a storm
such as Bloomsbury Square had never known. Would it have the “hearty
support of the public,” who are calling for more protection from incompetency,
to give the highest title (for, to have distinctions of grade or name is denounced
as narrow, illiberal, etc.) to “ everyone who now exercises the calling,” huckster
or chandler-shop keeper though he may be? Would it ensure the hearty
support of the medical profession, who have declared that it is one of the ex¬
isting evils, which ought at once to be redressed, that there is no restriction
upon the making up of medicine by any, however ignorant? And would it
have the hearty support of the Legislature, which declared thirteen years ago
that it was desirable that a title should be given to enable the public to dis¬
tinguish the man entitled to their support, if we were to go back to the state of
things in 1853, and give the very title it framed as a mark of distinction and
honour, to every man who chooses to put up a blue bottle ?

_ And what is the reason advanced for all this ? — that there are some men out¬
side of us who are equal to any among us. Certainly, men who cared so little
about this equality which they now clamour for that they would not come
amongst us when they were asked, — who have never spent a shilling to advance
the education or promote the welfare of the youth who were coming forward in
our business, — who, whilst the members of the Pharmaceutical Society, examined
and unexamined, have spent thousands every year, not for themselves, but to find
education and opportunities for improvement for the young Chemists throughout
the country, have never troubled themselves to help, or have done all in their
power to hinder or abuse. Truly, the charge of illiberality has very little founda¬
tion in the face of such facts as these, and the measure which is to ensure the
hearty support of all is scarcely likely to be that recommended by Mr. Proctor. |
Depend upon it, that if the Society were to yield to clamour, at the ex¬
pense of consistency and justice, and to undo all that the last thirteen years
has done, they would not only be promise-breakers to the public and their own
examined members, but be looked upon with contempt by all who have en¬
trusted them with administrative powers, and by none be more despised than
by those who now charge them with exclusiveness and illiberality.

I am, Sir, yours faithfully,

Opifex.

FALSE ACCUSATION AGAINST A LOCAL SECRETARY OF
THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

In the 1 Chemist and Druggist ’ of February is an address from the Executive
Committee of the United Society to the trade, in which certain charges are
preferred against those who obtained the signatures of the trade to the declara¬
tion in favour of the Bill of the Pharmaceutical Society, of having made use of

2 p 2

528

PHARMACEUTICAL LEGISLATION.

misrepresentations. The only instance, however, in which such charge is
defined and authenticated, is that in which Mr. Ilazeldine, who is at present the
Mayor of Walsall, accuses our Local Secretary in that town of such unjustifi¬
able conduct. Mr. Watkins has received the following letters in reply to his
inquiries on the subject, and we publish them, as they completely exonerate him
from the charge in those cases. He says he has received verbal replies to a
similar effect from the three other individuals that were named.

Family Dispensing Establishment,

84 8f 85, Stafford Street , Walsall , March 13, 1865.

Dear Sir, — In your note just received, I perceive you request answers to
two questions : —

What misrepresentations were made to me to induce me to sign the me¬
morial to the Pharmaceutical Society? — Ansiver. Hone whatever, that I am
aware of.

Have I given sanction to the Local Secretary of the “Chemists and Drug¬
gists,” to withdraw my name to the said memorial? — Answer. Ho, certainly
not.

Your note gave me the first tidings respecting the existence of such a letter
in the ‘ Chemist and Druggist,’ and for myself I can safely say that the Local
Secretary to the “ Chemists and Druggists’ Society” has never seen or spoken
to me on the subject, nor I to him.

You are aware, from the conversation I had with you at the time I signed
the memorial, that I am very anxious to become a member of the Pharma¬
ceutical Society ; but situated as I am, without an assistant, I am unable to
leave my shop to go to London to pass an examination, or otherwise should
have done so long ago, and I should esteem it a favour if you could suggest any
other mode by which I could attain the fulfilment of my wish in this respect.

I am, dear Sir, yours truly,

Henry J. Smith.

Mr. G. 11. WatJcins.

Walsall , March , 13, 1865.

Dear Sir, — I am very much surprised to find a letter in the £ Chemist and
Druggist ’ of February 15th, accusing you of misrepresentation in obtaining
signatures to a memorial to the Council of the Pharmaceutical Society ; as
far as I am concerned, that letter is quite false. The entire facts are these : —
You showed me the memorial, and merely asked “ if I had any objection to
sign.” After looking at it I did so, most willingly.

I have known you for the last fiftecu years as a straightforward, honour¬
able, and truthful man, and am quite sure you can well afford to treat so base
an attack with the contempt it deserves. In conclusion, I need scarcely add
that I have not requested my name to be withdrawn from the memorial.

I am, dear Sir, yours very sincerely,

Joseph Day.

To Mr. WatJcins , Chemist , High Street.

You are at liberty to make what use you think fit of this letter.

PHARMACEUTICAL LEGISLATION.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — The two Bills at last bid fair to become a subject of discussion by our
Legislature, and must stand or fall, on their relative merits.

The acrimony which has hitherto prevailed is, I fear, likely to culminate in

PHARMACEUTICAL LEGISLATION.

529

much bitterness, if the gross falsehoods and misrepresentations of a few in¬
dividuals, arrogating to themselves the leadership of a body of men by whom
they are viewed with the greatest contempt, are permitted to pass uncontra¬
dicted. I allude partly to the deputation of the United Society, and partly to
the contents of its organ — if it is not still ashamed of the. association — the
4 Chemist and Druggist.’

First, then, Sir, in reference to the deputation. At the near approach of
general election, we need not feel surprised at the number of M.P.’s lending their
presence to this gathering, as we know that members are often urged by the
bores of their constituencies into matters which are very distasteful to their
ideas. The old tale was told, the same unblushing falsehoods were reiterated,
as to the number of the trade, and the small proportion of the Pharmaceutical
Society, — ignoring, as is always the case, the large number of examined men who
have not become members of the Society, and the still larger numbers of re¬
gistered apprentices. The duplicity of the Society was referred to, in obtaining
signatures without the petitioners knowing the object of their prayer, and
every ingenious method was taken to bias the Cabinet Minister. Butwilli :
avail ? Decidedly not ! These amateur legislators went a little too far — were
all over-anxious to bray. Had they been content with the privilege of entree ,
and deputed one or two of their body as spokesmen, they would not have di¬
vulged the weakness of their position.

The ridiculous admission of Mr. Slugg having signed both petitions, and
pleading ignorance as to the contents of the one of the Council, is too absurd to
entertain. The Bill has been before the trade now nearly twelve months, and
he is not the man to neglect the perusal of so important a measure.

Mr. Wade follows with the same stereotyped harangue that we have been
accustomed to hear since the formation of their Society, — implores Legislation,
but deprecates Education. “ Bother Latin, Botany, Materia Medica, Pharmacy,
and Chemistry!” exclaims Mr. Wade, — 44 What do we want with them?” Do
these gentlemen fear the responsibilities of examining candidates upon these
subjects? or, do they view the future race of aspirants as boobies without
brains or the hope of culture ? Mr. Wade despises Latin, yet would aspire to
the reading of prescriptions. This somewhat paradoxical expression is hard to
conform with our present mode of procedure, unless he contemplates reducing
the attainments of the medical profession, and to make converts of them, to
44 Bother Latin and write in English ! Is the chemist so thoroughly ignorant
that there is not material in him to elevate to a professional status ? Such is
the presumptive conclusion to be gathered from the arguments of that gentle¬
man.

The question of Medical Education is far from being settled, and there are
many who consider a university degree as the sine qua non of future admission
into the medical profession. If so high an attainment is rendered essential to
the qualification of a surgeon, surely the Pharmaceutical body must not retro¬
grade, but bring up the future candidates to the standard of proficiency.

In the ‘Standard’ of to-day there is a leading article on the subject of
Legislation, which will be read by all Pharmaceutists with considerable interest ;
it urges the adoption of the measure of our Council as the only means of elevating
the trade. Police regulations for the sale of poisons can easily be enacted by
a future measure. 44 In the rage to do all at once there is great danger lest ice end
in doing nothing .” Such is the conclusion of this excellent article.

Let me appeal then to the members of our body to exert themselves individually
with their professional brethren, and not allow private jealousy to detract their
usefulness ; the Council have worked most indefatigably, and we must each
support them in their noble endeavour to elevate the whole trade into a compact
and legalized body. I fear that there is too much apathy amongst some of our

530

SALE OF POISONS.

Local Secretaries ; this is much to be regretted, as the aid afforded by an
energetic Secretary is of the highest service to the Executive. Considerable-
benefits accrue in forming local associations, where the trade is brought together
to discuss, in a social manner, questions relating to their profession and to the
protection of their interests ; scales of prices might thus be arranged, which,
with honourable men, would lessen the evils of competition, which in the case of
medicine is a practice much to be deprecated.

Let us remember how our great benefactor toiled for us ; the honoured name
of Jacob Bell must ever prove an incentive to us to persevere in the noble
example he has set us ; others, of the highest position in our profession, are still
pushing forward our interests, and that of the whole body of the trade. Let
this urge us on in the good work we have now commenced ; with the encourage¬
ment of the medical profession, the public, and the press, we need not fear the
clamour of men of no professional calibre, whose rise into notoriety has been
simultaneous with that of the United Society .

I have never yet met with a non- member of our body who has not professed
the greatest confidence in the Society, and their acknowledged right to the sup¬
port of the entire trade. I am fully assured that they will be with us in our
Parliamentary campaign ; but we must organize a basis of operation that will
defy the noisy and undignified mischief, promulgated by a mere fragment of
jealous and officious malcontents.

I am, Sir, faithfully yours,

J. S. F. Richardson, F.C.S.

Leicester, March 21, 1865.

SALE OF POISONS.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — I wish to recommend to the attention of your readers, and of Chemists
generally, the Report of the Edinburgh Committee on the “ Question of Poison¬
ing and the Means of Prevention,” published in the March number of this journal.
The subject has evidently been carefully studied, and the Report contains the
most practical and common-sense view of the question I have yet seen published.
They have undoubtedly fixed upon the true cause of all the mistakes in dis¬
pensing or retailing, when they say that “ the source of the errors lies altogether
in the mind of the wrong-doer for there can be no question that “ a mistake
as to the substance,” or the supplying one article in place of another, arises
entirely from what is called u absence of mind,” and from the attention not
being directed exclusively to the business in hand.

There are, however, one or two other causes which have’not been noticed, and
these are, first, the habit we all get into, more or less, of trusting to the physical
appearance of the substance itself, or of the vessel in which it is contained, or
the place in which it is usually kept, instead of reading the label upon it. I
nave no hesitation in saying that in every case where laudanum has been sup¬
plied instead of tincture of rhubarb, or any other dangerous article in place of a
harmless one, the party doing it has never read the label; but the mind, being
pre-occupied, the article is supplied mechanically, with the firm conviction that it
is the right one. In this state of things no sandpaper, or diagonal, or per¬
pendicular, or any other fanciful arrangement of labels, will ever be of any
service, but the only remedy is to make it an invariable rule to read the label in
every case before supplying the substance required.

Another cause is to be found in the alphabetical arrangement usually adopted
in the shop and dispensary, whereby two substances nearly resembling each
other in appearance stand close together, — the one possessing poisonous or dange-

IMPORTANCE OF APPOINTMENT OF LOCAL SECRETARIES.

531

rous properties, the other innocent ; thus Tr. Rhei follows Tr. Opii ; Liq. Am.
Acet. ; Liq. Ammon. ; Pulv. Antim. Co., Pulv. Antim. Tart. ; Pnlv. Ipecac. Co.,
Pulv. Ipecac., and numerous other similar cases might be adduced ; and in
practice this is generally found to have been the arrangement of the bottles when
any of these mistakes have occurred. The remedy for this is within reach
of every one, for it is very easy so to arrange these different articles that the
dangerous ones shall not occupy the same shelves as the harmless ones, but shall
be placed amongst substances to which they have no resemblance. As to the
laudanum itself, the safest plan is to put it at the end of a shelf away from the
other tinctures, and where it can hardly be mistaken for anything else.

The poison-closet scheme, where all dangerous substances are to be kept under
lock and key, appears to be abandoned by all whose opinion on the subject is of
any value ; and Dr. Taylor in his Report does not even mention it. This I
am glad to see, for I believe that so far from being any safeguard, it would tend
to increase the liability to error by bringing together substances which ought to
be kept as far apart as possible, whilst use and habit would render people familiar
with the poison closet and the arrangement of its contents, which would be
handled just as mechanically as any innocent substance ; besides, the state of
mind in which mistakes are made would scarcely be affected by any such external
influence. Moreover, in discussing the question of a poison closet, it ought to
be remembered that it is as necessary to avoid mistaking strychnine for mor¬
phia, or arsenic for Antim. Tart., as it is to avoid taking any of these sub¬
stances for an innocent one. Therefore, instead of locking them all up 'close
together on two or three shelves, I believe it is a far safer plau to put them in
different parts of the shop amongst substances as unlike them as possible, and as
far apart as may be convenient ; but when all this is done, do not forget the
most important part — to read the label.

Yours truly,

W. Wilkinson.

Manchester , March 17.

IMPORTANCE OF THE APPOINTMENT OF LOCAL

SECRETARIES.

TO THE EDITOR OP THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — As the time for electing the Local Secretaries is approaching, it may
perhaps not be out of place to suggest to those on whom the election devolves,
that the men chosen to fill an office of some importance in the Society should
neither be its lukewarm supporters nor persons whose sympathies are all with
its active opponents. I would by no means advocate the extreme measures
adopted in the United Society, where it would seem that the secretaries must
hold “ United ” opinions on pain of u summary dismissal,” but certainly at the
present time, when the enemies of the Pharmaceutical Society are doing their
utmost to destroy its influence in the trade and hinder its progress in every
possible way, it behoves the members to select for its officers men who are
devoted to its interests.

No one who has read the leading articles and the correspondence in the
c Chemist and Druggist,’ and especially the address to the trade published in
that Journal on the 15th July, purporting to emanate from the Executive
Committee of the United Society, can fail to estimate at its true value the
desire professed for unity of action between the Pharmaceutical Society and
themselves ; the language employed and the expressions made use of are quite
sufficient evidence on that point.

It is mere idle talk on the part of the United Society to say that the Council

532

NEW SYSTEM OF EXAMINATIONS.

of the Pharmaceutical Society prevent the joint action of the two, and that
they contemptuously rejected a proposal to that effect made by the United
Society ; because, although some such proposal was made, it was made in such a
manner that it could not be accepted, nor was it ever intended that it should be,
for the parties making it were well aware that its acceptance would involve a
speedy loss of their own importance as Executive Committee and officers of a
Society they could no longer hope to keep in antagonism to the Pharmaceutical.
The chemists and druggists generally know very well by whom their battles
have been fought, and by whose influence many injurious measures have been
defeated, and others modified so as not to interfere with legitimate business ;
they know by whose exertions more than one Medical Bill, which threatened to
interfere seriously with their rights and privileges, was either withdrawn or
amended ; they know who, seven or eight years ago, were the means of defeat¬
ing two or three successive Poison Bills ; they know by whose exertions the
Poisoned Grain Bill was at last brought into a satisfactory shape ; they know
by whose influence it is that they are not now subjected to the vexatious pro¬
ceedings with respect to the sale of proprietary medicines and of spirit of wine,
which were formerly so great an annoyance ; and they know also, notwithstand¬
ing the boasting of the Executive Committee and its officers, that they were the
means of preventing the Medical Bill being brought forward last year, — that
in reality their influence in the matter was small indeed.

With regard to the Jury question, it could easily be proved that the Pharma¬
ceutical Society sought exemption for the whole trade, and until it was found
impossible, at that time, to obtain so large a measure, it was not sought for its
own members only.

In conclusion, I would commend to those of our members who have “ United”
proclivities, to all who take an interest in the matter, a short course of ‘ Chemist
and Druggist,’ and after noting the remarkably temperate and courteous language
generally used, and notably the address of the Executive in the February
number, they will be able to judge how far the United Society — perhaps I
should rather say the Executive Committee or its ruling spirit — desires har¬
monious action with the Pharmaceutical.

Yours, etc.,

March 20, 18G3. A Country Member.

NEW SYSTEM OE EXAMINATIONS.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Dear Sir, — Will you, or any of your readers, kindly inform me with what
works I must replace my Fownes, Bentley and lloyle, in order to work up for
the examination proposed in the new Bill introduced by Sir J. Shelley? — one of
the influential deputation to Sir George Grey having informed that Minister
“ it would not demand a knowledge of Botany, Chemistry, or Materia
Medica” !

Yours faithfully,

“ Major Associate of the Doomed Society.”

London , March 23, 1865.

THE TWO MEASUBES.

to the editor of the pharmaceutical journal.

Sir,' — It is greatly to be regretted that instead of the numerous meetings which
b ave of late been held in various parts of the country, at each of which it has

FIRE INSURANCE.

been a case of Pharmaceutical versus United Society, there could not have been
some substantial effort made by which to reconcile rather than widen the differ¬
ences which exist between the Bills of the two Societies, both of which we now'
find presented to Parliament, side by side ; by which the strength of the whole
cause becomes divided, each being deprived of that full and ample support which
there is no question would have been given to a well-digested and harmonious
Bill ; whereas we find Sir George Grey, in receiving the deputation from the
United Society, on Wednesday last, distinctly saying, “That he declined taking
up our Bill, having the idea that it did not represent all sections of the trade.”
And yet, fully knowing that this must be the result of going blindfoldedly with¬
out recognising dangers which were open to the eyes of the most casual observer,
we have allowed the time, with all its opportunities, to pass without coming to
the point, which might easily have been accomplished had the interests of out¬
siders been more liberally dealt with.

Here wre have the Pharmaceutical Society, with its excellent Laboratories, its
able Professors, its- Board of Examiners, its Charter, already recognised by
Government, all things ready to hand to carry out in the most perfect manner
the much-to-be-desired object; and yet failing in that most excellent gift
u brotherly love,” for the sake of a little petty jealousy absolutely cutting our own
throats, and creating enemies where we should recognise brethren. Surely it is
time to cast down these paltry feelings, and to show that we are not so narrow¬
minded or self-opinionated as to look with contempt upon others striving in the
same cause although under a different banner.

I am, Sir, faithfully yours,

Edwin B. Vizer.

63, Lupus Street , Belgravia South , March 17, 1S65.

PIPE INSURANCE.

TO TIIE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — Having had occasion a short time ago to make some inquiries respect¬
ing the rates of premium paid to Fire Insurance offices by chemists having-
working laboratories adjoining their houses of business, I wras surprised to find
that many not unfrequently perform operations which are distinctly forbidden
in their policies.

The usual premium paid by such chemists is the doubly hazardous rate of
4s. 6c?. per cent. ; for this payment most offices will allow the laboratory to be
used for all ordinary pharmaceutical operations, except the distillation of ether ,
and the refining of camphor and saltpetre. The only one of these exceptions
which affects the retail chemist is that relating to the distillation of ether,
which is an operation of frequent occurrence in the preparation of ethereal
extracts, etc. It may be desirable therefore to remind those who perform this
and similar operations, and who are insured on such terms as the above, that
by so doing their policies become null and void ; and although the wealthier
offices might, and perhaps would, in the event of a fire, pay the amount in¬
sured, they would require the insurer to pay up the difference between the rate
of premium he had been paying and a special higher rate, which they would con¬
sider he ought to have paid. On the other thand, some offices, having the
power to do so, might refuse to pay anything.

It would appear that if laboratories are to be used for every purpose without
restriction, a rate of premium from Is. 6d. to 10s. per cent., according to cir¬
cumstances, must be paid.

I may perhaps venture to remind all chemists who insure of the desirability

534

DETECTION OF METHYLIC ALCOHOL.

of reading over tlieir policies carefully, in order to understand clearly the nature
of the agreement contained in them, so that there may be no risk of loss or
litigation should a fire occur.

Yours respectfully,

M. Carteeghe.

172, New Bond Street , W.

DETECTION OE METHYLIC ALCOHOL IN PRESENCE OF
ETLIYLIC ALCOHOL AND VOLATILE OIL.

BY JOHN T. MILLER.

Of the tests for methylic alcohol hitherto proposed, none can be said to be
altogether satisfactory. No great reliance can be placed on the indications of
the potash test; methylated spirit may without much difficulty be so far
“ cleaned” as to be only slightly discoloured by caustic potash ; and Eschwege’s
purified naphtha is merely tinged yellow by it after the lapse of some hours.
Better results are obtainable by the use of sulphuric acid. When, for instance,
a small quantity of the purified naphtha is mixed with an equal bulk of strong,
colourless sulphuric acid contained in a test-tube, no immediate development of
colour occurs ; but upon treating the mixture — not however to boiling — it be¬
comes of a deep red-brown colour. If pure spirit of wine is subjected to the
same treatment, it remains colourless ; but ordinary rectified spirit, owing to the
trace of fusel oil it contains, shows a slight tinge of colour ; while rectified
spirit mixed with five or six per cent, of Eschwege’s naphtha takes a light amber
tint. Pure ether similarly treated continues colourless, but the methylated
article turns brown. The necessity of removing all traces of volatile oil from
the spirit to be examined is however a serious obstacle to the general use of this
test. The above are not, properly speaking, tests for methylic alcohol, as the
reactions are not due to that substance, but to other matters with which it is
usually associated in the commercial wood- spirit ; and in this respect they agree
with the mercurial test of Mr. E. Reynolds, the action of which, according to
that chemist, is owing to acetone.

The method which, after an extended trial, I have found to give good results,
and to be capable of very general application, is based on the difference of the
products of the oxidation, under certain conditions, of e thy lie and methylic
alcohol : the former yielding principally water, aldehyde, and acetic acid, with
only traces of formic acid ; the latter giving, together with other products, formic
acid in comparatively large quantity. The following experiments demonstrate
this : —

Put into a small distilling apparatus 60 grains of powdered bichromate of
potash, and pour upon it 1 ounce of water and 90 grains of sulphuric acid, sp.
gr. 1-845, then add 1 fluid drachm of rectified spirit. Let the mixture stand
fifteen minutes, and distil 1 fluid ounce. Neutralize the distillate with carbo¬
nate of soda, boil it down nearly to dryness, add water to make up the quantity
4 fluid drachms, and render the solution sufficiently acid to redden litmus paper
by the addition of a drop or so of acetic acid, then pour it in equal portions
into two perfectly clean one-ounce test-tubes. To one portion add 1 grain of
nitrate of silver dissolved in half a fluid drachm of water, heat to boiling, and
boil gently for about two minutes. The mixture darkens slightly but does not
lose its transparency, and if the tube is filled with water and set aside, a minute
dark precipitate slowly subsides, leaving the glass clear and free from brown
deposit. To the other portion of the solution half a fluid drachm of acetic
acid, and a few drops of solution of nitrate of suboxide of mercury, are to be

DETECTION OF METHYLIC ALCOHOL.

535

added. Upon boiling briskly for a few minutes, a small grey precipitate of me¬
tallic mercury subsides.

If these experiments are repeated, using pure methylic alcohol in place of
rectified spirit, very different results are obtained. The portion of the prepared
distillate treated with nitrate of silver quickly becomes turbid and opaque when
treated, and upon boiling a coating of silver sufficiently thick to form a mirror is
deposited on the inner surface of the tube. If the liquor is transferred to a clean
tube and again boiled with another grain of nitrate of silver, a part of this is
also decomposed ; and on adding water a considerable precipitate of silver sub¬
sides, and a thin film of the metal, which appears broivn by transmitted light, is
found upon the glasss. Upon boiling the second half of the distillate, after
adding acetic acici and solution of subnitrate of mercury, fresh portions of the
latter being supplied as long as it is quickly decomposed, an abundant precipi¬
tate of metallic mercury separates.

In mixtures of etliylic and methylic alcohol the detection of the latter by
this process is easy and certain, for when it forms only from 1 to 2 per cent, of
the whole, the distillate, upon treating with nitrate of silver, darkens to opacity,
and distinctly browns the tube. Of course the spirit to be tested must be free
from non-volatile organic substances ; but the presence of essential oil in small
quantity is of no moment. Consequently, in applying the method to the exa¬
mination of tinctures, etc., a preliminary distillation is often necessary. This,
however, is a trifling matter ; and for the use of those who may require such
information, I will briefly describe the simple arrangements which have enabled
me to perform these small distillations with ease and dispatch. In Fig. 1, a; is a
two-ounce flask, to which is fitted by means of a sound perforated cork the
glass tube, b. This tube is about a third of an inch in the bore, and rises two
inches above the neck of the flask. Its descending limb, c, is connected with
another two-ounce flask, d, which is immersed to the neck in a vessel of cold
water. The dish, e, contains water, which is drawn off by a piece of lamp- wick,
and deposited by drops on the tube, c, round which is rolled a slip of blotting-
paper, thus forming an effectual condenser. The most convenient lamp is an
argand burner with iron chimney, on the top of which fits a cap having a hole
in its centre about the size of a shilling. Fig. 2 represents an ounce flask con¬
nected with a test-tube receiver. It may be held by a tube-clip, and is useful
for distilling small quantities of spirit from tinctures, etc.

Supposing, then, it is required to test, say Tinct. Benzoin. Co. for methylic
alcohol : introduce a drachm or two into the flask, wrap some wet blotting-
paper round the test-tube, apply heat, and in a few minutes the first operation
is finished. Now put into the flask, a (Fig. 2), 30 grains'of bichromate of
potash in powder, add half an ounce of water with 25 jminims of strong sul¬
phuric acid, and then half a fluid drachm of the spirit. Allow the mixture to
stand fifteen minutes, and distil half a fluid ounce. Add to the distillate a
very slight excess of carbonate of soda, boil it down to two fluid drachms, and
add enough acetic acid to impart a distinct though feeble acid reaction ; then
pour it into a test-tube, and after adding a grain of nitrate of silver dissolved
in half a drachm of water, boil very gently for about two minutes. If the
liquor merely darkens a little, but continues quite translucent, the spirit is free
from methyl ; but if it becomes muddy and opaque, and the tube after being
rinsed and filled with water appears browned (best seen by holding it against
white paper), the spirit is methylated. In the cases of tinctures prepared with
proof spirit, about 50 minims of the distillate should be taken for oxidation.
A preparatory distillation is not always needful. Spt. Ammon. Aromat. only
requires neutralizing with sulphuric acid, and filtering from the sulphate of
ammonia. Strong solutions of essential oil, as some of the “ spirits ” of the
Pharmacopoeia, may be diluted with 7 parts of water, shaken with magnesia,

536

THE NEW LIGHT.

and filtered. About fluid drachms of the filtrate, mixed with the sulphuric
acid, are then added to the bichromate of potash, and the process completed as
before.

“ Few articles of the Pharmacopoeia are more extensively adulterated than
spirit of nitric ether,” says Pereira ; and certainly matters have not improved
since the introduction of methylated spirit.

Shake the sample to be tested with ignited carbonate of potash, let it stand
an hour, distil the small quantity required, and proceed as before. When the
preparation is pure the results are similar to those given by rectified spirit ; the
darkening of the solution goes rather further however, but stops far short of
opacity, and the tube is not perceptibly stained. The difference of the results
in the case of the methylated article is strongly marked ; the liquor quickly
blackens on heating, and the browning of the tube is very distinct.

Of twenty-three samples of spirit of nitrous ether procured from various
sources and examined by this method, thirteen gave satisfactory indications of
the presence of methylic alcohol. A careful examination of the odour and
flavour of each sample preceded the chemical one, and it was found on compar¬
ing the two sets of results that the accordance, though not complete, was re¬
markably close.

Sheffield \ March, 1865.

THE NEW LIGHT.

BY MR. W. WILL MOTT.

Great things are in progress. Not the least among the many new phenomena
now attracting the attention of the scientific world, is the magnesium light ; and
it is encouraging to note that this discovery, for such it must be called, is sur¬
rounded by conditions of so promising a character, that very sanguine expecta¬
tions are formed respecting the extent to which it may be made available for
purposes of general adoption. Already has the magnesium light found its way
into the drawing-room, dazzling the eyes of all beholders, and competing with
the “ odorator ” as a pretty, though scientific amusement, for the largest share
of public favour. The “wire” has an extensive sale, and is familiar to most
youths who delight in astonishing their friends with the effects they can produce
by the aid of a well-filled chemical chest and a little handbook of experiments
for a guide. But during this while, earnest and thoughtful men are zealously
applying themselves to the task of discovering the whole truth in connection
with this new illuminating material. Following up the researches and dis¬
coveries of Sir Id. Bavy, they are developing the peculiar character of the metal
to its fullest extent. What may be the result as science progresses, we are not
at present in a position to decide. With the experience of oxycalcium ignition
before us, it seems easy to predict for any light produced under somewhat similar
conditions, a like undignified fate. Most of us have heard of the Lime Light
Company, and many of us have seen its brilliant rays and dark shadows thrown
across the old bridge at Westminster. Where is this company now ? and what
progress has it made towards the accomplishment of those grand schemes origi¬
nally propounded by its too sanguine promoters ? But in truth the lime and
magnesium lights though in some respects the same, are yet widely different.
A stream of mixed gases (oxygen and hydrogen) is ignited and thrown upon a
piece of lime ; so intense is the heat, that the particles of lime become incandes¬
cent, and by a correlation of the physical forces, produce the phenomenon that
is then witnessed. Not exactly so in the other case. Here is a piece of pure,
or nearly pure metal, rapidly oxidized (burned) in the air, the combustion sup-

THE NEW LIGHT.

K o H

5o7

plying its own conditions until something occurs to interfere with the process of
oxidation. In this process magnesium is converted into magnesia, and then,
but not till then, the resemblance to the lime light commences. The particles
of magnesia become incandescent and intensely white and dazzling. By virtue
of a power which they possess of being incapable of fusion, the heat is rejected
as it were, and thrown out into the atmosphere in all directions ; not indeed as
heat, but transformed as if by magic into rays of great brightness and splendour.
A light is produced, which greatly resembles daylight, and which shows all sur¬
rounding objects in their natural and true colours. In the difference, then, here
pointed out between the two lights, we observe a loophole of escape from some
at least of the objections that have been urged against this mode of lighting for
purposes of ordinary combustion. All cumbrous machinery is done away with,
and the whole process is entirely free from danger. A parabolic or spheroid
reflector will send the light to a great distance in any direction, whilst a pro¬
perly constructed lamp, without this addition, will modify and assist its general
diffusiveness.

In estimating, however, the probabilities of success as regards the introduction
of magnesium for illuminating our public buildings, offices, and shops, two main
points are open for consideration, — the character or quality of the light itself,
and the cost incurred in its production. In the combustion of all hydro- carbons,
such as coal gas, the products evolved are, for the most part carbonic acid and
water, and these mingle with the atmosphere and pass off unperceived. The
body oxidized is carbon, the result being a light of a soft yellow tinge, which
can be looked at and examined by the eye without difficulty. The light is also
clear and bright under proper management, and in the case of a common candle
or lamp is both portable and safe. These qualities render this mode of lighting
admirably adapted for ordinary use ; but there are objections nevertheless,
which it would be well if possible to get rid of.*

In u ignition without combustion” we meet with a totally different result.
Here the intensity is very great, the actinic or chemical ray being considered,
in the case of magnesium, equal to that of daylight. Everything upon which
the light falls is brilliantly illuminated, the reflection from white surfaces being
correspondingly great — a matter of considerable importance, since there cannot
be a doubt, that much injury is done to the eye when reading or working by the
aid of an unsteady or indifferent light. It Avould not be difficult in the former
case to regulate or lessen the intensity, if required, but we all know how dif¬
ficult, or rather how practically impossible it is, to brighten a flame issuing from
a gas jet or common candle beyond its light-giving pover. But it is objected,
that whilst lights “in which carbon constitutes the ignitable solid,” possess a
power of diffusibility, which renders objects not directly opposed to the course of
the rays more or less distinctly visible, “ the electric, lime, and magnesium lights
possess none of this diffusiveness ; their rays seem to be projected with a force
and velocity which deprives them of the power of diffusion. An object placed
in the direct course of the rays is splendidly illuminated, and the rays are pro¬
jected to an immense distance ; but the shadows cast by intervening objects are
intensely black, and the rays seem to pass through the atmosphere without pro¬
ducing much effect except upon that part which is in the course of the stream
of light.” And herein would appear to reside the supposed cause of failure in
the application of this light to ordinary illumination. u It is in no wise suitable
to such a use.” Experiments, however, would seem to place magnesium in an
exceptional position. Newspapers and books have been jffaced between the eye

'* The means of testing the illuminating power and chemical purity of coal-gas, and the
various methods adopted for measuring or determining the relative intensity of two lights,
are given by Dr. Letheby in a very able lecture, published in the ‘Medical Times and
Gazette,’ February 11th, 1865.

538

THE NEW LIGHT.

and the light, and at a considerable distance from it, and yet have been read
with great facility ; in fact, by modifying and improving the process (which
time will probably show to be quite practicable), there is no valid reason why
we should not make this light subservient to ordinary use, and, whilst retaining
its remarkable qualities, render it unobjectionable in all other respects. At
present, it must be said, that the question of cost is a formidable obstacle in the
way. It is well known that magnesium is extracted from its various sources
with great difficulty ; but, like other metals of the same class, it will, no doubt,
be more abundantly obtained as time progresses. With such men as Mr.
Sonstadt pursuing the investigation con amove , we feel almost assured of a
satisfactory result.* But not alone upon a liberal production of the metal does
the cost depend. Mr. Alonzo Grant, who has been zealously engaged on the
subject, and writes a letter to the ‘ Standard,’ December 1st, 1864, states that by
burning a strip of zinc in conjunction with two strips of magnesium, the cost of
the light may be reduced by two-thirds ; and further ventures to predict that
“ magnesium will become as cheap as zinc, and that in course of time it will be
possible to illuminate a street a mile long at the rate of a halfpenny per hour.”
A gentleman with whom I am personally acquainted, and who has instituted
some very able experiments, and been in communication with both Mr. Sonstadt
and Mr. Grant, informs me that these discoverers — for such, indeed, they are,
with the distinctive deference due to each — are still 'labouring assiduously to
bring this light to something like practical perfection ; and, until the result of
their labours shall be made known, it would scarcely be wise to pronounce an
opinion to the effect that signalling and photography will alone be benefited by
it. W e are quite prepared to hear of a newly-discovered amalgam that shall be
found to burn brightly and economically, or of a lamp so constructed as to
answer the same end. With regard to the dark shadows, if they “ come like
shadows,” so they must “ depart.” The question of cost once settled, and the
rest will scarcely fail to follow in due course.

The history of artificial illumination acquires a peculiar interest at the present
time, from the fact that we are by no means satisfied with Avhat we have
already achieved, but are branching out in all directions in search of some new
discovery which shall be found to obviate the inconvenience attending the
method at present adopted. u More light, we want more light !” is the cry of
the age, and it may be taken in its double sense with a great amount of truth.
The papers teem with complaints of the indifferent quality and high price of the
gas supplied by the various gas companies, and no one, of course, will consent
to go back to the age of “ dips’’ and u short sixteens.” Just now we are looking
very wistfully at petroleum. The oil wells of Y enango county, Western Penn¬
sylvania, are apparently inexhaustible, and the demand is correspondingly great.
Petroleum, it is said, has extinguished every light in America but that obtained
from coal gas, and with this it is entering fiercely into competition. The ex¬
ports to this country are immensely on the increase, and there can be no doubt
that in petroleum we shall possess a very valuable illuminating agent. But
petroleum has nothing in common with magnesium, and it is to this latter body
that we are looking to change the entire character of our artificial light. Mag¬
nesium belongs to a group of metals which have their source in the alkaline
earths. It is extremely oxidizable, and when exposed to the atmosphere it soon
becomes coated with magnesia, its only oxide. It is seldom to be met with
quite pure, owing to the presence of a small quantity of nitrogen, which darkens

* Magnesium is now being manufactured upon a commercial scale, by an undertaking
called the Magnesium Metal Company, and Messrs. Johnson, Mat they and Co., the metal¬
lurgists of Hatton Garden, have, as sole agents, undertaken its introduction. (‘ Times,’
Monday, February 20th, 1865.)

POISONING BY COltllOSIVE SUBLIMATE.

539

the outer surface, but docs not interfere with its properties in other respects.
Magnesium may be obtained from the salts of magnesia and from the magnesian
limestone, but its extraction in bulk is attended with considerable labour. In
truth it cannot be denied that, looking at the question of magnesium illumina¬
tion as a whole, there are difficulties which we do not quite see our way out of
at present. But, remembering the rapid progress that has already been made,
we look forward with something like confidence to ultimate success. Coal gas,
when introduced, was a great step in advance ; but such is the brilliancy and
magnificence of magnesium, that should it ever be made to form an efficient
substitute, it will constitute one of the most splendid and important discoveries
of this marvellous and progressive age.

27, Bishopsgate Street Within , February 23, 1865.

MYSTERIOUS DEATH CAUSED BY CRIMINAL SUBSTITUTION OF COR¬
ROSIVE SUBLIMATE FOR STEEDMAN’S POWDER.

On the 1st of March, 1865, an inquest was concluded before J. Wybrants, Esq., M.D..
coroner for the Eastern Division of the county of Somerset, at Emborough, a small
village situated between the cities of Bath and Wells, and about six miles from Shepton
Mallet, on the body of William Coles, an infant, seven months old, who mysteriously
came by his death through poison.

It appeared that at the beginning of January the mother of the child procured a
packet of Steedman’s Powders from Mr. Habgood, a chemist, at Wells, one of which
was given, to the great relief of the child, who was a little ailing. A month afterwards,
the mother, who had not seen the first powder administered, and consequently did not
know what it was like, mixed a second one in some moist sugar, which was administered
by the little nursemaid, and killed the child in ten minutes. This led to the examination
of the remaining powders, when it was found, of the six left in the packet five were in
their normal condition, but from the sixth paper the original powder had been removed,
and about ten grains of corrosive sublimate substituted. On a post-mortem examination
by Mr. Cartner, of Oakbill, the same substance was found in the child’s mouth ; so that
there could be no doubt of what had caused its death.

The natural and first impression was, that some mistake had been made in the factory
of the proprietor of Steedman’s Powders, but the evidence of Mr. Faulconer, the manu¬
facturer of the medicine, completely set aside the idea of such a possibility ; while that
of Mr. White, managing clerk of Messrs. Barclay & Son, also of Mr. Habgood, the
chemist, of Wells, who supplied the packet, and the messenger who fetched it for Mrs.
Coles, proved that the packet had not been tampered with.

Mr. Charles Coles, the father of the child, kept corrosive sublimate, in lump, for the
pupose of touching the sores of sheep infected with “ the fly,” and a lump which had
been used for that purpose was kept wrapped up in a drawer of a bureau in his sitting-
xoom, which drawer was not kept locked, so that the contents were accessible to any
one besides himself. This sublimate, as well as the packet of Steedman’s Powder, was
taken possession of by the police, and a portion of it, as well as a portion of the false
Bteedman’s Powder, properly labelled, were handed over to Dr. Wybrants, the coroner,
for microscopic analysis, and, at the request of Mr. Faulconer, were submitted for
examination to Mr. Henry Deane, whose evidence we now give.

Mr. Henry Deane, a microscopical analyst, from London, said : — “I am a member of
the Pharmaceutical Society, one of the council, and an examiner of that society. I
hare very carefully examined the contents of the two packets given me by the coroner.
One packet was marked ‘ Corrosive Sublimate ’ and the other ‘ Steedman’s Powder.’
That marked ‘ Steedman’s Powder’ is not so, but is corrosive sublimate, and exactly
rorvesponds with the packet so marked. On examination with the microscope, I find
the crystals in both papers soiled and stained in a peculiar manner, and both containing

icies of hair or wool and other fibrous matter, all much rubbed. The two packets
* i ^-responded entirely (except in the disintegration of the crystals, which were much
finer in the Steedman’s Powder paper).”

540

POISONING BY CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE.

Here the jury had an opportunity of examining these powders, under the microscope,
and were also shown some sublimate in a clean state, as it would, in all probability, be
sold by a druggist.

Examination continued : — “I have examined the powder marked 4 Corrosive Subli¬
mate.’ It is in my opinion exactly the same as that marked 4 Steedman’s Powder.’ I
see no real difference in them ; they are both soiled and stained alike, and contain
similar fibrous particles. I have examined the two packets in the hands of the police¬
man. They both present the same appearance, and are precisely like those I received
from the coroner. I received the powders from the coroner this morning, and tested
them in his presence before bringing them here. By a juror : It was necessary to test
them before bringing them here. I don’t think it probable corrosive sublimate would
get solid in coming from a chemist’s shop. It is usually carefully wrapped up, sealed,
and labelled. When I have had occasion to sell it, I have invariably sealed it. Chemists
are generally very careful in the sale of it. The character of the extraneous matter is
similar in both powders. I do not think there was any difference in the quality of the
two powders. I am satisfied as to the identity of the dirt. I have had much experience
in microscopic science during twenty-three years’ practice, both on my own account and
that of professional men. It requires considerable practice in the study to avoid falla¬
cies. The particles of wool seemed to be broken up and ragged at the ends in both
packets. There was no essential difference between the two.”

The whole of the evidence that could be brought to bear on the case having been
gone through, the learned coroner proceeded to sum up. He said, from the evidence
adduced at the first inquest, he thought perhaps the child had died in a fit, and he
laughed at the idea of its being stated that death was caused by taking Steedman’s
Powders, having known them for a number of years, and the good effects they produced
on children ; but when the powder was produced, he immediately discovered that it was
poison, which was attested to by the medical gentlemen, and had been so again that
day. From the evidence adduced, there was no doubt what had caused the child’s
death. It had been proved by the mother, by Ham, a person present when the powder
w'as given, by the servant-maid, and by the niece, that the child took a powder, and
that it was dead in ten minutes ; and from the evidence of Mr. Cartner, the medical at¬
tendant, there was no doubt that the powder was a deadly poison — corrosive sublimate —
from which the child died, and wrhich was administered by the little maid. Now the
question arises, how did that powder get there ? That was a mystery. The evidence
showed that the Wells druggist, Mr. Habgood, sent the packet of powders by Ann
House to Mrs. Coles, and that it was delivered secure and unopened. Mrs. Coles broke
the seal and opened 'the packet, and the first powder was given, which seemed to have
been harmless and did good. But on the 8th of February, when the second powder
was given, the child was dead in ten minutes. They had had before them a gentleman
from London, representing a wholesale agent for these powders, as well as other patent
medicines, who testified to their extensive sale and to their harmless and beneficial
effects. There was the evidence of another gentleman from London — Mr. Faulconer,
who had come forward most willingly, and by so doing was the means of saving him
(the coroner) much trouble, and the county much expense, from whom we learn that
from the nature of his arrangements it was impossible the poison could have been in¬
serted in his establishment ; if so, there would have been death all over the country.

From the evidence, then, of Mr. Habgood and the wholesale dealer, there appears to
have been an impossibility for poison to have been introduced into the powders while
in their possession. They must, therefore, be freed from any charge whatever, and, if
the evidence of Mr. Faulconer was to be believed, he could not be held to blame.

There was no doubt in his (the coroner’s) mind that a murder had been committed,
by the substitution of corrosive sublimate for the real powder, and he could not rid his
mind of the fact. He believed that some evil-disposed person towards the child had
placed the poison there in the baby’s medicine-cupboard, not to kill Mr. or Mrs. Coles,
but to destroy the child.

The powders were purchased, and when delivered at that house they were sealed with
the government stamp around them. How did this powder come there ? That mystery
they could not unravel. Mr. Coles had told them of whom he purchased the mercury,
and where he placed it — in the bureau — a portion of which the shepherd had. Now it
appears the shepherd lost his piece through a hole in his pocket ; and it is most re-

CITRINE OINTMENT OF THE BRITISH PHARMACOPEIA.

541

markable that the poison the child died of was similar to that the shepherd lost. The
evidence of Mr. Deane, the analyst, whom he (the coroner) had no idea of bringing
before them but for the purpose of endeavouring to unravel the mystery, showed that
both powders were of the same nature, and there was no doubt that the poison had
been substituted for the original powder, for the purpose of killing the unfortunate
deceased. What, then, could have been the object of this crime ? This was the only
child out of six the parents had been able to save, and they must have been most
anxious that it should live. If any one was at enmity with the parents, and, to
vent their malice on them, took these means, then there would appear to be some
cause for the mystery. But there seemed to be no one with whom the parents were not
on friendly terms, and there appeared to be no motive for the act. Mr. and Mrs. Coles
were greatly to be pitied, not only for the loss of their only child, but for that most
unpleasant inquiry. If they thought, by adjourning again, more light could be brought
to bear upon the subject, he was most willing to do so ; but under present circumstances
an open verdict must be given.

The jury were then left to themselves, and after the space of nearly an hour, returned
the following verdict : —

“By what means the said William Coles came to his death, the jury upon their oath
say, some person or persons unknown did feloniously, wilfully, and of malice afore¬
thought, kill and murder the said William Coles, by a substitution of corrosive sublimate
for Steedman’s Soothing Powder.”

THE EFFECTS OF THE CALABAR-BEAN AS AN ANTIDOTE TO

POISONING- BY ATROPIA.

In the ophthalmic department of the hospital at Prague last August, four boys, en¬
gaged in cleaning the room, drank a portion of a solution of atropia, thinking that it
contained spirits. Two of the boys either spat out or vomited the fluid, and exhibited no
symptoms of poisoning, but the two others who did not vomit were distinctly poisoned
— one, however, much more so than the other. The symptoms were those of poisoning
by belladonna, and consisted of delirium, dilatation of the pupils, feeble pulse, and in
one there was coma, alternating with furious delirium. Both the patients were taken to
bed, one of them being restrained in a strait- jacket, and cold lotions were placed on their
heads. Dr. Kleinwachter happened accidentally to have with him a solution of the Ca¬
labar-bean extract in glycerine, and, by way of experiment, he gave to the patient who
was the most affected ten drops of the solution (six grains of extract to one drachm of
glycerine), which in about a quarter of an hour produced violent vomiting. The pulse
became stronger and quicker, rose to 75 and then to 80 in the minute, the temperature
of the body fell, the delirium abated, the patient became more quiet, consciousness re¬
turned, urine was passed with some pain in the urethra, and the pupils became somewhat
contracted. In the case of the other patient, who was less affected, some of the extract of
the Calabar-bean was dropped into the eye, but without any good effect, for on the next
day the symptoms were almost unchanged, while the patient who had taken the solution
of the Calabar-bean internally, had almost completely recovered. The rapid and striking
improvement in one of these cases appears manifestly to be attributable to the adminis¬
tration of the Calabar-bean extract, for the patient who was not treated in the same
manner showed no improvement for forty-eight hours. — Berliner Klinische Wochenschrift
and British and Foreign Medico- Chirurgical Preview.

ON THE CITRINE OINTMENT OF THE BRITISH PHARMACOPEIA.

BY M. DONOVAN, M.R.I.A., ETC.

There is no known formula for preparing citrine ointment which will always present
the same appearance and possess the same properties, and a very short time is adequate
to induce changes to a certain amount. This ointment may be viewed as a metallic
soap mixed with that compound which Fourcroy designates oxygenized pomatum.

VOL. YI. 2 Q

543

CITRINE OINTMENT OF THE BRITISH PHARMACOPOEIA.

Oxide of mercury, like other metallic oxides, forms a soap with the fatty acids.
Berthollet produced such a compound by decomposing corrosive sublimate by means of
solution of soap ; but it was not permanent, in process of time it became slate-coloured.
A soap may be formed of an analogous constitution by heating finely-levigated peroxide
of mercury with lard ; but the soap thus produced undergoes the same changes as that
of Berthollet, first becoming brown, and ultimately slate-coloured. Hence, the ointment
of red precipitate cannot be kept unchanged in the apothecary’s shop. Citrine ointment
is similarly acted on by time ; if its colour be ever so bright a yellow at first, it soon
becomes dull, and by degrees tends to the same alterations as those already mentioned.

These changes are induced by the gradual decomposition of the mercurial nitrate and
evolution of the oxide. If the decomposition be assisted by heat, the oxide is not only
evolved but decomposed, and vapour of mercury is freely discharged.

Citrine ointment is of French origin. It was first introduced at the Hotel Dieu,
where it was employed for the cure of itch — a disease which raged there ruthlessly at
the time. The basis of it was lard, with one pound of which an ounce of mercury
dissolved in nitric acid was incorporated ; it was found very effectual. This is the same
formula that was introduced into the Dublin Pharmacopoeia of 1807 ; but it was so hard
that it could not be mixed with other ointments so as to be smooth, without the
greatest trouble, and melting could not be used without changing its chemical constitu¬
tion. With a view of remedying this defect, the Colleges introduced oil, forgetting that
nitrate of mercury solidifies olive-oil, and renders it even hard. Changes in the ratio of
nitric acid, in its strength, in the temperature at which the solution of the mercury was
effected, and at which the solution was presented to the fatty matter, were made, but
failed in attaining and preserving the qualities required.

I believe that the following is the theory of these changes. As there are two oxides
of mercury, so there are two nitrates, which by certain agencies becomes basic. When
mercury is dissolved in nitric acid in the ratio directed by the Colleges, the solution will
be found to contain both the protoxide and peroxide, one or other predominating, accord¬
ing to the temperature at which the solution was affected. The two salts soon separate ;
the protonitrate crystallizes, the pernitrate remains in solution, retaining, however, a
little of the former. If either of these nitrates, or its solution, be mixed gradually with
water, its basic salt will sooner or later be precipitated : sooner, the less free acid it
contains ; later, as it contains much ; but in every case the basic salt at length will be
precipitated. If the protonitrate had been decomposed by a small quantity of water,
the resulting basic salt will be white ; if by a large quantity, yellow ; if by a large
quantity of boiling water, it will be bluish dark-grey. These degrees of colour are
due to the abstraction of successive quantities of acid. If pernitrate be decomposed by-
cold water, it affords an orange-brown salt ; but according to Thenard and others, if
much boiling water be used, the whole acid is washed away and leaves pure red oxide.

Much the same series of changes may be observed when, instead of water, the
mercurial nitrates are exposed to the action of the fatty acids ; but owing to the con¬
siderable excess of strong nitric acid and the high temperature present, additional
phenomena are induced. When the nitric acid holding the mercurial salts in solution
is mixed with the melted fatty matter, the chemical action induced is first to form
Fourcroy’s pomatum ; the uncombined acid is withdrawn by decomposition, and the
basic mercurial salts, which are now yellow, communicate that colour to the ointment.
But the decomposition of the basic salts does not stop here ; the abstraction of nitric
acid still slowly continues, until at length the mercurial salts are resolved into the two
original oxides — slate-grey and orange-red — by the admixture of which colours an
ointindnt of a brownish hue, lighter or deeper according to age and circumstances, will
result. Heat will bring about these changes more rapidly ; without heat a very long
time will be required.

This series of changes took place in a remarkable manner when I repeated the process
of the British Pharmacopoeia for making citrine ointment. When the hot mercurial
solution was poured into the hot lard and oil, and well stirred, an effervescence was
excited which would soon have overflowed but that the vessel was capable (as the Phar¬
macopoeia directs) of containing six times the volume of the ointment. During this
violent effervescence the colour of the liquid ointment became continually darker, until,
the effervescence having ceased, the ointment was found to be of a dark mahogany
colour. When perfectly cold, it did not solidify, but remained of the consistence of

MAGNESIUM : ITS PREPARATION AND PROPERTIES.

543

treacle, and might be poured from one vessel to another. The bottom of the basin in
which it was made was found to be lined with a dark slate-coloured powder, which
proved to be reduced mercury. In four months after, the ointment had attained the
consistence of fresh butter in the hot days of summer.

Thus the process of the British Pharmacopoeia is liable to failure. Prom all the
experiments I have made, and they have been numerous, and varied according to the in¬
structions of the three Colleges, I am led to believe that the degree of chemical action, as
evidenced by the activity of the effervescence when the ingredients are mixed, is the main
point to be attended to. If the ingredients be mixed cold, and the temperature main¬
tained at a low degree, the ointment will be hard and of a pale yellow hue. If the
ingredients be mixed very hot, and the temperature allowed to rise with the chemical
action, the resulting ointment will be brown and too soft. Intermediate temperatures
wall produce intermediate colours and degrees of hardness, from impracticable solidity to
absolute liquidity.

Besides colour and consistence, there is another quality to be attended to. When the
chemical action has been feeble the ointment produced will be acrid and irritating, as
well as hard and pale. A portion of this kind of ointment, which to the taste was very
acrid when newly made, became in a few weeks much less so ; in three months it was
no longer acrid but metallic in taste. The frequent occurrence of this acridity induced
surgeons to prescribe the ointment in a state of dilution with lard or other ointments,
so that it is now almost never otherwise prescribed than diluted. Would it not be
better to reduce the strength of the ointment in the formula of the Pharmacopoeia to
one-half, and thus put an end to the necessity of dilu ting it ? The dilute citrine ointment,
as directed in prescriptions, has no definite meaning as to strength, and the difficulty of
preparing it is a continual source of annoyance to the apothecary.

I fear it is impracticable to obtain a citrine ointment which, at its first production,
shall always present the same appearance and possess the same qualities by any process
which does not carry into effect the following particulars, viz. the temperature at which
the mercurial solution and the fatty matters respectively are to be mixed and, by art,
maintained ; the relative quantities of each of the ingredients, and the absolute quantity
of the whole, which is not to be varied, for much depends on this. Were all this accom¬
plished, the ointment would still be liable to subsequent changes, during which its
medical effects must alter. So that it is probably hopeless to expect an unexceptionable
process for obtaining a permanent ointment, containing nitrate of mercury in any of its
forms. It might be supposed that the most prudent way to proceed would be to prepare
only small quantities at a time ; but here again we are met by the possible acridity of
the new ointment. Dr. Duncan’s process, from which he expected so much, does not
obviate the difficulties in question.

A Dublin apothecary, nearly a century ago, acquired great fame for making a citrine
ointment which remained apparently unchanged during a long time, and was soft from
the beginning. It was known that the basis was butter. I have tried it, but found it
acrid for a very long time. — Dublin Medical Press.

MAGNESIUM: ITS PREPABATION AND PROPERTIES.

BY EMERSON J. REYNOLDS, F.R.G.S., LECTURER ON PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY,
LEDWICH SCHOOL OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY, DUBLIN.

Little more than five years have now elapsed since two distinguished chemists and
physicists, Professors Bunsen and Roscoe, while engaged in some photo-chemical re¬
searches, observed the high refrangibility of the light emitted by burning magnesium-
wire, and also its great “ actinic ” power ; these observations led them to propose it as
a convenient source of light for photographic purposes. It is but recently that any
attempt has been made to utilize the valuable hint thus thrown out ; this has not been
due to apathy or neglect, but principally in consequence of the difficulties in the way
of obtaining the metal in sufficient quantities for commercial purposes. The first steps
towards the simplification of the manufacture of this metal we owe to the researches
of Bunsen and Matthiessen ; but to St. Clair Deville and Caron is due the productive
process at present in use in this country under a patent granted to Mr. Sonstadt, of Man¬
chester, a gentleman to whom great praise must be awarded for the energy and perse-
5 & 2 Q ‘2

544

MAGNESIUM : ITS P11EPA11ATI0N AND PROPERTIES.

verance with which he has overcome the difficulties which lay in the way of the pre¬
paration of magnesium on a large scale. At the present time, when so many are en¬
gaged in discussing the value and best modes of applying the magnesium light to
photographic purposes, it may he of interest to give a succinct account of the prepara¬
tion and properties of this remarkable metal in so far as they may be of interest to our
readers.

The process of manufacturing magnesium may be most conveniently described as
consisting of three stages : — 1. The preparation of chloride of magnesium. 2. The
reduction of the metal. And 8. Purification by distillation. Each of these opera¬
tions will now be considered separately.

I. — Preparation of Chloride of Magnesium.

The manufacture of chloride of magnesium is far from being so simple as it would
seem to be. It is true that it is very easy to obtain it in solution by dissolving mag¬
nesia, or its carbonate, as commonly sold, in hydrochloric acid ; but if we evaporate this
solution to dryness in order to obtain the salt in the solid state, we find that as the last
portions of water are being given off they decompose some of the chloride, thereby re¬
forming magnesia and setting free hydrochloric acid, consequently the residue left by
evaporation contains a considerable amount of infusible magnesia. This difficulty,
however, is well known to be overcome by the addition of either common salt or the
chlorides of potassium or ammonium to the solution of chloride of magnesium ; no de¬
composition, then, occurs on rapidly evaporating the solution to dryness, in consequence
of the formation of a stable and fusible double chloride of magnesium with chloride of
sodium, potassium, or ammonium, as the case may be. This fact has been taken ad¬
vantage of by Deville and Caron and by Sonstadt.

Mr. Sonstadt, in the specification of his patent (dated November 8th, 1862), when
describing his mode of manufacturing chloride of magnesium, lays particular stress on
the necessity for excluding all traces of sulphuric acid. The reason for particularity in
this respect is, that the sodium used afterwards for reducing magnesium from the chlo¬
ride would likewise take away oxygen from the sulphuric acid, thereby giving rise to
the production of sulphides, which are found to materially hinder the aggregation of
the small globules of reduced magnesium. Mr. Sonstadt preferably uses chloride of
potassium for adding to the solution of the chloride of magnesium prepared as already
mentioned. The compound solution is then evaporated to dryness, and the solid residue
placed in a platinum crucible of sufficient size ; heat is then applied until the salt has
perfectly melted, and any particles of infusible matter have had time to subside. The
fused salt is poured out carefully on an iron plate ; it quickly solidifies, and should then
be broken up and preserved in stoppered bottles until required for use in the subse¬
quent steps of the process.

Before leaving the consideration of the first part of the process, we may quote the
following words from Mr. Sonstadt’s specification, as they convey a hint to our readers
regarding the selection of specimens of magnesium wire : — “ When the material from
which magnesium is to be prepared contains ammonium, in whatever state of combina¬
tion, the metal obtained from it invariably contains nitrogen, the presence of which
causes the magnesium to have a yellow colour, and to tarnish rapidly in the atmo¬
sphere.” It might be added to this that the regularity of combustion of even thin wire
seems to be decidedly interfered with by the same circumstance.

II. — The Reduction of Magnesium from its Chloride.

The magnesium now manufactured on the large scale is almost exclusively obtained
by the action of metallic sodium on the chloride of magnesium ; or, what amounts to
the same, of the double salt previously referred to. There are, however, other modes of
reducing the chloride, the most interesting and simple of which will be hereafter de¬
scribed. In order to obtain magnesium with the aid of sodium, one part of the latter,
cut into small pieces, is placed in an iron crucible, and covered with five parts of the
double chloride of magnesium and potassium ; the cover of the crucible is now put on,
and the temperature of the whole rapidly raised to full redness. When the heat has
been continued fora sufficient length of time, the crucible is allowed to cool, and when
perfectly cold the cover is removed and the contents extracted. The mass is now quickly
washed with water, which dissolves the saline matter, and leaves the reduced magne-

B1SMUTHI ET AMMON I/E CITE AS.

545

sium in the form of small globules more or less adherent to each other. The drying
of the washed metal must be accomplished as rapidly as possible, at a temperature not
higher than the boiling-point of water.

Another mode of producing magnesium has already been referred to. This consists
in employing the decomposing power of the galvanic current. This mode of reducing
magnesium was first successfully employed by Bunsen ; but the following instructive
and simple experiment is due to Matthiessen : — Take a common clay tobacco pipe with a
bowl nearly globular in shape. In the cavity of the latter fuse some of the double chlo¬
ride of magnesium and potassium over a gas flame. When the salt is fused pass up the
pipe stem a fine iron wire, and allow it to project into the bowl, so as to have its point
well below the surface of the fused salt. This wire should be connected with the nega¬
tive pole of a battery of about six elements, the positive wire of which is terminated
by a piece of gas coke which is made to just touch the surface of the fused mass. De¬
composition at once commences, the result of which is the deposition of minute glo¬
bules of metallic magnesium. This is a most interesting experiment, and one very-
easily performed without the least danger.

It must be recollected that the chloride of potassium present in the double salt
plays but a mechanical part, and has not anything directly to do in the reduction of the
metal.

III. — Purification of the Metal by Distillation.

The purification of the metal by distillation is the most certain and effectual method
which can be adopted, and the invention of the apparatus by means of which this ob¬
ject can be accomplished on the large scale in an atmosphere of hydrogen is due to the
ingenuity of Mr. Sonstadt. We may mention that the manufacture of magnesium on
the large scale, according to Mr. Sonstadt’s patents, is now being extensively carried on
by Messrs. Mellor and Co., of Manchester. The last operation which magnesium has
to undergo before it reaches the hands of the photographer consists in being formed
into wire. Owing to the low degree of ductility possessed by magnesium this is a
matter of considerable practical difficulty, as it cannot be easily drawn in the ordinary
way into wire, but requires to be forced through small apertures in a steel block, the
metal being kept at a heat below redness, at which point it is much more malleable
than at ordinary temperatures. On this point, however, we can offer but little precise
information, as the best mode of magnesium wire making is kept secret. Magnesium,
when pure, is a silver-white metal, of specific gravity T75. It presents a crystalline
structure, and is rather brittle. Its equivalent is 12. It exhibits much chemical ana¬
logy to zinc, but for certain reasons it is generally classed with the metals of the alka¬
line earths. It melts and volatilizes at nearly the same temperature as zinc. It does
not easily oxidize in dry air, but if moisture be present it is rapidly covered with a film
of hydrated oxide. It is quickly dissolved by diluted sulphuric acid with formation of
Epsom salt. When thrown on a little very concentrated hydrochloric acid, it bursts
into flame for an instant. It is not acted on by a mixture of concentrated nitric and
sulphuric acids. It burns with great brilliancy when heated in the vapour of iodine and
sulphur, but less brightly in that of bromine. It also burns in chlorine.

Professor Roscoe has estimated the expenditure of magnesium at ten grains for each
portrait taken with the camera ; but, even with the chemicals in good working order,
this may be considered the minimum weight of metal required to be burnt. In conclu¬
sion, we may observe that the steady combustion of thick wires of magnesium may be
materially facilitated by having the wire flattened out by passing between heavy rollers.
This “ ribbon ” can be now purchased, and it burns more steadily and can be ignited
more easily than the round wires at present in use. — British Journal of Photography
and Medical Press.

BISMUTHI ET AMMONITE CITRAS.

BY N. GRAY BARTLETT.

A preparation, under the somewhat empirical name of “ Liquor Bismuthi (Schacht),”
was introduced to the profession some years since in England, and more recently it has
been the subject of several notices in foreign medical publications.

This liquid contains a bismuthic salt in permanent solution, and is miscible with

546

BISMUTI1I ET AMMONIiE CTTKAS.

water without precipitation ; its reaction is alkaline, and it possesses but little taste.
These desirable properties, in a remedy usually administered in a comparatively insoluble
condition, would seem to indicate that this solution had not received undue attention.

It is asserted by the originator, Mr. Schacht, apparently after abundant obser¬
vation, that a fluid drachm of his preparation, containing one grain of teroxide of
bismuth, is equivalent, in medicinal value, to a full dose of the subnitrate of bismuth.

The Liquor Bismuthi was subjected to analysis by Mr. Tichbourne, who found its con*
stituents to be bismuth, citric acid, and ammonia. (Lond. Pharm. Journ. Jan. 1, 1864.)

Following the directions of that gentleman for its preparation, recently-precipitated
teroxide of bismuth was boiled in a solution of citrate of ammonia ; repeated trials
proved the oxide to be but sparingly dissolved by this treatment, and demonstrated the
impracticability of this process. The alternative method suggested, that of substituting
citrate of bismuth for the oxide, yielded a more satisfactory product.

The writer, having observed the solution of citrate of bismuth, obtained by the addi¬
tion of ammonia, to have an acid reaction, and also that an excess of that alkali occa¬
sioned a precipitate of oxide of bismuth, inferred the existence of a compound salt of
bismuth and ammonia ; this was subsequently confirmed.

The following formulas, suggested by theory and numerous experiments, were finally
adopted ,

Bismuthi Citras.

Take of

Subcarbonate of Bismuth, a troy ounce ;

Citrate of Potassa, a troy ounce and 120 grains ;

Nitric Acid, a troy ounce and a half ;

Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity.

Dissolve the subcarbonate of bismuth in the nitric acid, and, when effervescence has
ceased, dilute the solution with a fluid ounce and a half of distilled water, gradually
added. Dissolve the citrate of potassa in two pints of distilled water, and to tins liquid
add slowly, with constant stirring, the acid solution of bismuth.

Permit the mixture to stand for several hours ; then pour it on a moistened paper
filter, and when the liquid has nearly ceased to pass, cover the surface of the precipitate
with distilled water.

Repeat this operation until the 'washings no longer contain nitric acid. Allow the
magma to drain, and dry it on bibulous paper, with a gentle heat.

Bismuthi et Ammonice Citras.

Take of

Citrate of Bismuth, in powder, a convenient quantity ;

Stronger Water of Ammonia, *

Distilled Water, each, a sufficient quantity.

Rub the citrate of bismuth with sufficient distilled water to reduce it to a uniform pasty
consistence, and add, cautiously, with constant trituration, stronger water of ammonia,
until a solution is obtained, observing to avoid an excess of ammonia.

Filter the liquid through paper, returning the first portions that pass, should they be
turbid.

Spread the clear solution on glass, that the salt may dry in scales.

Liquor Bismuthi et Ammonice Citralis.

Take of

Citrate of Bismuth and Ammonia, 260 grains ;

Alcohol, 2 fluid ounces ;

Distilled Water, 14 fluid ounces ;

Water of Ammonia, a sufficient quantity.

Dissolve the citrate of bismuth and ammonia in the distilled water; neutralize the liquid
with water of ammonia, and mix it wfitli the alcohol.

Or, take of

Citrate of Bismuth, recently precipitated and still moist, a convenient
quantity ;

Water of Ammonia,

Alcohol,

Distilled Water, each, a sufficient quantity.

BISMUTHI ET AMMONITE CITRAS.

547

Add gradually to the citrate of bismuth water of ammonia, until the precipitate is dis¬
solved, and a neutral solution is obtained. Dilute this with its volume of distilled water,
and filter through paper, returning the first portions of the filtrate, if necessary, until the
liquid passes clear.

To half a fluid ounce of this solution add hydrosulphate of ammonia in slight excess.
Pour the mixture on a tared paper-filter, wash the precipitate thoroughly with distilled
wrater, and dry it at a temperature of 212°. Weigh the filter and its contents, deduct¬
ing the weight of the former to obtain that of the tersulphide of bismuth, which, in
grains, is to form the third term in a rule-of-three proportion, thus : —

(Bi S3) (BiOg)

261 : 237 : :

the weight of tersulphide of bismuth to that of teroxide of bismuth in half a fluid ounce
of the solution.

Apply the same ratio to the remainder of the liquid, and dilute it to such an extent
that a grain of teroxide of bismuth will be contained in each fluid drachm of the finished
solution ; seven-eighths of which measure must he made up with distilled water, and
the remainder with alcohol.

For preparing the citrate of bismuth, the sub carbonate is preferable to the subnitrate,
because of its more uniform composition, as w-ell as its greater purity, at least in com¬
mercial specimens of these salts. The metal itself is inferior to either, as it is almost
invariably contaminated wflth arsenic.

The bismuth and potassa salts are employed in nearly atomic proportions for the pro¬
duction of a neutral citrate of bismuth ; the potassa salt, however, is in slight excess on
account of its deliquescent nature. By using solutions considerably diluted, the precipi¬
tate is rendered less dense, and the washing, by displacement is thereby facilitated.
This is a tedious part of the process, but the best means of accomplishing the purpose.
Washing by decantation is inapplicable, for, before it has been carried to a sufficient
•extent, a portion of the powder will remain suspended in the liquid, and can only be
separated by boiling.

It also entails a greater loss of the citrate of bismuth, which is slightly soluble in
water. The absence of nitric acid from the washings can be judged of approxi¬
mately by the taste, but better by faintly tinging a portion of the liquid with sulphate
of indigo, and boiling in a test-tube for a few minutes ; if the colour be retained, no
nitric acid is present.

In the preparation of citrate of bismuth and ammonia, the citrate of bismuth pre¬
viously dried is employed, in order that a concentrated solution may be obtained with¬
out resort to evaporation, as the heat necessary in this operation occasions a precipitate,
caused, apparently, by a loss of ammonia.

The solution should be spread with a brush on panes of glass to dry.

Citrate of bismuth and ammonia, as thus prepared, is in the form of brilliant white,
semi -translucent scales, not at all deliquescent, but readily soluble in distilled water.

An aqueous solution of this salt, if long kept, like those of the citrates in general, is
subject to spontaneous change. The additions of small portions of alcohol and ammonia,
as indicated in the formulas for a solution of citrate of bismuth and ammonia, will, it is
believed, preserve it indefinitely. The same result could probably be secured by means
of sugar, with the additional advantage of a more agreeable taste.

The composition of the compound salt, determined by direct analysis, is as follows : —

BiO.j

NH',0

Ci9H-0n

237

=

50*1 1 per cent.

=

26

=

5-50 ,,

=

165

=

34*88 „

5 iio

=

45

=

9-51 • „

Bi 03, N II4 0 , Ci + 5 H 0

CO

t-

11

100*

The bismuth contained in the washings can be recovered by neutralizing them with
ammonia, and treating with sulphuretted hydrogen. The precipitated tersulphide of
bismuth, after having been washed and dried, may be reduced to the metallic state, or
converted into the subcarbonate by suitable means.

The writer is unable to state any facts in relation to the therapeutical properties of
citrate of bismuth and ammonia. “ Owing to its solubility, it would undoubtedly be

548

ON THE CANTHARIDES OF THE ARGENTINE PROVINCES.

more perfectly diffused over the mucous surfaces, or more readily absorbed into the sys¬
tem, than the ordinary salts of bismuth.

Accepting the evidence of Mr. Schacht as conclusive, the dose of this salt would he
two grains, or of the solution a fluid drachm. — American Journal of Pharmacy.

Chicago , Illinois , November , 18G4.

NOTES ON THE CANTHARIDES OF THE ARGENTINE PROVINCES.*

BY DP.. HERMANN BERMEISTEK.

The remarks of Don Camilo Giovanelli on the cantharides of this country in the
‘Revista Farmaceutica,’ vol. iv.no. 3, p. 71, induce me to send you a more detailed
notice of these insects, so useful in medicine, and so abundant on our soil, as also in all
other warm countries.

Cantharides belong to a family of Coleopterci Ileteromera, i.e. of that section of Coleo-
pterci which have five joints in the four fore feet, and only four in the hind feet ; and
this family is easily distinguished from others of the same section by its soft body, less
horny on the surface ; as also by the form of the hind part of the head, and the cloven
claws.

The celebrated Latreille, the first entomologist of his time, has called the family of
cantharides “ Vesicificaf alluding to the caustic property possessed by many (although
not by all) of the species. This property seems to reside, not in the fluids, but in the so¬
lids of the body, and chiefly in the horny covering ; and it is stronger in proportion as that
covering is rougher and more metallic. On this account, the European cantharis is
probably one of the most efficacious, for it is one of the most resplendent, in its golden-
green metallic lustre.f

The family of the Vesicijica is divided into two principal sections, viz. Meloides and
Cantharides. The former have no wings, and the elytra are usually short ; but the
latter have longer elytra, and are furnished with wings.

4?; Amongst the Meloides there is one species, Meloe Proscarabceus , which was at one time
considered an antidote to hydrophobia. We have in this country only a single species
of this section, viz. Meloe miniaceo-macidatus , figured in D’Orbigny’s ‘Voyage to S.
America’ ( Insect . tab. 15, fig. 6). I have found this insect (which is easily recognised
by the red spots on its small elytra) a few times in the interior of the province of
Buenos Ayres. Another species, the Meloe Klugii , described and figured by Brandt and
Erichson, in the Transactions of the Acad. Caesar. Leop. Car. vol. xvi. pi. i. p. 103, t. 8, is
found in the Banda Oriental. I have myself collected, during my travels in the Argen¬
tine Provinces, two new species, — the one in Mendoza (J/. sanguinolentus , nob.), the
other in Catamarca ( M . ebeninus , nob). These four species are hitherto only known to
exist in this part of South America.

The Cantharides are far more numerous, not only in other countries, but also in the
Argentine Republic. Entomologists divide them into various genera, of which I have
met with the following in this country : —

1. Iloria metadata , Fabr. — This lives with the great bees which make their nests in
the trunks of vines, and are called Mangangas (. Nylocopa ). The beetle destroys the
bee by eating up its food, and even the bee itself in the grub state. It is the largest of
all our native cantharides, being above an inch long. It is of a yellow colour, with
black spots on the elytra.

2. Tetraonyx, Latr. — This has the body more robust — shorter and proportionally
broader — than the other genera of the same family ; it has also the antennae less
elongated and rather thicker ; and the tarsi short, with broad triangular articulations.
I have collected three Argentine species of this genus, one in Tucuman, two in
Mendoza.

3. Cantharis , Latr. (Lytta, Fabr.) — Body longer or shorter, narrow ; antennae long,
slender ; feet elongated, with narrow slender articulations : these characters distinguish
the true cantharides from allied genera. It is the most numerous group of all, contain-

* ‘Revista Farmaceutica’ of Buenos Ayres, January, 1865.

f [It may be observed, however, that Mylabris Cichorii, Fabr., which is devoid of metallic
brilliancy, has vesicating powers quite equal to those of the common cantharis. — Ed. Pir. J. |

549

PREPARATION OF LIQ. FEH1U PEllCHLOlt., P.B.

ing above 100 species. I liave collected in the Argentine Provinces up to this date eight
species, of which only three were previously known. I shall confine myself to naming
these three, which are : —

Cantharis cidspersa (Lytta adspersa, Kh/g, Nova Acad. C.L. C.Ac., vol. xii.pl. 2,
p. 434, t. 25). — it is this species which is known here as the Bicho mono, and is so abun¬
dant in our gardens, where it does great damage by eating seedling plants. I have found
it also in the Banda Oriental and in the province of Mendoza.

Cantharis punctata (Lytta punctata, German, Spec. Insect. Nov. i. 175, 287). — Very
like the Bicho mono ; but the elytra are more strongly marked with black dots, and the
feet are of the same brownish black as the rest of the body. I have found this in the
Banda Oriental, and in Entre-Rios near the Parana.

Cantharis vittigera (Pyrota vittigera, Bl., D' Orbigny, Voy. Entom. 200, t. 15, f. 7). —
Collected on the Parana.

The last of these three species is naked on the surface ; the other two have a very fine
brown pubescence, with naked points. The remaining species are clothed in the same
way, except one very small one from the Banda Oriental, and another very large one
from Catamarca and Mendoza, and probably along the whole western side of the Re¬
public (La Rioja, San Juan) at the foot of the Cordillera. This species, which I call
Cantharis viridipennis , is one of the largest of all, being nearly an inch long, of a
black colour, with yellow feet, and metallic-green elytra. It is probably also the most
efficacious of the Argentine species, being the only one that has a metallic lustre, like
the European species. The apothecaries of Mendoza employ it with very good effect.

4. Nemognatha, Illig. — This genus is easily distinguished by the prolongation of the
lower mandible into a longish thread. I have one species, hitherto unknown, of a
yellow colour, with black antenna? and tibiae, from the Parana. I shall call it N.
nigricornis.

ON THE PREPARATION OE LIQ. EERRI PERCHLOR., P.B.

BY WILLIAM JAKDINE.

( Read before the Glasgow Chemists and Druggists Association, February 1 Gth, 1865.)

About a year ago, when the tide of critical opinion anent the new Pharma¬
copoeia ran high, I was induced to turn my attention to the process which it
gave for the preparation of the Tinct. Eerri Perchlor., from the very adverse
criticism with which that particular process had been assailed. During the
discussion after the reading of Dr. James Morton’s paper in the Hall of the
Association Athenaeum, several gentlemen expressed themselves in very decided
terms as to the merits or demerits of the process. They had almost all obtained
a product as black as ink, with a suffocating odour of nitrous acid, and which,
when mixed with spirit, produced a tincture having the appearance of ink and
water, and which in a few days deposited a copious sediment of basic perchloride
of iron. One gentleman said, that in conducting the evaporation by the naked
flame, he had made a mess of it, but had succeeded very well by using the
water-bath ; another said he had obtained a very fair product, but that it and
the spirit fell out before they were a week together, and the iron, with a
modesty more becoming than convenient, retired to the bottom of the bottle ;
while a third extinguished the discussion by declaring that it was a “ beastly
preparation.” These expressions of opinion, together with the circumstance
that I never had been satisfied with the tincture of steel prepared in the old
way, induced me to give the British Pharmacopoeia process a fair trial, con¬
vinced beforehand that the product could not be much more unsatisfactory than
the extremely acid and inconstant preparation obtained by dissolving sesqui-
oxide of iron in hydrochloric acid. I will now give you the results of my
experiments.

550

PREPARATION OF LIQ. FERRI ET PERCHLOR., P.R,

The process is as follows : —

Take of Iron Wire, two ounces.

Hydrochloric Acid, ten fluid ounces.

Nitric Acid, six fluid drachms.

Distilled Water, seven fluid ounces.

Dilute the hydrochloric acid with five ounces of the water, and pour the
mixture on the iron wire in successive portions, applying a gentle heat when the
action becomes feeble, so that the whole of the metal may be dissolved. To the
nitric acid add the two remaining ounces of the water, and having poured the
mixture into the solution of iron, evaporate the whole until the bulk is reduced
to ten fluid ounces.

The product is described as an orange-brown solution, without smell, but
possessing a strong styptic taste, miscible with water and alcohol in all pro¬
portions. Diluted with water, it is precipitated white by nitrate of silver, and
blue by the ferro-cyanide of potassium, but not by the ferrid-cyanide.

“Tests, specific gravity 1-388. A fluid drachm, diluted with two fluid
ounces of water, gives, upon the addition of an excess of solution of ammonia, a
reddish-brown precipitate, which, when well washed and incinerated, weighs
15-62 grains.”

The first and most important question which falls to be answered is, Is the
process theoretically correct ? In order to arrive at a just conclusion on this
point, we must first ascertain the nature of the chemical changes which are
effected during the operation. The decomposition is as follows : —

6 Fe + 9 H Cl + N05 =. 3 F2 Cl3 -f 3 HO + N02

The quantities of the various ingredients actually required may be demon¬
strated as follows : —

C Fe + 9 II Cl + NQ.

16S grains of "28^ grains of 54 grains of

Iron. Hyd. Acid Gas. Anhydrous Nitric Acid.

Deduced by proportion for the Pharmacopoeia formula, the quantities are as
follow : —

Iron, 875 grains ; hydrochloric acid gas, 1,711 grains ; and anhydrous nitric
acid, 281 grains. In round numbers, the formula would be — iron, two ounces ;
hydrochloric acid, sp. gr. 1-17, nine fluid ounces and six fluid drachms. Nitric
acid, sp. gr. 1-5, four fluid drachms and eighteen minims ; so that the formula
given in the British Pharmacopoeia is theoretically correct, and a little more.*

The next consideration, and the one which is perhaps of the most importance
to us is, Is the process practically an efficient one ? It is on this point that the
opinions of practical men differ. The widely different results obtained by dif¬
ferent operators is not at all surprising when we consider that many of them,
though expert enough pharmaceutists, are not by any means expert chemical
manipulators. The process is a chemical one, and while the compilers of the
Pharmacopoeia have been minute almost to a fault in the description of many
of the chemical operations contained in that work, they have erred the other
way in the one under consideration.

Before going further, I may as well describe what takes place during the
progress of the operation. The solution of iron having been filtered, is of a
very fine grass-green colour. They have omitted to direct filtration ; but
filtered it must be, in order to procure a really elegant product. Even the finest
specimens of iron contain carbon, which shows itself as a black flocculent sedi-

* My calculations were made before the appearance of the February number of the c Phar¬
maceutical J our mil/ but my figures differed slightly from those given by Dr. Attfield,
having calculated from different data. I have adopted his, as being the most likely to be
correct.

PREPARATION OF LIQ. FERUI PERCHLOR., P.R.

551

ment when the iron is dissolved. When the nitric acid is added to this solution,
the compound immediately assumes an intense inky-black appearance. Heat
being now applied, brisk effervescence takes place, and continues till the liquid
suddenly, and without any previous warning, boils up with great violence,
throwing up a dense cloud of nitrous fumes. This violent action lasts only for
a few seconds, and the moment it has subsided the liquid is seen to have assume
the beautiful orange- brown colour, characteristic of solutions of perchloride of
iron. The evaporation now' proceeds quietly on to the close. Now, this sudden
boiling up is the stone over which most of those in whose hands the process has
failed have probably stumbled. Those, of course, who are chemical experts, or
who have been in the habit of preparing persulphate of iron, expect it, and wait
for it, and know that the process wrill not be complete until it takes place. But
it may not be so with the pharmaceutist who has not been accustomed to
chemical operations, and he would probably remove the heat before the action
was terminated, and thus produce a mixture of proto- and perchloride of iron,
with nitrous and nitric acids. This I believe to be the story of most of the
failures which have been recorded. Why they have omitted in the Pharma¬
copoeia to mention this sudden evolution of binoxide of nitrogen in describing the
process under consideration, when they have not failed to do so in that for pre¬
paring persulphate of iron, is more than can be accounted for, but it is one of
the mucli-to-be-regretted omissions in that otherwise admirable book.

In answer to the question, is the process of which the formula given in the
British Pharmacopoeia is an adaptation, an efficient one? I would most deci¬
dedly say that it is. I do not wish it to be understood that I consider it per¬
fect, but I do think that the nitro-hydrochloric process (as it has been styled) is
the most efficient that has yet been devised. In this month’s number of the
4 Pharmaceutical Journal,’ Dr. Attfield says no; but his reasons for saying so
appear to me to be very weak. We do not want a product absolutely pure ;
what we want is one that will keep, of constant strength, an elegant appear¬
ance. Such a product can be obtained with careful manipulation by following
the direction of the Pharmacopoeia, and it could perhaps be so modified that
less careful manipulation would suffice to produce a like result. I have now a
specimen that was made more than twelve months ago, and it is still good, so
that there can be no doubt as to its stability. It contains no protochloride, not
even a trace of it. It is deficient in chlorine, however, being very slightly basic ;
so that, though it keeps well enough for a few weeks when mixed with spirit, it
ultimately deposits a very small quantity of basic perchloride.

For the purposes of this paper I have prepared ten ounces of solution of per¬
chloride of iron, strictly following the directions of the Pharmacopoeia. In order
that every condition should be exactly as it is ordered in that work, I prepared
my own hydrochloric acid, distilling the water required in its preparation my¬
self. I also prepared my own nitric acid, and accurately ascertained tbe den¬
sities of both acids before using them. I have here a sample of the liquor so
produced, and of the tincture prepared with it. The tincture has been made for
fully a month, and is still perfectly bright and free from decomposition. I have
very carefully examined this product. It has a specific gravity of 1-433. The
Pharmacopoeia directs it to have a density of 1*388, but there must be some mis¬
take here. Dr. Attfield says that a solution of the officinal strength, prepared by
dissolving anhydrous perchloride of iron in water, has a sp. gr. of 1-432, and
this is about the density of all the specimens I have made. Two drachms of
this liquor yielded thirty grains of peroxide of iron by precipitation with excess of
ammonia : it should have yielded thirty- one ; but the inevitable loss by contact
fully accounts for this deficiency. Having ascertained that it contained no pro¬
tochloride, I was wishful to know whether all the iron it contained was in the
condition of Fe„ Clb. To find this out, I precipitated two drachms of the liquor

COCHINEAL COLOURING.

with solution of nitrate of silver. Having ascertained that the quantity of chlo¬
rine required to form Fe2Cl3 with the iron present in the two drachms was 40d
grains, I found that I should obtain 120^ grains of chloride of silver. I obtained
exactly 121 grains. This proves, not that there was no basic perchloride pre¬
sent in the liquor, but that the condition under which it is formed, namely, de¬
ficiency of hydrochloric acid, did not exist.

I have been led to adopt the following formula as the result of numerous ex¬
periments and observations on this subject : —

Take of Iron, two ounces.

Hydrochloric Acid, eleven fluid ounces.

Nitric Acid, sp. gr. 1*5, five fluid ounces.

Water, seven fluid ounces.

Dilute seven ounces of the hydrochloric acid with five ounces of the water ; add
the iron to the mixture, and place it aside in a warm place for twenty-four
hours, or until the iron is dissolved ; filter, then add first the remaining three
ounces of hydrochloric acid, and then the nitric acid diluted with the remaining
two ounces of the water ; heat briskly until, on the sudden evolution of red
fumes, the liquid assumes a dark orange-brown colour ; then, with a gentler
heat, evaporate until the liquid is reduced to ten fluid ounces. The above for¬
mula contains more hydrochloric acid and less nitric acid than are ordered in the
Pharmacopceia. Mr. Squire recommends twelve ounces of hydrochloric acid,
but I think eleven ounces sufficient, especially if the iron be added to the quan¬
tity of acid merely requisite for its solution. The five drachms of nitric acid I
consider sufficient to convert all the proto- into perchloride, and there is less
likely to be free nitric acid in the solution.

COCHINEAL COLOURING.

TO TIIE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — Seeing in your February number a new form for cochineal colouring, I
tried it, with the following results : — After adding the Liq. Ammon. Fort, to
the infusion, I put a few drops of the colouring in 5iv of water, and let it
stand for three hours exposed to the action of the atmosphere, when I found
that the ammonia had quite evaporated, leaving the liquid of a dirty brown
colour. Now I conclude from this fact that if this colouring were used in a
jelly, the ammonia would be evaporated with equal facility, and thus render it
of such a nasty colour as to be unfit to place on the table. I also found that
when used as red ink it turned to brown in a few minutes. Again, I put 5j of
the colouring in £ij of water, and then added gr. y. of citric acid, when the so¬
lution turned to an orange colour. Now I believe that lemon juice is sometimes
taken with jellies. If any were taken with a jelly coloured by this colouring,
the effect would be that the jelly would be turned from a bright red (if it had
not already turned brown by evaporation) to a pale yellow, to the great asto¬
nishment of the person about to swallow it. Again, I found that this colouring
became in a few days a ropy and jelly-like mass, and with some difficulty mis¬
cible with water.

Your article entirely, but unjustly, condemned the old form of making the
colouring with potash, alum, and cream of tartar, but I have proved that this
form is the best, with a very slight modification. I always found that the old
colouring became decomposed in about a week in warm weather, and smelt very
offensive. I tried a small quantity of nitrate of potash to see if that would
keep it, but found it as bad as ever. I then • tried chloride of sodium (common
salt) with perfect success, and since then I have kept some for two or three

PHARMACOPOEIA OF INDIA.

553

months, and it is now as sweet as when first made. I use jiv of salt to *viij of
the colouring, and I find this an ample quantity. This colouring is, of course,
much cheaper than the one made with spirit, and it also is not affected by citric
acid. L make it in large quantities for Huntley and Palmer’s biscuit manufac¬
tory, and so have ample opportunity for testing its value.

I remain, Sir, your obedient servant,

W. It. Church.

Heading, March 1 1th, 1865.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — There can be no doubt that the “ Cochineal Colouring,” made accord¬
ing to the formula of I)r. George Dickson, of Edinburgh, published in the
4 Pharmaceutical Journal ’ for February, is a very elegant preparation of its
kind ; but we must guard against the risk of sacrificing usefulness to elegance,
or rather aim at combining both. Now, it appears to me that the formula in
question has two objectionable characteristics, viz. the large quantity of spirit
and the delicacy of the ammonia tint. The first would have a tendency to
cause a cloudy appearance in bright jellies and other preparations containing
gelatine, and the ammonia colour would be liable to be completely changed when
brought in contact with lemon juice, baked pears, and other acids met with in
the many culinary purposes for which the article is largely used.

If you think proper to publish the following formula, which I have used for
many years with perfect success, those who try it will find that it remains bright
for any length of time, does not throw down any precipitate, and is almost un¬
alterable by contact with either acids or alkalis, which is no small advantage.

Take of Cochineal in Powder,

Carbonate of Potash,

Bitartrate of Potash,

Alum, — of each one ounce.

Water, seven ounces.

Spirit of Wine, one ounce.

Boil together in glazed vessel until the effervescence ceases (about ten minutes) ;
when cold, pour on a filter and wash with water to make up eight ounces fluid.
In this liquid dissolve an equal weight of refined sugar by means of sufficient
heat, and set aside for use.

I do not know how much this differs from the formulas in general use, but it
is perfectly successful.

I am, Sir, yours obediently,

Walter Biggs.

Hampstead, March 20, I860.

PHARMACOPOEIA OF INDIA.

For some months past, a proposition relative to a pharmacopoeia for India has
been under the consideration of the Secretary of State for India. The Bengal
Dispensatory of 1842 and Bengal Pharmacopoeia of 1844, both published at Cal¬
cutta under order of the Government, by Dr. W. B. O’Shaughnessy, have long
been out of print, and copies of either work can only be obtained with difficulty.
Meanwhile the study of medicine' has made great progress among the natives
of India, and graduates in medicine and surgery are constantly quitting the
Presidency colleges of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, and establishing them¬
selves in various towns of the empire. The European population is also upon

554

HE VIEW.

the increase, and the attention of the intelligent classes is being directed more
than ever to the development of the resources of that rich country.

Under these circumstances, the Indian Government has thought it advisable to
authorize the publication of a work which shall afford to the medical men and
pharmaceutists of India information of the same character as that supplied by
the pharmacopoeias of Europe, but with particular regard to indigenous medi¬
cinal products.

The labour of preparing this work has been entrusted to Mr. Edward John
Waring, F.B.C.S., Surgeon in Her Majesty’s Indian Army, -author of a
Manual of Practical Therapeutics and of numerous papers on Indian pharmaco¬
logy, assisted by a committee consisting of the following gentlemen, viz. Sir J.
Ranald Martin, Sir William Brooke, Drs. Thomas Thomson, Robert Wight,
J. Forbes Watson, Alexander Gibson, and Mr. Daniel Ilanbury. The first
meeting of the commictee was held at Cannon Row, Westminster, on the
15th March, after an interview with Lord Dufferin, the Under Secretary of
State, at the India Office.

REVIEW.

A Manual of Practical Therapeutics, considered chiefly with reference to Articles
of the Materia Medica. By Edward John Waring, F.R.C.S., F.L.S., Surgeon in
Her Majesty’s Indian Army. Second Edition. London: John Churchill and Sons.
1865.

This second edition of Mr. Waring’s manual, as may be seen by the above title, em¬
braces a wide field of inquiry, comprising, in fact, all articles of the Materia Medica which
have obtained any repute, not only in this country, but also in other parts of the civi¬
lised globe. Mi\ Waring says : “ This Edition contains all the preparations of the new
British Pharmacopoeia, together with notices of the principal new remedies which have
been introduced into practice since the publication of the First Edition in 1854. It may,
perhaps, be objected that some of these have been too slightly touched upon, whilst un¬
due prominence has been given to others. On this point I would observe, that in a work
of limited size such as the present, it was impossible to treat all articles to the extent
which they perhaps deserve ; and that, in selecting articles for particular or extended
notice, I have exercised my discretion to the best of my ability. It is believed that no¬
thing of vital importance in therapeutic discovery has been omitted.”

We think that generally the author has made a judicious selection of articles of the
Materia Medica for extended description, but we should have been inclined to have em¬
ployed the pruning-knife with a far more vigorous hand in the less-important articles.
Thus, such substances as Arctium Lappa, Chenopodium olidum, Cicuta , Cuckoo Flower ,
Flder Bark, Fraxinus excelsior, Indigo , Marrubium vidgare, Lythrum Salicaria, Oleander ,
Ononis spinosa, Oryza sativa, Plumbago europcea, etc., Scroplmlaria nodosa, Scutellaria
galericulata, and numerous others, can have very little, if any, claims for notice in a
scientific treatise on Therapeutics. Why Primus or Cerasus virginiana , a well-known
American remedy, and one frequently prescribed in this country, should be omitted alto¬
gether when such articles are retained, we are unable to explain. Many other articles,
although scarcely employed in this country, are very properly retained from the repu¬
tation they have acquired in the East Indies, as Mr. Waring, from his long residence
in Iudia, and extensive acquaintance with Indian remedies, is especially well qualified,
for this portion of his task.

The various substances treated of are arranged alphabetically ; hence the work is
better adapted for reference by the medical practitioner than for systematic study by
the student. The alphabetical arrangement is preceded by an introductory chapter on
Therapeutics generally, where the reader will find some useful remarks upon the
“Arrangement of the Articles of the Materia Medica,” “On the Art of Prescribing
Medicines,” “The Circumstances which Modify the Action of Medicines,” etc. Our

POISONING BY ARNICA LINIMENT.

* K K

o55

readers will like to be informed that “ the taste of senna may be concealed by sweeten¬
ing the infusion, adding milk, and drinking as ordinary tea, which, when thus prepared,
it much resembles.”

The alphabetical arrangement, which extends over 740 pages, is followed by a Second
Part, comprising 120 pages, treating of medicinal agents and classes of medicines. This
is succeeded by a most useful Index of Diseases, in which, under each disease, a list of
the remedies treated of in the volume, and a reference thereto, is given. The whole is
concluded by an Index of the Medicines, etc., which have been described.

Upon a general glance at the volume, we think that the information it contains
may be generally relied upon, but we have detected some errors. Thus, amongst
others, the “Guaco,” described as being recommended by Dr. Pritchard in Gout, is said
to be derived from Mikania Guaco , H. et B., Nat. Ord. Asteracese, instead of from a
species of Aristolochia ; Mezereon of the British Pharmacopoeia is said to be obtained
soldi/ from Daphne Mezereum, which plant is also called Spurge Laurel ; Piper nigrum
is said to be chiefly imported from the West Indies ; the root of Inula Helenium is stated
to be officinal, and its therapeutic uses to be similar, but inferior, to Gentian ; Lavandula
vera, Lavandula Spica, and Lavandula angustifolia, are all grouped together, and receive
the name of Common Lavender. After speaking of Sarsaparilla, it is stated that the
above remarks apply not only to the ordinary Sarsaparilla (, Smilax Sar saparilla ), but to
the other species which are occasionally employed. Again, we ask upon what authority
does Mr. Waring spell Artemisia Artemesia, and Csesalpinia Cassalpina? We notice
these words, because it is evident, from their frequent occurrence, that such modes of
spelling are regarded as correct.

Although in our position of reviewer wre have noticed some inaccuracies, etc., in the
volume, we regard the work generally as a very useful compilation, and one which reflects
much credit upon the author. It is from its very nature and arrangement less adapted
to the student than to the practitioner, but to the latter, especially if he be going abroad,
it will be found a valuable volume, and to the Indian practitioner almost indispensable.

Accidental Poisoning by Arnica Xainiment. — Aninquestwas held at the Swan
Hotel, Alton, on Tuesday, March 14th, before Mr. J. R. Trodd, county coroner for Hants, on
the body of Mr. William Madgwick, for many years the manager of the above-men¬
tioned hotel, who met with his death under the following very distressing circumstances :
— The deceased gentleman, who it appears was suffering from a slight attack of chronic
rheumatism, retired to rest about ten o’clock on the evening of Saturday, the 11th inst..
previous to which he procured an arnica liniment, which appears to have been com¬
posed of three drachms of tincture of arnica, two drachms of tincture of opium and
seven drachms of compound camphor liniment, to apply externally to the parts affected
by the rheumatism. This liniment he had been in the habit of using in a similar
manner when suffering from rheumatism for the last six years. He also procured
a pill and black draught, and on retiring he took the pill and intended to have taken
the draught on the following morning. Both the draught and liniment were placed
on a dressing-table in his bedroom in two small phials, which, although received from
different chemists, were of the same size and shape, and the contents of both nearly
of the same colour. About 6 o’clock on the following (Sunday) morning, an attendant
who slept in the next room to the deceased had her attention called to him by his
knocking, as if in need of assistance. She went to him, and on entering his room found
him sitting, partly dressed, by the side of his bed, and he informed her that he had
swallowed the liniment by mistake, instead of the black draught, and that on discovering
what he had done he had afterwards taken the draught. She instantly informed the
housekeeper what had happened, and Dr. Leslie was immediately sent for, who promptly
attended and found the deceased suffering from constriction of the throat, and ex¬
periencing great difficulty in breathing. The most energetic measures were immediately
taken by Dr. Leslie to allay the effects of the poison ; strong emetics were administered,
the stomach pump was applied, and the whole contents of the stomach removed, but
the efforts were unsuccessful, the active principles of the arnica, according to the me¬
dical evidence, having been rapidly absorbed, causing spasm of the glottis, and death
from asphyxia. The jury returned a verdict of “Accidental death,” and recommended

5 o 6

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

that, for the preservation of human life, there should be a special enactment or a
general rule to provide that all chemists should on issuing any poisonous liquid use a
bottle of a different shape to that containing harmless drugs.

BOOKS RECEIVED.

Ox the Inhalation of Gases and Medicated Vapours, in the Treatment of Con¬
sumption and other Pulmonary Diseases ; with a paper on the Treatment of Whooping-
cough. By W. Abbotts Smith, M.D. London : Robert Hardwicke, 192, Piccadilly.

A Suggestion as to the Feeding of Milch Cows, with a view to an Improvement
in the Constitutents of the Milk. By “Humanitas.” (Pamphlet.) London: Booth
and Co., 307, Regent Street.

Stammering and Stuttering, their Nature and Treatment. By James Hunt, Ph.D.,
F.S.A., etc. etc. Sixth Edition. London : Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts
Paternoster Row. 8vo. p. 275. 18G5.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

Z. Y. X. (Sandown). — Sale of Coffee and Cocoa. See Vol. I. (2nd series) p. 39G.

X. I . Z. (Fleet Street). — Solution of Pentasidphide of Calcium. Sulphur, 1 ounce
lime, 5 ounces; water, 20 ounces. Boil together for half an hour, and let the product
measure 10 fluid ounces.

“Delta” (Cork). — (1) No. (2) The addition of camphor to the spirit would he
an unworthy evasion of the law. (3) Chemists cannot take out a licence for the sale of
Spirit of Wine, but are permitted to sell it in small quantities for medicinal use.

S. K. L. — We recommend our correspondent to apply to Bishop Colenso.

“Delta” (Spilsby). — (1) Fownes’s ‘Manual of Chemistry;’ and Bentley’s ‘Manual of
Botany.’ (2) Apply by letter to the Secretary, 17, Bloomsbury Square, fora copy of the
regulations.

“ Pharmalcon.” — Candidates for the Bell Scholarships must be Associates, Apprentices,
or Students on the Register of the Pharmaceutical Society ; but the length of time oc¬
cupied in study at the Laboratory is optional with the Candidate.

“Alpha.” — Tinctura Ferri Acetatis Etherea. To 9 parts of solution of Acetate of
Iron, add 1 part of Acetic Ether, and 2 parts of Rectified Spirit.

A. P. S. (Horncastle). — Not yet published, but will appear early in May, probably
by the 1st. This will then be the Text-Book used at Bloomsbury Square.

H. and PI. — Commercial sponge is described by Pereira as “ the dry skeleton of the
animal, from which the gelatinous flesh has been removed.”

yl Registered Apprentice. (London). — In the British Pharmacopoeia.

A Young Student (Yarmouth). — Bentley’s ‘ Manual of Botany.’

A. B. C. — We have seen the letter alluded to, and have no doubt that our Local
Secretary is able to give a satisfactory answer to the charge of “ misrepresentation.”

C. A. R. (Maidstone). — The work referred to is not yet published.

Inquirer (Nottingham). — The new edition of Pereira’s Materia Medica will, we under¬
stand, be ready by the first week in May.

Two or three communications are unavoidably postponed.

Erratum. — In number for March, page 453, line 12 from the bottom, for “ Cadico,”
read “ Cacheo.”

Mr. Thonger is thanked for his communication.

Instructions from Members and Associates respecting the transmission of the
Journal before the 25th of the month, to Elias Bremridge, Secretary, 17,
Bloomsbury Square, W.C.

Advertisements (not later than the 23rd) to Messrs. Churchill, New Bur¬
lington Street. Other communications to the Editors, 17, Bloomsbury Square.

THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

SECOND SERIES.

VOL. VI.— No. XI.— MAY 1st, 1865.

THE PEOPOSED LEGISLATION AFFECTING PHAEMACY.

Before our next issue it is probable that the subject which has been engrossing
the attention of chemists and druggists for the last twelve months will be
finally settled, or at least so far advanced that its settlement may be pretty
well foreshadowed. In the meantime, it is interesting to watch the discussion
which has arisen on the introduction of two Pharmacy Bills at the same mo¬
ment to Parliament, — a discussion which clearly shows that the question is
regarded as one of public , and not merely class interest.

There may be different opinions as to the method of carrying out the neces¬
sary arrangements, but there seems little variance as to the need for some le¬
gislative enactments to regulate the qualifications of chemists and druggists,
and the universality of the demand for protection on the part of the public
proves that we were not wrong in declaring last year that the time bad arrived
when the work which the Pharmaceutical Society commenced in 1841 might be
consummated. In 1852 the promoters of the Pharmacy Bill asked too much ;
in 1865 they have erred, some say, in proposing too little. The love of “free-
trade ” is no way diminished, indeed it has become more general, but perhaps,
as a necessary consequence, is held more temperately ; so that men who stand
up for the greatest liberty of the subject in buying and seUing, as well as in
higher matters, admit that when the public safety requires it the u skid ” must
be applied. Before a railway can be opened for general traffic, a Government
inspector must pass over it and give his certificate of approval. If a ship sail
from our docks, she must be commanded by an examined captain ; if she be in¬
tended for the conveyance of passengers, her mate must also be duly qualified.
By the arrangements of a free-trade Government every man who would serve
the State, whether as a Foreign Office clerk or a tide-waiter, must prove his
capability for the duty by submitting to an examination.

The debate on the second reading of Sir Fitzroy Kelly’s BiU (a report of
which appears in another part of this Journal) displays a wonderful unanimity
of opinion on two most important points — the necessity of rendering examina¬
tion compulsory, and the Board to which that examination should be entrusted.
The honourable and learned member for Suffolk stated his case to the House
with his usual perspicuity ; it was evident that he had not consented to take on
trust the merits of a Bill for which he was to stand godfather, but had, on the
contrary, carefully considered and made himself master of the whole question —
the public necessity, the point to which legislation might be carried, the danger
or inconvenience of going beyond that point, the antecedents and present posi¬
tion of the Society which had prepared the Bill, the relation which that Society

VOL. VI. 2 R

558

THE PROPOSED LEGISLATION AFFECTING PHARMACY.

bears to the whole body of Chemists and Druggists, and the way in which it
liad performed its duty to the public in carrying out the Pharmacy Act of 1852,
And of those who followed him in the discussion not one attempted to controvert
his statements. Even Sir John Shelley himself, who was to move the second
reading of the “ Chemists and Druggists Bill No. 2,” bore handsome testimony
to the good which had been done by the Pharmaceutical Society, expressing an
earnest hope that it would go on in its old course, and, although chemists and
druggists might be more easily qualified under his Bill, that they, or at least
very many of them, would not rest contented until they had achieved a higher
position by registration as Pharmaceutical Chemists under the Act of 1852.
And when Sir George Grey, in answer to the appeal of Mr. Roebuck, rose to
state the views of Government on the question, he at once affirmed the great
principle that if there were to he examination , that examination might he safely
entrusted to the Pharmaceutical Society. He took no exception to any provi¬
sions of Bill No. 1, but was anxious to extend its operation to the sale of dan¬
gerous drugs as well as dispensing, and restrictions on selling being proposed in
Bill No. 2 he thought it better that both Bills should be referred to a Select Com¬
mittee, which would at the same time consider the respective claims of the two
societies from whom they emanated. Although we believe that had Sir Fitzroy
Kelly pressed his measure on the House without reference to such a committee
the majority would have been with him, we do not for a moment regret that he
assented to the Home Secretary’s suggestion. The discussion of that day did
infinite service to our Society, and the investigation “ upstairs ” will greatly ex¬
tend that benefit.

Following on Parliament, the press has devoted space to the consideration of
the two Bills, generally with the same tendency ; and even ‘ Punch ’ seemed
delighted at the chance of indulging his natural hilarity in describing the dia¬
logue betwixt “ Kelly ” and “ Shelley.”

Our subject is a special one, and one on which the “ Medical Press” may be
supposed to speak with some authority and claim to attention. We have
therefore read with much interest the articles which have appeared in the
medical journals, particularly that in the 4 Lancet ’ of the 1st ult., and com¬
mend it to all our members.

But doctors differ, sometimes it is to be feared from mere rivalry, and on
this case we find the 4 Medical Times’ utterly at variance with its great contem¬
porary, as to the desirability of educating chemists and druggists. We saw an
advertisement, put forth the other day by a general practitioner, wishing to find
a new place for his faithful 44 Buttons ,” who besides cleaning boots and shoes, and
doing a little stable-.work, could he well recommended as a dispenser ! And when
we remember that it was last year stated in the ‘Medical Times’ that a few weeks’
practice would make any 44 neat-handed woman ” or lad into a trustworthy
compounder of physic, which should carry relief, but may carry death to suffer¬
ing humanity, we are not quite at a loss to imagine the class in whose interest
the editor writes ; it is the class mentioned in the able article which appeared
in the 4 Saturday Review ’ of April 8th ; a certain section of medical practi¬
tioners, who having marked the aid given by the Apothecaries’ Act of 1815 to
members of their own order, to elevate themselves by trenching on the ground
formerly occupied by physicians, now tremble lest a similar uprising should oc¬
cur among chemists and druggists if they be 44 taught too much.” The ‘Satur¬
day Review ’ traces the course of the apothecaries, and conclusively disposes of
the objection in the following brief sentence : —

“ This, however, is a matter which concerns only a fraction of a class, while
it concerns society that nobody should meddle with medicines who does not un¬
derstand their properties .”

Pages of argument could not more perfectly show the injustice and impolicy

THE PROPOSED LEGISLATION AFFECTING PHARMACY.

559

of protecting the interest of the apothecaries by maintaining the ignorance of
chemists and druggists, than these three lines, and we advise our medical
contemporary to cast about for some better means of effecting his object.

We would even venture to refer him to the debate in the Medical Council,
which happens opportunely to have taken place during the past month. He will
find that when Dr. Aclancl proposed the appointment of a Committee to watch
the progress of the two Pharmacy Bills, and consider the general question of
medical practice by Chemists and Druggists, no member of that enlightened
assembly, which governs and protects the profession, ventured to suggest the
u old-world ” means of prevention which he recommends ; on the contrary,
the qualification of dispensers is as much insisted on by the Medical as by the
Pharmaceutical Council.

An extract from the Minutes of the proceedings of the Council (which will be
found elsewhere in this Journal) sets forth the general view taken of SirFitzroy
Kelly’s Bill, and more particularly enters on this question of counter practice,
proposing an addition to the 17th Section (which now declares that no provisions
of the Act are in anywise to interfere with the vested interests of medical
practitioners) of these words : — “ or to entitle any person registered wider this
Act to practise Medicine or Surgery , or any branch of Medicine or Surgery. ”

W e are bound to pay all respect to the complaint brought against us in this quar¬
ter, and, although we think the grievance somewhat overstated, we are compelled
to confess that it is not entirely without foundation. In some districts, inhabited
by the poorer classes, the druggist is too often appealed to for medical advice,
and often compelled by circumstances to give it ; but, as a practice, we are as
anxious as our medical brethren to check this, and the gentlemen of the Medical
Council bear testimony on our behalf in this matter. The ‘ Lancet ’ asks us
to give some pledge of our willingness to restrict our trade to its proper limits,
and we presume the clause proposed by the Medical Council for insertion would
be regarded in that light. Agreeing with it in principle, we could not object
to its introduction, if Parliament offered no objection ; but on this point we
feel somewhat doubtful, because it is the Lam which speaks in an Act of Parlia¬
ment, not the subject , and pledges are not usually given therein. Each branch
of the profession must set up its own landmarks, and seek power from the Le¬
gislature to protect them. We at once acknowledge the justice of this, and feel
the duty that devolves on us to prevent by the moral influence of our Society
an interference with matters for which we are not qualified, either educationally
or legally. As proof of this we may refer to the 8th section of the Pharmacy
Act of 1852, in which the nature of our examinations is set forth, and in which
will be found these words : —

u Provided always , that such examinations shall not include the theory and
practice of Medicine , Surgery , or Midwifery. ” But we cannot be made the in-
hibitive power on both sides ; that would be contrary to the custom of legisla¬
tion, and about as reasonable as to ask that the College of Surgeons should pro¬
secute one of its Fellows for prescribing in a purely medical case. We ask for
power to protect our own boundary from encroachment by unqualified persons,
and we should be equally glad to see a like power given to the higher Medical
Boards for their special defence.

This, indeed, is a matter on which there should be no misunderstanding ; it
has been too much the fashion to regard doctors and druggists as natural
enemies, but that fashion has been much changed during the last twenty years,
and chiefly, we believe, by the influence of the Pharmaceutical Society, which,
by bringing these “natural enemies” together, has shown both how necessary
they are to each other.

2 n 2

560

TRANSACTIONS

OP

THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

AT A MEETING- OF THE COUNCIL, April 5th, 1865,

Present — Messrs. Bird, Bottle, Davenport, Deane, George Edwards, J. B. Edwards,
II anbury, Haselden, Hills, Morson, Orridge, Savage, Squire, and Waugh, —

The following Pharmaceutical Chemist was elected a

MEMBER.

Henry Anthony Peele . Durham.

EXAMINATION, April 12th, 1865.

Registered as Pharmaceutical Chemists.

Berridge, Alfred .

Bing, Edwin .

Farnsworth, Thomas

Jarvis, William .

Morgan, Richard ...

Yeoman, John .

Hogarth, William ..,

.Leicester.

.Cambridge.

.Codnor.

.New Brighton.

Newtown, Glamorganshire.
.Stockport.

.Preston.

EXAMINATION, April 1 9th, 1865.
MAJOR (Registered as Pharmaceutical Chemists).

Bennett, George . . . Chesterfield.

Shephard, Thomas F . Brighton.

MINOR (Registered as Assistants).

Amoore, Charles Robert . Hastings.

Harper, George . Cambridge.

Hitchcock, Arthur William . Oxford.

Thorn, John Thomas . Crediton.

Wilkinson, Joshua H . Blackheath.

Smith, Alfred . London.

Thurston, Frederick . Ipswich.

CLASSICAL.

Name.

Residing with

Address.

Brown, Samuel . Mr. Pipes . Beverley.

Butcher, Henry . Mr. Botham . Sheffield.

Cleaver, Edward Orlando ....Mr. Geldard . Plymouth.

Cooper, Herbert Hudson ....Messrs. Banks and Richards ...Birmingham.

Joseph, Arthur . Mr. Joseph . St. Leonards.

Moore, John Shipp . Mr. Kendall . Stratford-on-Avon.

Mountain, Mr. Robert . . Mr. Pullan . Hartlepool.

Raworth, Harrison Walker .Mr. Shorland . Bristol.

Sadgrove, Arthur Augustus .Mr. Cooper . Faringdon.

Strickland, Henry . Mr. Abbott . Darlington.

Thomas, Adolphe H . Mr. Walker . Bath.

Thompson, John Thomas... Mr. Thompson . Richmond, Yorkshire.

561

BENEVOLENT FUND.

The sum of £25 was granted to the widow and children of a late Member in the North
of England.

The sum of £10 was also granted to the orphan daughter of a late Member in the
South of England.

SUBSCRIPTIONS AND DONATIONS RECEIVED DURING MARCH AND APRIL: —

London.

£ s. d.

Allchin, Alfred, Barnsbury . 0 10 6

Applegate, Edwin, Upper Hollo¬
way . 0 10 6

Attwood and Hugill, 61, Cannon

Street . 1 1 0

Baker, Alfred P., Old Kent Road 0 10 6

Barron, F., 2, Bush Lane . 2 2 0

Bird, Augustus, Kensington . 110

Bishop, Alfred, Mile End New

Town . . 2 2 0

Bradley, John, St. John’s Wood 0 10 6

Burgoyne and Burbidge, Messrs.,

Coleman St . 2 2 0

Chubb, James C., 59, St. John

Street . . 1 1 0

Cocksedge, Henry B., 20, Buck-

lersbury . 0 5 0

Coles, John, Camberwell New

Road . . . 0 10 6

Cooke, John, 171, Hoxton Old

Town . 0 5 0

Darby and Gosden, 140, Leaden-

hall Street . 2 2 0

Deane, Henry, Clapham . 1 1 0

Dyson, William B., South Ken¬
sington . 0 10 6

Faulconer, Robt. S., Walworth .110
Fincham, Robert, 57, Baker St. 2 2 0

Forest, Richard, 9, Celbridge

Place . 0 10 6

Fox, W., Church St., Bethnal

Green . 1 1 0

Gadd, Chas., Yauxhall . 0 5 0

Garden and Robbins, 327, Oxford

Street . 110

Gedge, William S., St. John St. 0 10 6
Griffiths, John, Clerkenwell

Green . 0 10 6

Hickley, Thomas R, Edgware Rd. 0 10 6

Hills, Thomas Hyde, 338, Ox¬
ford Street . 1 1 0

Barnard, J .

0

10

6

Gale, Samuel .

0

10

6

Middleton, F .

0

10

6’.

Fletcher, John .

0

5

0

Haddock, George J. ...

0

5

0

Hardv, Samuel C .

0

5

0

Heale, William .

0

5

0

Hickman, William .

0

5

0

Machray, William .

0

5

0

Millar, Fredk. C. M. ...

0

5

0

£ s. d.

Sanders, Albert J . „

0

5

0

Spearing, James . „

0

5

0

Swenden, James . .

0

5

0

Tanner, Benjamin . „

0

5

0

Wearing, Richard H . „

0

5

0

Wigg, Henry John . .

0

5

0

Hooper, Bartlett, 43, King Wil-

liam St .

0 10

6

Horncastle, John, 12, Stanhope

Terrace .

0

10

6

Howell, Thomas, High St., Cam-

den Town .

0

10

6

Howell, Maurice, Peckham .

0

10

6

Huxtable, John, St. John Street

Road .

1

1

0

Johnson, Benj. M., 70, Totten-

ham Court Road .

0

5

0

Kendall, Chas. F., Clapham .

0

10

6

Kent, Thomas, 226, Blackfriars

Road .

0

10

6

Large, J.H., 65, New North Road
May, John, Battersea .

0

10

6

0

10

6

Merrell, James, Camden Town...

0

10

6

Mitchell, John, Upper St., Is-

lington .

0

10

6

Moore, Jas. L., 1, Craven Place .

0

10

6

Mould, Samuel, 21, Moorgate St.

0

10

6

Orridge, Benj. B., 30, Bucklers-

bury .

1

1

0

Penrose, Arthur W., 7, Am well

Street .

0

10

6

Peppin, Sydenham H., 25, Prin-

ces St .

0

10

6

Pollock, Thos., 129, Fenchurch

Street .

1

1

0

Shirley, John G., 1, Westbourne

Grove .

1

1

0

Sims, John F., Ilemingford

Place .

0

5

0

Smith, William F., Walworth ...

0

10

6

Stocken, James, 13, Euston Sq.

5

0

0

Tilburn, Robt. J., 223, Gray’s Iun

Road .

0

5

0

Walker, Henry, 44, Bernard St.

1

1

0

White, Daniel, 19, Park Terrace

1

1

0

Windle, William, 48, Portman

Place .

0

10

6

Wood, Ed ward, Westminster Hos-

pital .

0

10

6

Wyman, John, 122, Fore Street

1

1

0

Young, George, Mill wall .

0

5

0

562

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

Country.

£ s. d.

Abergavenny, Ackrill, George ... 0 5 0
Blandford, Groves, Wellington E. 0 10 6

Bradford, Rogerson, Michael ... 1 1 0

Bridge, Thomas, James . 0 5 0

Bridgnorth, Deighton, Thos. M. 2 2 0

Brighton, Breton, Walter . 0 10 6

„ Cornish, Wm . 0 5 0

„ Gwatkin, Jas. Thos.... 0 10 6

Bristol, Butler, Samuel . 0 10 0

Carlisle, Sawyer, James . 0 5 0

„ Sowerby, John . 0 10 6

Croydon, Long, Henry . 0 5 0

Deptford, Lockyer, Geo . 0 10 6

Devizes, Madge, Jas. C . 0 5 0

Diss, Cupiss, Francis . 0 10 6

Dover, Bottle, Alex . 1 1 0

Dudley, Hollier, Eliott . 0 10 6

Dunfermline, Seath, Alexander... 0 5 0

Edinburgh, Allan, Bruce . 0 5 0

„ Brown, David R . 0 5 0

„ Gardner and Ainslie 0 10 0

„ Mackay, John . 1 1 0

„ Raimes and Co . 1 1 0

Fareham, Peat, Walter . 0 5 0

Gloucester, Hurst, Wm. F. H _ 0 5 0

Harwich, Bevan, Chas. F . 0 5 0

Hay, Davies, John L. . . 0 5 0

Horsham, Williams, Philip . 0 10 0

Hull, Baines, James . 0 5 0

Ironville, Greaves, Abraham ... 0 10 6
„ Greaves, Wm. Sami.... 0 5 0

Kaffraria, Daines, Thomas . 0 10 6

Kilmarnock, Rankin, Wm . 1 1 0

„ Borland, John . 0 10 6

£ s. d.

Leeds, Brown, Edward . 0 10 6

Lincoln, Tomlinson, Chas. K. ... 0 5 0

Llangollen, Jones, Humphrey ... 0 5 0

Ludlow, Cocking, George . 0 5 0

Maidstone, Kirk, John . 0 5 0

Manchester, Carter, Wm. . 0 10 6

„ Walsh, Edward ... 0 10 6

„ Wright, Charles ... 1 1 0

„ Wilkinson, Wm. ... 1 10 6

„ Jackson, Thomas ... 0 10 6

Monmouth, Dawe, Sampson ... 0 10 0

Newcastle, Procter, Wm . 1 1 0

Newcastle-u.-Lyne, Cartwright,

William . 0 10 6

Oxford, Prior, George T . 0 10 6

Portobello, Kemp, David . 0 10 0

Putney, Farmer, John . 0 5 0

Rhyl, Jones, Ellis P . 0 10 6

Ryde, I. W., Gibbs, William . 0 10 6

Salford, Manfield, Jas. W . 0 5 0

St. Alban’s, Roberts, Albinus ... 1 0 0

Shaftesbury, Powell, John . 0 10 6

Slough, Griffiths, Richard . 2 2 0

Sowerby Bridge, Stott, Wm. ... 0 5 0

Stourbridge, Bland, John H . 0 10 6

Sydenham, Pocklington, Jas. ... 0 10 6

Thornton - in - Craven, Wilson,

Thomas . 2 2 0

Tunbridge Wells, Sells, Robt. J. 0 5 0

Weaverham, Manifold, Jno. J. .. 0 10 6

Woolwich, Rastrick, Jno. A. ... 0 5 0

„ Bishop, Thos . 0 10 <>

York, Linsley, Thos . 0 5 0

DONATIONS.

£ s. d.

Hearon, M'Culloch and Squire,

5, Coleman St . 10 10 0

£ s. d.

Maidstone, Argles, Son, and

Stonham . 5 5 0

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING,

Wednesday, April 5th, 1865.

MR. T. H. HILLS, VICE-PRESIDENT, IN THE CHAIR.

The minutes of the previous meeting having been read, the following

DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY AND MUSEUM

were announced, and the thanks of the meeting given to the respective donors
thereof : —

The Chemical News.

The Chemist and Druggist.

The Technologist.

RESINA JALAP ^E, P.B.

563

The Photographic Journal.

The Medical Circular.

The Dental Review.

The British Journal of Dental Science.

The Journal of the Chemical Society.

The Educational Times.

The Veterinarian.

The Journal of the Society of Arts.

Hardwicke1 s Science Gossip. From the respective Publishers.

Rust, Smut , Mildew , and Mould. An Introduction to the Study of Microscopic
Fungi. By M. C. Cooke. From the Author.

Sample of Indian Hemp. From Dr. Leared.

Mr. D. Hanburv exhibited specimens of Moringa aptera from Engedi, Palestine,
and of Moringa pterygosperma from Panama, and remarked that Oil of Ben might be
obtained by expression from the seeds of either plant.

The following papers were read : —

EESINA JALAPiE, P.B.

BY MR. A. F. HASELDEN.

Whilst preparing some resin of jalap according to the process set down in the
British Pharmacopoeia, several points occurred to me as seemingly worthy of
consideration and inquiry. The mode of operating in the P. B. is exhaustion of
the root by rectified spirit, the addition of a small quantity of water, the recovery
of nearly all the spirit by distillation, the separation of the resin from the resi¬
dual liquor, subsequent washing with hot water, and drying the resin with a
gentle heat until it becomes brittle, breaking with a resinous fracture ; and so
far the process is all that is necessary in order to obtain the resin as described in
the Pharmacopoeia. The process might, however, have been carried further, and
the brown resin thus obtained rendered colourless by digestion with animal
charcoal, and thus have represented pure resin, or the jalapine of commerce.
But I am far from certain that, therapeutically, the resin would have been
improved. I think it quite possible that the animal charcoal does remove some
of the acrid principle upon which the activity of jalap, as a cathartic, depends ;
and I am led to entertain this opinion from the fact that I have heard that
jalapine does not act proportionately as well as good powdered jalap-root.

Now, amongst other things concerning jalap, Dr. Christison has stated that
worm-eaten jalap is the best for the preparation of the resin. The late Dr.
Pereira apparently entertained the same opinion, for, in his writings, he says
jalap-root is apt to become worm-eaten, the insects attacking the amylaceous
portion, leaving the resin ; hence worm-eaten jalap is to be preferred for the
preparation of the resin. On the other hand, Duncan, Thornton, and Brande
say that worm-eaten jalap should be rejected. I may probably be thought
presuming when I state that I cannot entirely coincide with either side. Looking
at the manner in which the resin is deposited in the roots, in irregular concen¬
tric rings, and sometimes seemingly pervading the whole mass, I could not
conceive that these worms or insects could remove the amylaceous or extractive
portion, and leave the resinous part untouched. I, therefore, proceeded to
extract the resins from two portions of jalap-root, the one worm-eaten, the other
sound, as far as I could judge of the same quality in other respects — samples of
them being upon the table — the worm-eaten gave me one ounce of resin from
eight ounces or 12’5 per cent., and afterwards, by boiling with water, one ounce
of soft aqueous extract ; the sound jalap yielded from the same quantity one

564

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

ounce and a half of resin, nearly 19 per cent., and two ounces or 25 per cent, of
the aqueous product. Thus, though a wholesale manufacturer might use the
worm-eaten for the preparation of resin, seeing that it would not command a
ready sale as jalap-root for tincture, I should myself prefer the sound root. The
next point of inquiry which suggested itself to me was one arising from the fact
that the good Vera Cruz jalap being very dear, and another kind, described as
Tampico jalap, being offered at a less price, the difference being one shilling and
sixpence per pound, whether it would yield as good a product as the kind known
as Vera Cruz jalap. It may be perhaps worth while to mention that Tampico
is a port on the Gulf of Mexico, north of Vera Cruz, whence the jalap is
exported, and from which circumstance it probably takes its name.

Operating upon the same quantity of this Tampico jalap, some of which is
upon the table, I obtained exactly the same quantity of resin as I had done from
the sound Vera Cruz, viz. 19 per cent., but only 10 per cent, of the aqueous
extract. The next question which suggested itself was whether this and similar
resins could be (following the Pharmacopoeia directions) as well prepared with
methylated as pure spirit? Judging from two samples on the table, I should
say not. Although subjected to distillation, subsequent washing with hot
water, and evaporation in an open vessel, these resins still most tenaciously
retain the unpleasant methylic odour, but which is almost got rid of by subse¬
quent digestion with a small quantity of pure spirit and animal charcoal, and
repeated washings with hot distilled water.

There is yet another circumstance, I think, worthy of being mentioned in
reference to a test for jalap resin. In the ‘Pharmaceutical Journal,’ vol. iv.,
1st series, p. 326, writing upon jalap, Dr. G. Kayser says, “ The relation of
jalap resin to concentrated sulphuric acid furnishes us with the means of testing
these resins. We have only to moisten a little of the powdered resin in question
with a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid upon a watch-glass, and allow
it to stand for a quarter of an hour. If it be pure jalap-resin it will be gradually
dissolved, assuming a beautiful crimson colour, and in a few hours a brown
viscid resin will separate.” He continues, “ I have made the same experiment with
common resin, with scammony , etc., but none of these evinced the characteristic
relation towards concentrated sulphuric acid, which is, therefore, an infallible
test for jalap resin.” Here I am desirous of showing that, though the sul¬
phuric acid test distinguishes jalap resin from some other resins, it does not dis¬
tinguish it from that of scammony. It will be clearly observed from the watch-
glasses upon the table — the one containing jalap resin, and the other scammony
resin — that the rose colour is so similar that it would be impossible to tell the
one from the other. The inferences to be drawn from the foregoing appear
to be : —

That the P. B. process for the preparation of jalap resin is good ; that worm-
eaten jalap certainly possesses no advantage over sound jalap, but rather the
contrary, for the preparation of resin of jalap ; that good Tampico jalap is a
valuable substitute for the Vera Cruz ; that methylated spirit is objectionable
in the preparation of this and similar resins or extracts ; and that concentrated
sulphuric acid is not a distinguishing test between jalap and scammony resin.

Mr. Tjllden remarked that the chemistry of jalap and scammony resins had
been pretty completely worked out. In a paper published a short time ago by
Spirgatis, a comparison is made of the composition and properties of scammony
resin with those of that portion of jalap resin which is soluble in ether. They
give the same results to analysis, and by the assimilation of three atoms of
water yield resinous acids furnishing salts which are identical in properties.
When treated by acids, they split into glucose and a new acid which is crystal¬
line. They also give the same coloration with sulphuric acid. Their chemical

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF A PHARMACOPEIA.

565

characteristics corresponding thus closely, it was thought probable that the
active principles of scammony and jalap are identical, particularly as the plants
yielding them belong to the same Natural Order.

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF A PHARMACOPOEIA.

B'Y PROFESSOR REDWOOD."

It is probable that, before long, a new edition of the British Pharmacopoeia
will be produced, and it is very desirable that whatever means may occur to
those most interested in the subject for increasing the usefulness and value
of the work, should be pointed out and discussed before the new Pharmaco¬
poeia is committed to the press. With the view of promoting this object, I
venture to submit a few points for discussion this evening.

1. Arrangement and Classification of Matter . — In looking at the Pharmaco¬
poeia for the purpose of considering what changes may with advantage be made
in a future edition, the first and most obvious character that presents itself to
notice is that of the arrangement of matter and the general construction of the
work. Viewing the Pharmacopoeia as a medium of communication between
prescribers and dispensers of medicine, as the authorized exponent of the value
and meaning of the terms to be employed in extemporaneous prescriptions, it is
important that it should not only supply the required information, but should
admit of easy reference, and that all the information it may be thought neces¬
sary to give relating to any article, should be presented at once in a connected
form to those who have occasion to seek it. The division of the Pharmacopoeia
into two parts, one containing the Materia Medica, and the other the prepara¬
tions and compounds, is an arrangement, as adopted in modern Pharmacopoeias,
that is neither correct in regard to classification, nor convenient in practice.
Strictly speaking, the preparations and compounds belong to the Materia Medica
as much as do the articles used in producing them ; and while the term Materia
Medica is thus incorrectly restricted to the substances hitherto described under
this head in our Pharmacopoeias, it may equally be said that many articles in¬
cluded in the Materia Medica belong to the class of Preparations and Compounds.
If we turn to the early Pharmacopoeias of the seventeenth century, we find that
the substances comprised under the head of Materia Medica were, with very few
exceptions, natural products, not in a fit state for administration in medicine,
and requiring preparation in a variety of ways to render them suitable for that
purpose. But the Materia Medica part of our Pharmacopoeias has long ceased
to consist merely of a list of crude drugs. Many medicines prepared for use
have from time to time been transferred from the second to the first part of
the work, and this has been promoted by the extension of chemical manufac¬
tures, which has caused many chemical compounds to be produced in a state of
greater perfection, and more economically on the large scale, than they could be
by those who use them in dispensing, so that it has been thought desirable to
omit the processes for such compounds and to include them in the Materia
Medica.

In several of the recent foreign Pharmacopoeias, such as the Pharmacopoea
Borussica, Pharmacopoea Austriaca, and Pharmacopoea Norvegica, all the arti¬
cles ordered, excepting those to be used as reagents or tests, are included in
one category, and are arranged there in alphabetical order. This appears to me
to be not only the most simple, but in every respect the best arrangement for a
Pharmacopoeia. It obviates all difficulties of classification, and presents the
greatest facility that can be afforded for reference. The work is used like a
dictionary, and is its own index. Every article is described under its proper

566

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

name, and being found in its place, all the information given respecting it will
be found there. The object of a Pharmacopoeia being to define as clearly as
possible all the articles to which it refers, to enable the prescriber of medicines
to know their composition, and the dispenser to provide them in the conditions
in which they are intended to be used, all these agents are thus brought into
one category. The definition or other information given, may, in some cases,
consist of natural historical facts, together with physical and chemical cha¬
racters and properties ; while in other cases there may be, in addition to these,
a description of the methods by which the articles may be obtained in the exact
state described ; yet the ultimate object in all cases is the same. In carrying
this plan out, however, it may be desirable in some instances to insert the name
of an article in more than one place, either for facilitating reference or for the
purpose of classification. The mere adoption of the alphabetical arrangement
would bring all preparations of a sort together, just as they are now brought in
the part of the work containing the Preparations ; but, besides this classifica¬
tion of preparations under the respective heads of Aquae, Cataplasmata, Con-
fectiones, Decocta, Emplastra, etc., which is convenient for the use of pharma¬
ceutists, there is another, perhaps more important to the medical man, which is
to have appended to the account of every medicinal agent a list, alphabetically
arranged, of all the preparations, or different forms for administration, contain¬
ing it. Thus, taking the first article in the Materia Medica, Gum Acacia, the de¬
scription of this would be followed by a list of preparations containing it, and
this might, with advantage, indicate the proportions in which it is present in each
preparation. In this way, under Gum Acacia we would have

Preparations containing Gum Acacia.

Mistura Cretse . 1 part in 34

Mistura Guaiaci . 1 part in 85

Mucilago Acacise . 1 part in 24

Pulvis Amygdalae compositus ... 1 part in 13

Pul vis Tragacanthae compositus . . 1 part in 6

Etc. etc.

The only fact stated here with reference to any of the preparations in the list,
would be the proportion in which the medicine, in connection with which the
list is given, is contained in such preparations. In other respects, and also
in this respect in another form, all the required information would be found
where each preparation is described under its proper Latin name, in its alpha¬
betical place. Thus, Mistura Cretse would be found among the Misturae, and
Mucilago Acacise among the Mucilages. This plan differs from that adopted by
Mr, Squire in his 4 Companion to the Pharmacopoeia his arrangement being
such as is often used in, and is found suitable for, works on Materia Medica,
while this appears to be better adapted for a Pharmacopoeia.

2. Language and Nomenclature. — Although some persons were at first dis¬
posed to doubt the expediency of publishing the Pharmacopoeia in English in¬
stead of Latin, there appears now to be but one general feeling of approval
with reference to this change. The work is written and retained in the lan¬
guage best known to its authors and to those for whose use it is intended. Under
such circumstances there can be no excuse for any want of accuracy, fulness,
and precision, in the descriptions given.

With regard to the nomenclature best adapted for a Pharmacopoeia, there
will no doubt be some differences of opinion. It appears to me desirable, as far
as possible, to avoid the use of chemical names or symbols that are liable from
time to time to be altered as new views in chemical science prevail. Frequent
change in the names applied to medicines is in itself an evil. The most impor¬
tant objects to be attained are, that the names shall be familiar, concise, and ex-

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF A PHARMACOPOEIA.

5G7

plicit, easily pronounced and used both in English and Latin, consistent one
with another, and not inconsistent in their signification with those used for
other purposes. Names already in use, if they fulfil these conditions, are pre¬
ferable to new names. The nomenclature of the Pharmacopoeia should, as far as
possible, be adapted for all time, and such a nomenclature, if once established,
should not be rashly changed or altered. It is obviously useless, therefore, to
attempt a scientific nomenclature, especially in the chemical part of the Phar¬
macopoeia, for such a nomenclature is constantly changing, and is often very
deficient in some of the qualities required. The changes in the names applied
to calomel and corrosive sublimate were the most serious errors of this descrip¬
tion committed in the preparation of the British Pharmacopoeia ; but it is satis¬
factory to find that with this exception there are very few names in the whole
work that have been objected to. The names applied to the preparations of
iron, and, with the exceptions named, to those of mercury, potassium, etc., are
perhaps as good as could be given for the purpose contemplated. In two or
three instances, however, a slight change might be suggested. Thus, as emetic
tartar is very suitably called Antimonium tartaratum ; Bochelle salr might con¬
sistently have been called Sodium tartaratum , but I should prefer the name
Soda tartarata , as being more in accordance with other names applied to the
sodium and potassium salts. The names that have been given to calomel and
corrosive sublimate cannot be left as they are, and yet it is desirable not to make
more change than is necessary. There are hundreds of prescriptions in daily
use in which calomel is ordered under the name of Hydrargyri Chloridum , and
this should, at any rate, be retained as a synonym for Calomelas , and ought on
no account to be used to represent corrosive sublimate. The name Hydrargyri
Subchloridum , which, as well as Calomelas , is given to calomel, appears to me to
be unobjectionable, and would perhaps be the best that could be used where the
familiar name Calomelas is objected to on account of its being too easily under¬
stood by patients. The name Hydrargyri corrosivum sublimatum is objection¬
able on account of its length. It might be shortened by omitting the first word
(Hydrargyri), and it would then correspond with Calomelas in representing the
familiar English name of the substance ; but this, while in some respects it is an
advantage, is subject to the objection already stated, that it is too easily under¬
stood by patients. If the name Hydrargyri Chloridum be restored to its former
place, and put as a synonym for Hydrargyri Subchloridum , how are we to re¬
present corrosive sublimate as a chloride of mercury? It is not desirable to re¬
turn to the use of the name Hydrargyri Bichloridum , because this involves a
theory, to which, if we are to have a permanent nomenclature, it is necessary
that we should not be committed. The name subchloride, applied to calomel,
indicates its position among the chlorides of mercury, as containing the smaller
proportion of chlorine. It is preferable in this respect to the name chloride, as
being more explicit, and leaving no doubt as to which of the chlorides is meant.
I would suggest that the name Hydrargyri Perchloridum should be applied to
corrosive sublimate, the prefix per , as used in such a case, being perfectly well
understood to signify the compound containing the largest proportion of chlorine.
It is unimportant to inquire whether chemists are accustomed to represent two
compounds occupying the respective positions of calomel and corrosive sublimate,
the one as a subsalt and the other as a persalt. Our object here should be not
so much to assimilate our nomenclature to that of the scientific men of the day,
as to adopt an explicit and a convenient nomenclature which is founded as
little as possible upon mere theory. We know nothing of the atomic consti¬
tution of these bodies, but we do know the relative proportions of their consti¬
tuents. It is desirable to have names for these chlorides that shall assimilate
them with the other compounds of mercury, and by which they may be included
consecutively with the mercurials in an alphabetical list of Materia Medica, and

568

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

such names we have in Hydrargyri Percldoridum and Hydrargyri Subchloridum.
These names would correspond with those used for other similar compounds in
the Pharmacopoeia, such as perchloride of iron and subacetate of lead. There
ould never be any doubt as to which of the chlorides of mercury was meant by
ither of these names, and they would sufficiently fulfil, in other respects, the
requirements of a nomenclature for pharmaceutical or medical purposes.

In the case of the nitrate of bismuth, which is at present called Bismuthum
album , I would suggest that this name be changed to Bismutlii Subnitras .

Next to the names applied to chemical compounds in the Pharmacopoeia, we
have to consider the best means of representing the composition of such bodies.
The mere name of a substance fails in most instances to give a precise represen¬
tation of its composition, and this is very frequently and conveniently supplied
in chemical writings by the use of a symbolical formula in addition to the name.
Such a formula defines a body much more precisely than usually can be done by
any short and simple verbal description. But this method of chemical notation
aims at a representation not merely of the composition, but also of the constitu¬
tion of bodies, and being altogether founded upon theoretical data, the practice
of chemists in reference to it is subject to frequent changes as new views are
adopted. This constitutes the objection, which appears to me a valid one, to the
use of such formulae in a Pharmacopoeia. At the present time especially, it is
well known that a great change is taking place in the system of notation adopted
by chemists. The new method which is being introduced, although sanctioned
by the highest authorities, is but partially adopted, and there are many impor¬
tant differences in formulae used by some even of our most eminent chemists.
Are we to represent water by HO or by II20 ? Is nitric acidNOs,HO, or
H , N 06', or H N 03 ? Is sulphuric acid S 03 , H O , or H , S 04 , or 1I2 , S 04 ? Is
oxalic acid C203,3H0, or C4H2Os,4HO, or C2II204,2H20? Is caustic pot¬
ash KO,HO, or KHO ? Should sal-ammoniac be represented by NH3,IIC1,
orbyNH4,Cl? Should liquid ammonia be represented by NH3, HO, or bv
NH40, or by NH3,H20, or by NILO ?

Besides other objections and difficulties that stand in the way of maintaining
a strictly scientific nomenclature, and selecting the best among the various me¬
thods of representing the composition of chemical compounds by symbolical for¬
mulae in the Pharmacopoeia, there is one that appears to me worthy of con¬
sideration, which is, that whatever method is adopted must necessarily be re¬
ceived and adopted by Pharmaceutical Chemists, and especially by pharmaceu¬
tical students, thus tending often to the exclusion of other approved methods,
and tending to limit the course of chemical study. If. for instance, the compo¬
sition of water, nitric acid, caustic potash, calomel, corrosive sublimate and
alcohol, be represented by H0;N05H0;K0,H0;Hg2Cl; HgCl; and
C4HsO+IIO ; with scientific names corresponding with these formulae ; phar¬
maceutical students would find it necessary to learn a system of chemistry that
accords with such a nomenclature and notation. They may thus to some extent
be restricted from the study of chemistry as taught by eminent chemists, because
this would clash with the theories involved in the chemistry of the Pharmaco¬
poeia, and a clashing of ideas in the meaning of names and symbols used in the
practice of Pharmacy might be productive of much inconvenience and mischief.
It appears to me desirable, with reference to nomenclature and notation, that
the Pharmacopoeia should occupy neutral ground, as far as this can be done con¬
sistently with other objects which are required to be fulfilled.

But if it should be determined to avoid the use of chemical names and sym¬
bols, such as are used by scientific chemists, what means are left to us for de¬
fining the composition of the substances of this class that are intended to be used
in medicine ? We may give the composition of the substances as determined by
analysis. It is upon the results of chemical analysis that symbolical formulas

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF A PHARMACOPEIA.

569

themselves are founded. The analysis gives the proportions of the different
parts of a compound, and this is all we can learn in this direction with any
certainty. What is done beyond this, and founded upon it, is the result of theory.
We assume an atomic constitution of the body, and represent the atoms by
symbols, but of this we have no certain knowledge, and hence the changes that
are frequently taking place in prevailing opinions on the constitution of che¬
mical compounds, and the means of representing them by symbolical formulae.
There are no material differences among chemists with regard to the composition
of chemical compounds, analytical means being sufficiently exact to place the
results beyond question, but great differences often arise when attempts are
made to represent such results by atomic formulae. It must be admitted that an
atomic formula, when adopted, affords a more clear and precise indication of
what is intended to be conveyed than can be shortly communicated in any other
way, but the completeness of its representation is sometimes an objection to its
use. Thus, for instance, if we use the symbol S03,II0 for oil of vitriol, we
either use it incorrectly, or we indicate as oil of vitriol a body that cannot be
obtained in commerce. The sy mbol in such a case is too precise in its significa¬
tion, or in other words, the liquid represented is not a perfectly definite chemical
compound, and a chemical formula is therefore inapplicable to it. There are
many chemical substances used in medicine that are not in such a pure and de¬
finite state as to admit of their being correctly represented symbolically ; yet
these, or at least some of them, may have their composition given as determined
by analysis. The representation of composition in parts by weight is therefore
more extensively applicable than atomic representation. Still, it cannot be de¬
nied that symbolical formulae, where applicable, afford great assistance in convey¬
ing a clear perception of the composition of bodies, and this cannot be equally
well conveyed in any other way. If we take the analyses of two compounds,
such as calomel and corrosive sublimate, and compare them together in the
form in which analyses are usually expressed, — that is, in centesimal parts, — we do
not observe that simple relationship between the two bodies which is shown by
their symbolical formulae ; nevertheless, in the one case we have the result of
observation, and in the other of reasoning ; moreover, the reasoning is founded
upon assumed data which are not within our means of observation. In such
cases, however, we may render the existing relationship between the bodies more
obvious, by giving proportional numbers corresponding with the atomic weights,
in addition to the centesimal quantities. We may thus give the composition of
the chlorides of mercury as follows : —

Calomel. Corrosive Sublimate.

Mercury, 200 84-92 . . .200 73*80

Chlorine, 35-5 or 15-08 ... 71 0 26-20

235-5 100-00 271 100-00

It is obvious here that the quantity of chlorine combined with two hundred
parts of mercury is twice as great in the case of corrosive sublimate as it is in
that of calomel, so that this simple relationship between the two bodies is shown ;
but the two hundred parts of mercury may represent either one atom or two
atoms. What is gained by the adoption of this method is, that nothing is stated
but the result of experiment, and this is reconcilable to any of the received
theories of the constitution of the bodies. If something is lost in explicitness
by omitting the use of the symbols, there is at least a clear gain in the unim¬
peachable character of what is stated.

It must not be supposed that I am here advocating or suggesting the disuse of
scientific names and symbolical formulae by Pharmaceutical Chemists, but only
their disuse in the Pharmacopoeia and in physicians’ prescriptions. If the
Pharmacopoeia describes red oxide of mercury under the name of Ilydrargyri

570

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

Oxidum rubrum ; if it gives a process for its production by decomposing nitrate
of mercury with heat, which serves to distinguish it from the oxide of similar
composition obtained by precipitation ; and if, together with its characters and
tests, it states what its composition is in parts by weight, — all the information is
given that need be given in a Pharmacopoeia, and there will be nothing in what
is stated that will clash with any received theories, or require alteration to re¬
concile it to any system of nomenclature or notation. Its pharmaceutical name
is red oxide of mercury, and its composition is —

Mercury . . v . 200 92*6

Oxygen ... 16 or 7*4

216 100-0

In addition to this name, by which alone it should be used in medicine, the
pharmaceutist may, and indeed should know, that scientific chemists sometimes
distinguish it as protoxide of mercury, and sometimes as binoxide of mercury,
names which are inconsistent with each other;* and that it is sometimes repre¬
sented by the symbol HgO, and sometimes by Hg02. A chemist in one part
of the country, or in some particular school, may have been instructed to call it
protoxide of mercury, while another calls it binoxide of mercury ; but all can,
with equal propriety, and without violating their received and adopted theories,
employ the name given in the Pharmacopoeia, and no one can gainsay the re¬
presentation given of its composition. The name and composition thus assigned
to it will be good for all time.

This is the kind of nomenclature that I should like to see generally adopted
in the Pharmacopoeia, and the changes that have recently been made are quite
in that direction. There are, however, many names used that are of a different
description, and which, as we have now become accustomed to their use in medi¬
cine, it would perhaps be best to leave unaltered, for unnecessary changes ought
to be avoided.

3. Weights and Measures. — Much has been said and written on this subject,
and many different opinions have been expressed with reference to the weights
and measures thought to be best suited for use in pharmacy. In actual practice
the weights used in the British Pharmacopoeia appear to have proved unobjec¬
tionable. They are those which alone are used in buying and selling drugs, and
every druggist is provided with them to every required extent ; they are better
understood, and more familiar than any others to those engaged in making our
Pharmacopoeia preparations, for which purpose they are fully applicable as
ordered ; and therefore they appear to be those best suited for use in such opera¬
tions. I believe the adoption of the avoirdupois ounce and pound, in place of the
Troy weights of those denominations, is calculated to promote a more uniform
and correct preparation of the medicines ordered in the Pharmacopoeia by those
druggists, of whom there are many, wrho do not keep complete sets of Troy
weights beyond the small weights required for dispensing. But, although the
avoirdupois weights with the Troy grain answer every purpose required for the
processes of the Pharmacopoeia, it does not follow that they are equally appli¬
cable for prescribing and dispensing medicines. For these purposes the apothe¬
caries’ weights with their symbols are much better adapted. The grain,
scruple, and drachm, apothecaries’ weight, are not only well understood, but are
well suited for indicating the quantities of medicines ordered in prescriptions.
With reference to this application, the quantities represented by these weights,
and the relations they bear to each other, are, if not the best that could be de¬
vised, at least the best that have yet been introduced or suggested. The symbols
are also better than any others that have been suggested. They are easily
written, perfectly characteristic, and readily distinguished, not only from each
other, but also from other parts of the -writing of a prescription.

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF A PHARMACOPOEIA.

571

4. Medicines having a claim to Recognition in the Pharmacopoeia. — With every
new edition of the Pharmacopoeia the question must arise, what medicines are to be
included in its descriptions ? Some persons seem to think that the Pharmacopoeia
ought to contain a selection only of the best and most approved medicines,
while others contend that all drugs and preparations established in use by legally-
qualified medical men ought to be recognized in a national Pharmacopoeia. It
may be inferred, from the general character of the complaints made when new
editions of the Pharmacopoeia are brought out, that the latter opinion prevails
over the former, and that it would be better and safer, with a view to popula-
rity, to err on the side of a liberal introduction of established medicines rather
than on that of too critically investigating the merits of suggested remedies with
a tendency to their exclusion. The official publication of well-devised forms for
the administration of medicines in common use cannot be otherwise than useful,
tending, as it must tend, to maintain uniformity in the composition of medicines,
and to enable medical men more correctly to trace effects to their true causes.
There are many medicines now in use that are not at present included in the
Pharmacopoeia, and men having the experience possessed by some of our mem¬
bers might contribute important information by showing the position of such in
medical estimation, and the claims they have for official recognition. Nor is
this the only sort of assistance that pharmaceutists are capable of rendering in
preparing for the publication of a Pharmacopoeia. There is something to be
done in suggesting improvements in the forms for the administration of medi¬
cines, for we surely have not attained to perfection in this respect. Are we
always to be restricted to the old forms of greasy ointments, fat unctuous plasters,
inelegant confections and boluses, unstable infusions and offensive liniments, or
may we not look for improvements upon these and other forms of administra¬
tion ? I have heard the opinion expressed by some distinguished physicians,
that the efficacy of medicines might be greatly increased, and their use extended,
by giving them a less repulsive character, — in fact, by depriving them as much
as possible of the qualities which in past ages characterized most pharmaceutical
preparations. Much improvement has already been effected in this direction,
but much still remains to be done.

May we not look upon the use of medicines as bearing some analogy to the use
food, as far as regards the relation of effects to forms of administration ?
We know that the same amount of food may be made to produce very different
effects according to the processes to which it has been subjected and the forms
in which it is administered, and does not the same hold good with reference to
medicines ? In therapeutics, as in dietetics, there is not only the choice of ma¬
terials, but there is a very important art to be exercised in giving to these
materials the plastic condition upon which their efficacy greatly depends. In
some respects, indeed, dietetics and therapeutics are closely allied, so that it
would be difficult to say where the one ends and the other begins ; but the art
of preparing food has certainly been carried to a higher state of perfection than
that of preparing medicines. How great is the influence often of the skilful
exercise of the culinary art ! Most efficient means are thus provided by which
exhausted animal powers are restored, and new strength and vigour given where
these have failed. In the study of the combinations by which these effects are
produced, is there no instruction to be gained that may be turned to profitable
account in the improvement of the art of pharmacy ?

But if the improvements in the pharmaceutic art have not been all that we
could wish, still some progress has been made, and some new forms for the ad¬
ministration of medicines have been introduced into practice, although not yet
made officinal. Thus, we have the effervescent , and the granular , and the gra¬
nular effervescent forms, in which many medicines are now administered ; but I
cannot say in all cases with what amount of success or advantage as compared with

572

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

other forms of administration. There can be no doubt, however, that both the
public and the medical profession have long and fully appreciated the benefit
that was conferred on medicine by the introduction of the “ JSeidlitz powder,”
which was the first important step taken in this direction. Art was here ap¬
plied to imitate nature, for the effervescent forms are but imitations of tne
sparkling saline waters of mineral springs, which in all ages have been held in
high repute for their curative properties. I should not wish it to be thought,
however, that I am prepared to advocate the introduction into the Pharma¬
copoeia of all the preparations of this sort that the ingenuity of some of our
brethren has devised. All that I would suggest is, that whatever is good and
essential be sought out from among the varied extrinsic qualities which are
given to such preparations for mere trade purposes. Thus, for instance, in the
granular effervescent preparations, is there not a definable basis underlying the
whole series, which, in its most eligible form, might be used as a simple effer¬
vescent saline, to which, as occasion requires, more active additions might be
made?

The form of Lozenge , again, is one the use of which for the administration of
medicines seems to promise successful extension, and this is one of the methods
adopted for giving as agreeable a character as possible to an otherwise disagree¬
able dose.

In external applications, also, some improvement has been made. The old
form of ointment has often been referred to as one calling for improvement ; for
what can be more offensive than a rancid unguent smeared over the skin ? The
so-called Plasma , which was introduced by Mr. Schacht, of Clifton, in 1858, is
certainly a great improvement in elegance and the absence of repulsiveness upon
the forms previously used for similar purposes. This plasma, which is a solu¬
tion of starch in glycerine, has now been in use for several years, and there
appears to be but one objection to it, which is that, if exposed to the air, it
absorbs moisture, and is then liable to become mouldy. But it has several
recommendations, and it will probably come into more general use as it be¬
comes more extensively known.

May we not also extend the application of glycerine in medicine ? Several
suggestions have been made with this object by Mr. Haselden and others, and
there are some preparations on the table, which have been kindly furnished by
the Chairman, that serve to illustrate the practicability of such suggestions.
Glycerine is not only a very efficient solvent of many active medicinal agents,
but it also tends to preserve some of those that otherwise are subject to change.
It dissolves and preserves tannic acid, and is a very good solvent for gallic acid.
It has also been suggested as a vehicle for carbolic acid. Gallic acid, as is known,
is but slightly soluble in water, but it dissolves in glycerine to the extent of 25
per cent.

If glycerine is to be thus used, it is desirable that we should have some name
that could be conveniently applied in pharmacy as a generic name for solutions
where it is employed as the solvent. Some names have been already proposed,
but none of them appear to me to be unobjectionable. Solutions in glycerine
have sometimes been called glyceroles , but this name is suggestive of a property
the reverse of that which glycerine imparts. Glyceroleum cannot therefore be
considered a suitable generic name for a class of preparations distinguished from
olea and unguenta by the possession of entirely different characters. Then we
cannot call them glycerides or glycerates , because these names are already appro¬
priated as chemical names, having different significations from those here in¬
tended. I would suggest that the name glycemate might be suitably used for
these preparations. This name has not yet been appropriated that I am aware
of, and it seems to fulfil what is required. The word glycemate would be glyce -
matum in Latin, and this would apply to solutions of substances such as I have

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OP A UIIARMACOPCE1A.

573

named in glycerine. The solution of starch in glycerine, Mr. Schacht’s Plasma ,
Avould be Glycematum Amyli , glycemate of stavcli. Under this name it would be
included among other solutions in glycerine ; but as this glycemate of starch
may itself become the basis of a class of external applications, while others of
the glycemates are applicable for different purposes, it would be desirable to
have a name that could Ije used as a generic name for preparations of glycemate
of starch with more active ingredients. Thus the glycemate of starch forms a
good vehicle for the application of aconitia, atropia, etc., and what name should
be applied to such? I would suggest that the name Glycematum Amyli should
be abbreviated into Glycemylum , which would be a synonym for glycemate of
starch, and a generic name for preparations consisting of what is now called
Plasma, with the addition of other substances.

We should thus have —

Glycematum Amyli, Glycemate of Starch. Synonyms , — Glycemylum , glyce-
myle, Plasma. Solution of starch in glycerine.

Glycematum Aloes, Glycemate of Aloes. Synonym, — Glycerole of Aloes.

Solution of aloes in glycerine.

Glycematum Boracis, Glycemate of Borax. Solution of borax in glycerine.
Glycematum Carbolicum, Carbolic glycemate. Solution of carbolic acid in
glycerine.

Glycematum Gallicum, Gallic glycemate. Solution of gallic acid in glyce¬
rine.

Glycematum Tannicum, Tannic glycemate. Solution of tannic acid in gly¬
cerine.

And then we might have —

Glycemylum, Glycemyle. Synonym , — Plasma. Solution of starch in glyce¬
rine.

Glycemylum Aconitine, Glycemyle of Aconitia. Solution of aconitia in
glycemyle.

Glycemylum Atropia:, Glycemyle of Atropia. Solution of Atropia in gly¬
cemyle ; etc. etc.

This and other parts of the subject would admit of considerable amplifi¬
cation ; but the statements I have made will perhaps serve to explain what I
wish to communicate, with the view of eliciting from others their opinions or
such suggestions as they may be disposed to offer.

The Chairman said the subject of the paper just read was a very important
one ; and the announcement that another edition of the Pharmacopoeia might be
expected before very long, would be received with satisfaction. It was the duty
of those who had the means of doing so to afford such assistance as they were
able to give in making the work more practical and useful, and be hoped the
discussion of the subject would tend to elicit some practical suggestions.

Dr. W. S. Squire had listened with some interest to Professor Redwood’s ex¬
planation of his views of what a Pharmacopoeia ought to be. The subject was
conveniently treated under separate heads, and he should be glad to make a few
remarks on the several points alluded to. First, with regard to the arrange¬
ment of the matter, the Professor had alluded to the work published by his (Dr.
Squire’s) father, and said he did not think the arrangement adopted in that
work the one best adapted for a Pharmacopoeia. In this he begged to differ,
for he thought when a medical man was treating a patient, he wished to know
all the different forms of application provided for any article of the Materia
Medica that he might wish to use. He was not likely to say, in treating a pa¬
tient, “ I must apply an ointment here, and therefore let me see what ointments
are ordered in the Pharmacopoeia but he would rather say, u I wish to apply
belladonna ; let me see what preparations of it there are.” He thought, therefore,
VOL. vi. 2 s

574

PHARMACEUTICAL MEETING.

that the best arrangement was that in which the descriptions of all the prepara¬
tions of an article were given in connection with the article itself. This was
the arrangement in the ‘ Companion to the Pharmacopoeia,’ and it was at least
convenient to prescribers of medicines. He did not think, however, with re¬
ference to many of the preparations ordered in the Pharmacopoeia, that it was
necessary or desirable to describe the processes for their production. There
were a great many chemical products that were made only on the large scale by
chemical manufacturers, and it was useless to attempt the description of the pro¬
cesses for such products in the Pharmacopoeia. The best processes in such cases
were kept secret, and the authors of Pharmacopoeias could obtain but an imper¬
fect acquaintance with them, which was of little or no use. Whatever processes
for such products were given in the Pharmacopoeia, did not affect the manufac¬
ture, for the manufacturer would pursue his own method in spite of what was
thus recommended. With reference to the question of chemical symbols, he
thought their omission would not be an advantage. It was asked, could we not
substitute for the symbols, which are subject to change, proportions by weight,
which would represent composition ? He thought, however, that figures repre¬
senting the analyses would give a very imperfect idea of composition. On the
subject of weights and measures, his opinion differed so entirely from that of the
author of the paper, that he would pass it over without further comment. Then
came the subject of the introduction of new substances into the Pharmacopoeia,
which he thought involved considerable difficulty. It was no doubt desirable to
include in the Pharmacopoeia most established medicines, but unfortunately the
pharmaceutists of the present day were, like the Athenians of old, always seeking
for something new, and would it be possible to recognize all the new prepara¬
tions that were brought out ? Among the new forms of medicine alluded to,
Hr. Redwood had particularly mentioned Plasma as a substitute for greasy oint¬
ments, but there were some points to be considered in connection with this sub¬
ject, to which no allusion had been made. It must be recollected that Plasma
would not mix with an ordinary ointment ; and therefore, if a medical man
wished to prescribe a medicine which was kept in the form of Plasma, and an¬
other that was kept in the form of ointment, the two could not be united. He
believed also that glycerine in a concentrated state was rather irritating to the
skin.

Hr. Waring said the subject under discussion was one in which he was greatly
interested, for, as some present might perhaps be aware, he was one of those
engaged in the preparation of a Pharmacopoeia for India, and therefore neces¬
sarily had his attention directed to some of the points alluded to by Professor
Redwood. He was not prepared, however, to enter fully into the discussion on
that occasion, but hoped another opportunity might occur for doing so. With
reference to the question of arrangement of matter, the opinion he had formed
was, that it was desirable, in connection with each article of the Materia Medica,
to have all the preparations of it described. He thought there had hitherto
been a deficiency of information in our English Pharmacopoeias.

Hr. T. Thomson, like his friend Hr. Waring, was much interested in this
subject, which was one of very great importance, not only to the physician, but
to all those interested in the administration of medicine. He also hoped the
subject might be brought forward on a future occasion, when he might be better
prepared to discuss it. He might remark, however, with reference to the sub¬
ject of chemical symbols, that he did not see the difficulty alluded to by Hr.
Redwood in their use in the Pharmacopoeia.

Mr. Daniel PIanbury said he felt that it would be impossible to do justice
to the subject before the meeting in the short time they had left for discussion,
yet he was anxious to offer a few observations upon it. He considered the
shortcomings of the ‘ British Pharmacopoeia ’ to be so many, that it was satis-

PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

575

factory to find there was some prospect of an improvement being effected in the
work, and there was no one better qualified for this duty than Professor Red¬
wood. There were two classes of people who were greatly interested in a Phar¬
macopoeia, namely, physicians and pharmaceutists, who desired to know the
composition of medicines, and the best methods of preparing and identifying
them. The object of the work was to supply this information to these two
classes of persons, and he thought it undesirable to introduce extraneous
matter. The Pharmacopoeia was not intended to be a work for teaching che¬
mistry, and still less botany and zoology, but for giving the necessary instructions
for the preparation of medicines in the best, most efficient, and economical way ;
and the information given should be conveyed in plain language, that could be
readily understood by those who had occasion to refer to it.

Dr. Edwards, of Liverpool, thought that those, like himself, who were en¬
gaged in teaching medical and pharmaceutical students, had some claim for a
little consideration. They had to teach chemistry, and they would like to know
what the chemistry of the Pharmacopoeia was, or was intended to be. He had
been accustomed to think that the Pharmacopoeia was, or at least that it ought
to be, the standard by which medical and pharmaceutical students were to be
taught, and to which they were to look as their guide in practice ; but when he
expressed this opinion some time ago at a meeting of the British Association, he
was told that pharmacy was not philosophy ; and now again, on coming to the
head-quarters of British pharmacy, he heard something very similar. He con¬
fessed he felt doubtful what course to pursue in future, if there was to be so little
left in the Pharmacopoeia to indicate what system of chemistry was recognized.

Dr. Attfield would have been glad if the subject could have been ad¬
journed, so as to admit of a more full discussion on a future occasion ; but even
at that late hour he must beg to be allowed to say a word or two on behalf of
the class of students. Plitherto the Pharmacopoeia had been used as a text¬
book by pharmaceutical students, and this was at least one important applica¬
tion of it which ought not to be overlooked. It was true that the chemistry of
the Pharmacopoeia was sometimes at variance with that taught at the schools,
and he had sometimes found it took as long to unteach the bad chemistry which
apprentices had learnt as was afterwards required to teach them what they
ought to know. It was perhaps better that the Pharmacopoeia should not at¬
tempt to teach chemistry, than that it should teach what would afterwards
require to be untaught. He hoped, however, if the Pharmacopoeia was not to
be a text-book for students, that such a work would be furnished in connection
with it.

The Chairman- said he was sorry the lateness of the hour did not admit of
the discussion being extended, and as this was their last meeting for the season
there would be no early opportunity for renewing it ; but the ‘ Pharmaceutical
Journal 1 was open for any communications, and Professor Redwood would also
be glad to communicate personally with those who took an interest in the
subject.

PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

The last scientific meeting of the pi’esent session was held in St. George s Hall on
Monday evening, April 17th, at 9 o’clock; Mr. Kemp, President, in the chair.

The following paper was read by Mr. D. R. Brown, Vice-President, on “Chloroform,
and the Tests for its Purity in the British Pharmacopoeia

Chloroform seems to have been first prepared by Graham, an American chemist, in
1831 ; but he was not aware of it. In 1820, Dr. Thomas Thomson gave the name of
chloric ether to the compound known as Dutch liquid, the empirical formula of which

2 S' 2

576

PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

is C4 II4 CL. Somebody made a statement in Silliman’s American Journal that a
solution in alcohol of the so-called chloric ether was a grateful stimulant. It led Mr.
Graham to attempt making it cheaply by the action of bleaching powder upon
alcohol ; and believing lie had succeeded, he published his results, and gave a formula for
its preparation in solution in alcohol. lie was, however, under a mistake ; what he did
get was just an impure and somewhat weaker chloric ether of the present day, — that is
to say, a solution of chloroform in alcohol, a solution of the compound C2 II Cl3, and
not, as he supposed, of C4 H4 CL.

Soubeiran, in 1831, distilled bleaching powder and alcohol together; examining the
product he discovered chloroform, and gave as its formula C II Cl or C, H4 Cl4, and thus
held it to be Thomson’s chloric ether plus another double atom of Cl, and therefore
named it Bichloric ether.

In 1832 Liebig also discovered and examined chloroform. He failed, however, to find
hydrogen in it. Not much to be wondered at, as 119£ grains contain no more than one
of Hydrogen. The formula given by him was C4 Cl5, and he named it chloride of carbon.

Dumas, in 1831, entered more carefully into its investigation, and as the result gave
for its formula C2 H Cl3, and named it by its present well-known designation, Chloro¬
form. Liebig, however, while he accepted Dumas’s formula, held it to be the perchlo-
ride of the radical formule = C2 H + Cl3 and so named it the perchloride of formule.
We may notice here that a compound with the same name differently spelt, said to be
C4H2C14 is described in vol. ix.'of Gmelin’s Chemistry, pp. 199, 200, as ‘the so-called
Perchloride of Formyl.’

Since Dumas’s investigation, and perhaps very properly following upon Professor
Simpson’s discovery, almost the whole attention bestowed upon chloroform has been
given to its ansesthetic properties, and its chemistry has been very nearly set aside. At
this moment it has different names, and is variously formulated ; its specific gravity is
given by some as 1*484, and by others up to 1-500 ; the changes it undergoes by what we
call spontaneous change, and by reagents, are either not at all or ill -understood, and the
chemistry of its production from bleaching powder and alcohol, etc., is yet to be brought
out. We need not wonder, therefore, that its characteristics and the tests given for its
purity should be found somewhat amiss. The tests given in the British Pharmacopoeia
are four — 1st, the specific gravity 1496; 2nd, “not coloured by agitation with S03;”
3rd, it leaves after evaporation no residue and no unpleasant odour ; 4th, ‘ evolves no gas
when potassium is dropped into it.’ It is to the last of these that your attention is to
be more particularly called, but a few words upon the others may be advantageous.

First, then, as to specific gravity. A perfectly pure chloroform will give a gravity of
1-500, and perhaps a very little above that ; but for a commercial article, well and care¬
fully manufactured, 1-496 is a perfectly fair standard. As it is sent out by manufacturers
at present, we believe you will always find it to be from 1*498 to 1*500. Certainly
anything below 1*496 ought to be held wrong. Here the editors of the ‘British
Pharmacopoeia’ proceed upon a sound principle.; eschewing that myth, ‘absolute
chemical purity,’ they allow a fair margin, and no more ; but, as we shall see, it should
have been allowed all through.

The second test, “not coloured by agitation with S03,” is unfortunately worded. An
impure chloroform agitated with S 03 colours, and that deeply, the S 03, while the chloro¬
form itself is left colourless, or all but colourless. It may be almost certainly held that
what is meant is, that when agitated with S 03, it gives no colour to the S 03. “ Colour¬
less,” however, must be taken cum grano sails. A well-prepared chloroform will stand
the test, provided the search for colour be made by transmitted light ; but scarce any
can be found which will not show a very faint tint in the S 03, if a piece of white paper
be put behind the tube. Moreover, the test requires precaution in its use. A somewhat
dirty tube ; one cleaned with a woolly cloth, off which some fibres are left behind ; the
contact of the finger if employed to close the tube while agitating the fluids ; or some
organic substance accidentally present, — will all give more or less colour to the acid.
With the precautions mentioned, the S 03 test is a perfectly fair and most useful one.
One other caution may be proper here, and that is, do not return the sample tested with
S 03 to the stock ; Chloroform twice treated with S 03, Christison states, is likely to
decompose.

The third, that it “ leaves after evaporation no residue, and no unpleasant odour,” is,
for the Pharmaceutical Chemist and the physician, the most important of them all; but

PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

577

it needs a few words regarding the olfactory part of it. It is only a very impure chloro¬
form that will leave , in the ordinary sense of the word, any unpleasant odour after its
evaporation ; and sometimes it happens that what is left, is of a rather pleasant flavour.
And again, when chloroform, containing only a minute quantity of those deleterious oils
formed with itself in the process of its preparation, is left to evaporate from a clean
cloth or vessel, it is only at the last moment their offensive smell is felt ; and if the sense
of smell is not delicate and on the closest watch, it will not discover the taint, for it
passes off instantly.

We come now to the fourth test given, it “ evolves no gas when potassium is
dropped into it.”

About three weeks ago we got notice, from one of the most respectable houses in
London, that the chloroform we had sent them did not stand the potassium test of the
British Pharmacopoeia. From the first we held the test to be inapplicable, and such as,
with the specific gravity given in the British Pharmacopoeia, ought not to be applied to
it. We have the authority of Gregory and others that the specific gravity of pure
chloroform is 1-500, and our own experiments assert the same thing. A specific gravity
of 1-496, then, could only be the truth when the chloroform contained alcohol or water,
or both ; and to admit into the Pharmacopoeia a chloroform containing those fluids, and
then to apply a test for them, and reject the chloroform because they were present,
seemed to us contradictory, and what could not have been the intention of the editors.
We accordingly wrote our friends to the above purpose, and telling them that we did
not believe any commercial chloroform could or would stand the test. It was thought
well, however, to examine the matter a little more closely.

A perfectly pure chloroform was very carefully prepared from alcohol by the process
given in the B. P. Its specific gravity was 1-500 ; it gave no colour to S 03 ; left no re¬
sidue or odour of anything after evaporation, but it yielded gas with potassium. Spe¬
cimens of chloroform -were got from various makers, and others were prepared from
acetone and methylated spirit, and one and all tried by the potassium test gave off" gas.
At first the evolution of the gas was rapid, but very soon became slower, and a white
crust was formed on the metal. On removing that crust the gas was again rapidly pro¬
duced. Sodium acted like potassium. The collection and examination of the gas pre¬
sents a number of difficulties not very easily overcome : the use of water is out of the
question ; mercury is liable to explosive amalgamation with the K or Na ; other fluids
present other incompatibilities with the necessities of the case, and we can only manage
well when our pneumatic trough is filled with chloroform; and that, besides being
rather an expensive fluid to work with, gives off its own vapour with the gas, and so
complicates the result.

The gas got by the action of Na on chloroform, and before washing it with water, burns
with a yellow flame, somew'hat smoky, and sometimes with a tint of green at the edges ;
and mixed with about its own bulk of air and a light applied, it explodes with almost no
violence, leaving sharp acrid acid fumes in the jar. A little water shaken with the vapour
left in the jar after explosion is distinctly acid to litmus, and gives with AgNO.-
abundant evidences of chlorine. On washing the gas with water some absorption takes
place, and it then burns much more like Hydrogen, explodes more violently with air, and
leaves less acid and chlorine in the jar. It is far too soon yet to say what the gas is or
is not ; so far as we have seen, however, it may be Hydrogen with the vapour of chloro¬
form diffused through it, and due to water, or alcohol, in the chloroform. But an ex¬
amination of the crust formed on the Na sets that aside, for it almost wholly consists of
NaCl, which, under the circumstances, can only derive its chlorine from the decomposition
of chloroform, or some other fluid containing chlorine mixed with the fluid called chloro¬
form, as that is got by the B.P. and other processes. That last supposition is not likely
to be the truth, but whether it be so or not it still leaves potassium inadmissible as a
test; for whatever the fluid is, it is produced according to the given formula. Our be¬
lief, however, is that chloroform is one fluid, and that it is decomposed both by Po¬
tassium and Sodium.

How the error has arisen we cannot say, but the authors of the ‘ British Pharma¬
copoeia’ are not singular in their belief as to the non-evolution of gas from chloroform
by the action of Potassium ; for Liebig, as quoted in Gmelin, says that chloroform distilled
over Potassium is not decomposed ; and Heintz also, as quoted by Watts in his ‘ Dictionary
of Chemistry,’ states that chloroform is not decomposed by Sodium even when heated with

578

PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

it in a sealed tube to 200° Centigrade. In the experiments made before you, Sodium
decomposes it at natural temperatures as you have seen, and so also does Potassium.

The only other matter worth mentioning is, that the crust formed on the Na is not
wholly NaCl ; it gives up something not yet examined to dry alcohol, and effervesces on
the addition of HC1, and is strongly alkaline to litmus-paper. It is, when got of a grey
colour and in fine powder, soluble in water, giving a brown saline substance when again
evaporated down. Heated to redness it is soluble in water, and leaves in the filter a small
quantity of what looks like charcoal, and its solution effervesces more on the addition of
acid than it did. These last facts point to the formation of an organic acid.

The paper was illustrated with various experiments, all of which were most suc¬
cessful, and established practically the correctness of the statements made.

Mr. Nicol proposed, and Mr. Stephenson seconded, a vote of thanks to Mr. Brown
for his very valuable and able communication.

The following report by the Prize Committee was then read : —

Gentlemen, — As convener of the Prize Essay Committee, I have to report that only
one essay has been received, the title of which is Practical Hints on the Manufacture
of some of our Ointments.” Regarding the essay itself, the committee regret to say
that they are not quite satisfied with the manner in which the subject has been treated,
because it involves changes in the composition of many of the ointments, in suggesting
which, the author appears to. have forgotten the importance of uniformity, and that the
British Pharmacopoeia is now the only ackno wedged authority for the pharmaceutist ;
while the committee are fully aware of the importance of improved colour, consistence,
smoothness, and durability, they cannot approve of any unauthorized departure from
established formulae. The committee, however, are of opinion that, apart from this, the
essay is not without merit ; that the labour bestowed on the subject, the careful com¬
position, and the correct observations, regarding the nature and qualities of a good
ointment, deserve to be acknowledged, and, therefore, they have awarded it the President’s
Prize. — David Kemp, Convener.

On the sealed envelope being opened, the writer of the essay was found to be Joseph
G. Steevens, residing with R. Jeffrey and Sons, Pittville, Cheltenham, and the Secretary
was instructed to forward the President’s Prize. This consisted of a copy of the late
edition of Neligan, edited by Dr. Macnamara, of Dublin.

The President then proceeded to give his

VALEDICTORY ADDRESS.

Gentlemen, — Before we separate, I desire, in accordance with the usual practice, to
make a few remarks on the business of the»session, which I shall do very briefly.

Having accepted the responsibilities of office with some degree of hesitation, lest the
Society should suffer by incapacity on my part, or from want of time to watch its
interests with sufficient care, I have now, at the conclusion of my official term, to express
the hope that this has not been the case. Of this, however, I must leave you to judge.
All I ought to say is, that I have honestly endeavoured to prevent it, by doing my best
to justify your choice of me as President, and rightly to discharge the various duties
which devolved on me in that capacity. At the same time I am ready to acknowledge
that there have been deficiencies in these respects, and that on several occasions I both
needed and received your kind indulgence. I, therefore, regard it as fortunate, both for
you and myself, that the events of the past year, in which we were called to take an
interest as a society, were quite of an ordinary character, and not such as to require
special qualifications on the part of the President ; and also that the society is so well
established as to render unnecessary any extraordinary efforts to defend its position or
sustain its reputation. These circumstances, I have no doubt, helped to make my duties
lighter, and my position much less difficult than I expected. For this, however, 1 believe
I am also much indebted to the able assistance of our talented and indefatigable Secre¬
tary, Mr. Mackav, and the uniform and cordial support I have received from the
members of council, for which I now offer them my warmest thanks.

On taking a retrospect of the year which is now about to close, I have much pleasure
in noticing various grounds for satisfaction. The number of those who have passed the
examination in Edinburgh this year is just double what it was last year, which, I
think, affords the best evidence of the prosperity of the society, and of an increasing
desire to share its benefits and support its objects. The contributions to our scientific

PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

579

meetings have been as numerous and as able as heretofore ; the subjects as important
and the speakers as distinguished as on former occasions ; and nothing, I think, was
wanting but a larger attendance, and a more extended interest in our proceedings.
When the number of individuals connected with our business in this city is considered,
it seems reasonable to desire some improvement in these respects, more especially on the
part of the assistants and apprentices, for whose benefit, chiefly, these meetings are
arranged and kept up. I think it ought to be regarded as a great privilege to have
opportunities of attending such meetings, and hearing such valuable papers read, on
subjects closely connected with our business. The time has been when no such oppor¬
tunities were afforded us ; when, instead of having scientific instruction imparted to us
in that easy and pleasant way, it had, in many cases, to be altogether dispensed with, or
self-acquired amidst great difficulties and by a vast expenditure of labour.

Dr. Macadam, who has always taken a deep interest in the society, and from whom
we have received many favours, opened the session with an able communication on
pharmaceutical chemistry in its relation to the vitality of the bodily frame in health
and sickness, in w’hich he took occasion to notice and illustrate the various forces which
influence vital activity, embracing heat, light, motion, electricity, magnetism, and
chemical affinity, — a subject which he handled with his usual skill, and which was
listened to with marked attention. After which Mr. Mackay made a few remarks on
some specimens of Radix Scammonise, from Killis, in Asia Minor, presented by Mr.
Ransom, of Hitchin ; and also on Howell’s new capsule for poison bottles, which, after
some discussion, was, with the whole subject of poisoning, remitted to a committee to
consider and report. At our second meeting, Professor Archer gave us some interesting
notes on a few curiosities of Brazilian pharmacy, various specimens of which were
exhibited to the meeting, and also several varieties of dried flowers, used for scenting
teas, from Canton. In the course of the conversation which followed, several questions
were put to Professor Archer, regarding the sources and uses of the preparations from
Brazil, which he, as usual, answered readily and satisfactorily. At the next meeting,
Dr. Scoresby-Jackson delivered a masterly address on the present position of Pharmacy
in Great Britain, and on the teaching of Pharmacy in Edinburgh, in which he showed
“ that, as a science, Pharmacy has rapidly advanced, and is now attaining a high and
honourable rank in the cycle of medical science ; that, as an art, it is remarkable for
the elegance and utility of its productions as compared with those of the earlier part of
the present century ; and that, with respect to those engaged in the study and practice
of Pharmacy, there is in the Pharmaceutical Society a combination of power capable of
realizing the ultimate desires of the most ardent lovers of their profession.” He also
showed that, while the status of the Pharmaceutical Chemist had been much improved,
it was necessary to have a higher Pharmaceutical education than at present, and pointed
out the means by which it was most likely to be attained. As might have been expected
from the ability of the speaker and the importance and reasonableness of the subject, it
was warmly received and applauded, and led to an interesting discussion, in the course
of which several members and visitors intimated their concurrence in the views wdiich
had been expressed. Our fourth meeting proved to be as interesting as the others.
Professor Archer again favoured us with some notes on a new species of galls from
China, a substance from the Cape of Good Hope, resembling saffron in its properties,
and a new product called African cubebs ; excellent specimens of each of which were
handed round for inspection. On the same occasion, our Vice-President, Mr. D. R.
Brown, convener of the committee appointed to consider the best means of preventing
poisoning, read the report of the committee on the subject, which, after a long and
animated discussion, was unanimously adopted. While it is hardly to be expected that
there will be no difference of opinion on a subject of so much importance as that referred
to in this report, I feel persuaded that the more it is considered in a practical light, the
more clearly will it appear that its conclusions are sound ; that in contending for intel¬
ligence, care, and accuracy on the part of the Pharmaceutist, it takes the safest and most
intelligible ground ; and that, in declining to recommend for general adoption any of the
mechanical monitors, or so-called safeguards, which have been recently suggested, it
avoids what there is reason to fear would soon increase instead of lessening the danger.
At the last meeting, our Vice-President made some remarks on specific gravity, which
he illustrated by a variety of interesting experiments. Mr. P. Stevenson also kindly
-exhibited and explained various instruments for taking specific gravities, and accom-

580

PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

paniecl his observations with a number of simple and beautiful experiments, which were
successfully performed. The present is our sixth meeting ; and I am sure that after the
very able remarks to which we have just had the pleasure of listening on the subject of
chloroform and the tests for its purity, in the British Pharmacopoeia, and the instructive
experiments which we have just witnessed, you will admit that the session has been
brought to a very successful termination. The subject which Mr. Brown has brought
under our notice is one not only possessing some novelty, but is of considerable importance
both to the scientific chemist, and the manufacturer and vendor of chloroform, and will
no doubt receive from them the attention which it deserves.

On the whole, then, I think I am warranted in saying that during the session we have
had an abundant supply of excellent subjects provided for us ; that we are under great
obligations to all the gentlemen who so kindly laboured for cur instruction ; and that
they are well entitled to our sincere and hearty thanks, which I now, with much
pleasure, offer them in name of the Society.

As might have been expected, the Pharmacy Bill has been attracting a large amount
of attention, and forming the subject of much discussion in all parts of the country ; but
it is gratifying to find that there is a very general expression of opinion in its favour,
and that from this city a petition was presented to Parliament, containing 105
signatures, or nearly all the chemists and druggists and their assistants in the town.
It is, however, interesting to notice that when non-professional parties object to the
Pharmaceutical Society’s Bill, it is generally on the ground that it contains no poison
schedule — thus showing that they regard the classification of poisons as not only
necessary for the general safety, but easy of attainment ; while to the professional mind
it is surrounded with difficulty, and appears a subject sufficiently large and important to
require separate legislation. That it is so is very evident from the complete failure of
the attempt which has been made to construct a poison schedule, in connection with the
Chemists and Druggists Bill, No. 2, which includes among dangerous drugs articles
which are comparatively harmless and others which are quite innocent, and omits
altogether such articles as hydrocyanic acid, the preparations of silver and copper, and the
mineral acids, etc., — and is, therefore, not only useless for its purpose, but in the highest
degree crude and impracticable. I am satisfied that the Bill which lias been introduced
by Sir Fitzroy Kelly contains all that is necessary in present circumstances. Its object
is evidently a good one, and really for the benefit of the whole trade.

I cannot conclude these remarks without saying what I am sure we all feel, that we
have been very much gratified by receiving from Mr. Hills, of London, the beautiful
bust of Jacob Bell which now adorns this hall, and that we will carefully preserve it,
not only as a representation of the great original, but as a memorial of his generous and
persevering efforts for the elevation of Pharmacy, and of his noble and disinterested
services as the founder of the Pharmaceutical Society.

I have now only to thank you all very cordially for the unvarying kindness I have
received during my year of office, and to assure that, even in a humbler position, it will
give me pleasure to promote the interests of the Society by every means in my power.

Mr. Mackay proposed a hearty vote of thanks to the Chairman for his services to the
Society during the past year, which was agreed to most cordially and with acclamation.

Arrangements in connection with the library for the summer months were then
intimated, and the meeting separated.

The Annual Meeting of the Society took place in the Cafe Royal on Tuesday evening,
18th April, at eight o’clock ; Mr. Kemp, President, in the chair.

The Secretary read the following

ANNUAL REPORT.

The Council have, as usual, to lay before the Society their Report for the past year ;
and in doing so, cannot refrain from expressing their belief, that never, perhaps, in the
history of the Society, was there a more important period than the present.

It is scarcely necessary to refer to the onward progress of the Society since its founda¬
tion, now nearly twenty -four years ago ; nor need allusion be made to the passing of the
Pharmacy Act, under the operation of which, the Society has now for so many years
carried on its examinations and other departments of its machinery. A growing desire

PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

581

has, however, for some time been felt, that some energetic action should be taken, by
which, the provisions of the Act of 1852 might be improved and extended. Most now
present know, that, under the auspices of the London Council, draft of a Bill was prepared
and published, with the principal clauses of which all are acquainted. This Bill has
passed into the hands of Sir Fitzroy Kelly, and has been by him introduced to the
House of Commons. Having passed a first reading, it was brought up for the second,
and was thereupon sent, along with another antagonistic Bill, having the same designa¬
tion, to a select committee of the House. Unfortunately, the proposal to send to
committee took place so short a time before Easter, that nothing will be done until the
House again meets after the holidays.

The Council refrain from one word of comment on the rival Bill, feeling satisfied, that
when the merits of the two Bills come to be inquired into and investigated, the interests
of the public, as well as of the profession generally, will induce the committee to report
very favourably to the House on tyehalf of Bill No. 1. Influential deputations have
waited upon the Lord Advocate and Adam Black, Esq., in connection with Sir F. Kelly’s
Bill, and the same was brought under the consideration of the Convention of Royal
Burghs by one of our members, and received favourable consideration.

It is matter of rejoicing and satisfaction to know, that amidst all the turmoil from
without, the position and standing of our Society wras never more secure, nor its prospects
brighter than they are at the present moment. More inquiries have been made regarding
the terms of admittance during the past, than during any previous year. The examina¬
tions have also been more frequent, and several members have been admitted.

The Museum and Library are in a prosperous state, and newr catalogues of the books
have been printed, and are ere this in the hands of all connected with the Society.
Several additions of new and interesting volumes have been lately made ; and the Council
will be glad to find an increasing interest in the perusal of books belonging to the
library.

The scientific meetings have been six in number, and the Council feel glad that they
can fairly state, that these have been, on the whole, well attended.

The Council feel that the very special thanks of the members in Scotland are due to
the London Council, for the time and labour w'hich have been bestowed by them upon the
affairs of the Society, and they sincerely hope a full measure of success, may attend the
introduction of the proposed extended Pharmacy Act, now in the hands of a select com¬
mittee, having been introduced to the House of Commons by Sir Fitzroy Kelly. It may
be gratifying to our London brethren to know' that chemists and druggists, as well as
the medical and general public here, highly approve of the proposed Bill, and many a
hope has been expressed by all parties, that the Bill now’ pending, may pass the House,
before dissolution takes place, and thus without delay become the law of the land.

The following is an abstract of the Secretary’s account for 18G4 : —

Dr.

1864.
June 4.
Dec. 31.

Annual Account. Cr.

£. s.

d.

1864.

£. s.

d.

Cash sent from London ..

. 50 0

0

Books, etc., for Library .

0

Do. due Secretary .

. 16 18

6

Expenses of Meetings .

. 1 13

7

Postages .

16

Insurance . .

. .'... 0 7

1

Rent . .

. SO 0

0

Annual Meeting .

. 3 5

0

Jars, etc., for Museum .

. 5 10

o

O

Printing .

. 5 15

0

Curator .

. 5 0

0

Advertising .

. 1 10

9

Envelopes and Incidental

Ex-1 i l

6

penses, etc .

. j

£66 18

6

£66 18

6

We, the undersigned, have examined the foregoing accounts, with vouchers attached,
find them correctly stated and entered, and the balance due to the Secretary, as at 31st
December, 18G4, sixteen pounds eighteen shillings and sixpence sterling.

(Signed) D. K. Brown.

James Gardner.
William Ainslie.

582

LEEDS CHEMISTS’ ASSOCIATION.

Oil the motion of Mr. Seath, Dunfermline, seconded by Mr. Borland, Kilmarnock,
the Report was unanimously adopted.

The meeting thereafter proceeded to elect the following office-bearers for the ensuing
year : — President, Mr. Kemp, Portobello. Vice-President — Mr. D. R. Brown. Secretary —
Mr. Mackay. Council — President and Vice-President, G. Blanshard, Smith (Kilmar¬
nock), Flockhart, Aitken, Borland, Govan, Noble, Gardner, Raimes, Ainslie, Stephenson,
Young, Tail, Croley, Buchanan, and Allan.

Examiners — President and Vice-President, Messrs. Gardner, Aitken, Ainslie, Tait,
Young, Noble, President and Vice-President of the Society in London, and Secretary in
Edinburgh, ex ojfj'ciis.

Curator — Mr. W. Hill.

Library and Museum Committee — President and Vice-President, and Messrs. Ainslie
Young, and Noble.

THE ANNUAL SUPPER,

The annual supper of the Society took place in the Cafe Royal at the close of the
above meeting. About 100 gentlemen were present. Mr. Kemp, President, occupied
the chair ; and Messrs. D. R. Brown and Mr. Raimes were croupiers. Among those
present were Professor Archer, Dr. Stevenson Macadam, Bailie Alexander, Dr. Scoresby-
Jackson; Dr. Robertson, Glasgow ; Mr. Moffatt, Glasgow ; Mr. Campbell, Glasgow ; Mr.
R. Stevenson, Mr. Seath, Mr. Gardner, Mr. Young, Mr. G. Blanshard, Mr. McDonald,
Mr. Borland,' Mr. Mackay, Mr. Ainslie, Mr. Buchanan, Mr. J. B. Stevenson, Mr. B.
Allan, Mr. Noble, etc. Letters of apology were read from Professor Christison, Professor
Douglas Maclagan, Mr. Aitken, Mr. Hart, Glasgow ; and other gentlemen.

After a first-class supper had been served by Mr. Grieve,

The Chairman, in neat and appropriate terms, gave the usual loyal and patriotic toasts,
which were cordially responded to by the company.

The Chairman, in proposing the toast of the evening, “The Pharmaceutical Society,”
said the Society had done much to bring chemists and druggists together, to make them
known to each other, show them that they had a common interest, and that they should
have a common object and bond of union. The aim of the association had ever been
the advancement and elevation of pharmacy, and the improvement of the condition of
those who were engaged in it as a profession. He was sure they all wished continued
success and prosperity to the Pharmaceutical Society. (Applause.) He remarked that
the Society would not have been true to itself, true to its history, true to the well-known
objects which its great and illustrious founder designed it to accomplish, if it had not
brought in such a Bill as that which was now before Parliament. (Applause.) One of
the results of that Bill, if passed, would be to see that chemists and druggists were
properly qualified for their professions before they were admitted to it, — a result that
could not fail to do good. (Applause.)

The following toasts w7ere given and responded to: — “The Lord Provost, Magis¬
trates, and Town Council of Edinburgh,” by the Chairman, and replied to by Bailie
Alexander ; Song ; “ The Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons,” by the Croupier,
replied to by Dr. S. Jackson; “President and Council, London,” by Professor Archer,
replied to by Mr. Mackay; Song; “Our Friends from Glasgow, and Visitors from a
distance,” by Mr. Ainslie, replied to by Dr. Robertson, of Glasgow; “The Memory of
-Jacob Bell,” by Mr. Young ; Song ; “ The Honorary Members of the Society,” by Mr.
Moffat, replied to by Dr. Macadam ; “ The Chairman,” by Mr. Blanshard, replied to by
the Chairman; Song; “The Croupier,” by Mr. Raimes, replied to by the Croupier ; “The
Secretary,” by Dr. S. Macadam.

PROVINCIAL TRANSACTIONS.

LEEDS CHEMISTS’ ASSOCIATION.

The Sixth Meeting of the Session was held on the evening of March 8th, when Mr. J.
Abbott and Mr. G, D. Scorah favoured the company by an, interesting exhibition of
microscopic objects, projected on to a screen by means of the oxy-hydrogen light.

The Seventh Meeting of the Session was held in the Philosophical Hall on Wednesday
evening, the 5tli April ; Mr. Haigh, the President, being in the chair. The attendance
was very good.

MEETING OF PHARMACEUTISTS AT LEEDS.

583

After the reading of the minutes, and the election of Mr. Holmes as a Member, and
Messrs. Thos. Garside and Wm. Arkle as Associates, a lecture was delivered by W. E.
Heathfield, Esq., F.R.G.S., of London, on Water.

The lecturer began by observing that every one ought to make himself thoroughly
acquainted with everything connected with his own vocation. In accordance with that
sentiment, he had ventured to put together a few observations relative to one of the
most useful bodies within our reach — namely, water.

Mr. Heathfield then proceeded to give the properties of water in detail, pointing out
its existence in the states of vapour, liquid and solid ; its general diffusion over the
globe ; its composition, as shown by Cavendish in 1781 ; the heat produced by the com¬
bination of its elements being adequate to raise 34,000 lb. of water 1° F., or to lift
mechanically 47,000,000 of pounds weight one foot high ; its necessity for sustaining
our lives ; its usefulness in the form of oceans, rivers, clouds, and glaciers ; its property
of refracting light ; the degree in which it conducts heat and electricity ; its chemical
relations ; its compressibility, and capacity for heat.

The lecturer showed that in vacuo water boils at 100°, and, therefore, extracts boiled
in vacuo contained a greater amount of the aromatic part of vegetables than when a
greater degree of heat was employed. Water, freed from, air, could be raised 100° above
its ordinary boiling-point without passing into vapour, but the violence with which
ebullition suddenly took place in such cases was enormous. The explosion of locomotives
might perhaps sometimes be explained in this manner.

The solvent power of water was then alluded to, and its proportion in animal tissue,
bile, blood, etc., stated. The purest natural water was generally obtained from lakes —
Loch Katrine, for instance, containing but two grains of solid matter to the gallon ; the
lecturer afterwards explaining that this arose from the water having to pass through
strata which had the power of depriving it of some of its saline, as well as its mechanical
impurities. Mineral waters, and the Dead and Caspian Seas were then described, and the
fact stated that water contracts until it reaches the degree of 39° F., at which point it
begins to expand, and the very important consequences of this fact were alluded to. Dr.
Wells’s ‘ Essay on Dew ’ was noticed, and some of his experiments detailed.

After the lecture, questions were asked by Messrs. Atkinson, Brown, and Harvey, on
the methods of obtaining pure water, its compressibility, and the effect of freezing in
depriving it of salts ; all of which were replied to by Mr. Heathfield in a satisfactory
manner.

A vote of thanks was cordially and unanimously passed, on the motion of Mr. Ward,
seconded by Mr. B. Taylor.

This was the concluding meeting of the present Session.

MEETING OF PHARMACEUTISTS AT LEEDS.

A meeting of the Pharmaceutical Chemists of Leeds was held at the Philosophical Hall
on March 27th, 1865 : Mr. Hakvey in the chair.

It was resolved : —

1st. That it is desirable that further legislation should take place to institute com¬
pulsory examinations for persons who may hereafter commence business as chemists and
druggists. That the Pharmaceutical Society is capable of serving as a basis for such an
enlarged institution, and what it has already accomplished would justify its receiving
such a trust. At the same time, the fact that there are a considerable number of
chemists and druggists well qualified to become members of the Pharmaceutical Society,
renders it both just and politic to act liberally towards such persons.

Proposed by Mr. Williamson, seconded by Mr. Smeeton. Carried unanimously.

2nd. That the petition in favour of Sir Fitzroy Kelly’s Bill be adopted.

Proposed by Mr. Haigh, seconded by Mr. Reinhardt. Carried.

(Signed) R. Reynolds, Local Sec.

Upon the 27th and 28th, the petition received the signatures of thirteen Pharmaceutical
Chemists and of fourteen assistants, and was forwarded to Mr. Baines.

Note. — The ‘Chemist and Druggist,’ for April 15, gives a report of this meeting as
follows : —

“A meeting of the pharmaceutical chemists of Leeds was held at Messrs. ‘Harvey and

584

ON THE ALKALOIDS IN CHINCHONA BARK.

Reynolds’, 13, Briggate, March. 27th, 1865. . Eight out of thirteen were present. It was
resolved to petition the House of Commons in favour of the Pharmacy Act, 1865. The
petition was signed by seven pharmaceutical chemists and their assistants, and presented
by Mr. Baines.”

I am sure that the gentleman who edits the ‘Chemist and Druggist’ would not intention¬
ally propagate such false news, and I trust that he will feel bound to publish the name of
the person who furnished him with this bundle of misstatements.

The pharmaceutists of Leeds have consistently advocated the adoption of a liberal policy
towards non-members, as indicated by their resolutions respecting the Pharmacy Bill in
May, 1864, and renewed at the present meeting. They have done this while many of their
brethren in other towns have asserted that animosity against the Pharmaceutical Society
was the leading idea with the supporters of the United Society. But they saw in Sir J ohn
Shelley’s Bill a proof that it is much easier to find fault than to act better than those whom
we blame. As soon as the United Society commenced its constructive efforts, its members
perpetrated a blunder transcending all tlie faults of the older society, for they let slip the
labours of a quarter of a century in trying to supersede the Pharmaceutical Society, and
also staked all upon their claim for privileges, which it was clear the Legislature could not
grant, even were vested interests the only obstacle. Such a policy is revolution, and not
reform. The pharmaceutists of Leeds saw this, and represented it in the proper quarters,
supporting Sir F. Kelly’s Bill, as being capable of all modifications that could be reasonably
demanded.

I would ask whether the organ of the United Society will take the responsibility of the
perversion of facts now exposed, or will it let us know the origin, of such mischievous news ?

R. R.

ORIGINAL AND EXTRACTED ARTICLES.

MICROSCOPICAL RESEARCHES ON THE ALKALOIDS, AS
EXISTING IN CHINCHONA BARK.

BY J. E. HOWARD, F.L.S., ETC.

In the valuable and very interesting paper “ On microscopical research in re¬
lation to Pharmacy,” by Messrs. Deane and Brady, read at the last Pharma¬
ceutical Conference, your readers will have been enabled to see how much
assistance may be thus rendered in the discrimination of vegetable products,
especially of the varieties of opium. Reference is made in the same paper to
the existence, as visible under the microscope, of the Chinchona alkaloids, in situ ,
in the bark. I am far from supposing that any such practical application can
be made of this discovery, which I announced in my ‘ Nueva Quinologia ’ in
the year 1861, for the following reason : — the combinations of the alkaloids
with kinic acid are extremely soluble, so that in any bark in which these are
the prevalent constituents, it is very difficult to ascertain any crystalline appear¬
ance. But this is not the case in all chinchona barks, as for instance in the
commercial red bark, the Ch. succirubra , in which the prevalent combination
appears to be of a different kind. It is in reference to a very fine specimen of
this red bark that I published the following observations : —

“ In order to gain as much information as possible from the rich bark under
consideration, I made sections of a portion for microscopic investigation, and
was rewarded by some appearances which I had not before seen. The eye was
at once arrested by very numerous stellate groups of crystals, diffused irregularly
throughout the substance of the bark. I thought at first that they must be
raphides ; but further investigation led me to see that they are entirely soluble
in spirit of wine, and even in ether, that they polarize the ray of light, and thus
much more resemble combinations of the alkaloids than those bodies which are
called raphides, and which are understood to be composed of salts of lime and
magnesia, insoluble in the media above named.

u The crystals are arranged in the substance of the bark indeterminately, and
without any reference to the organic structure of the bark. They are not formed
in the cells, but cross these in every direction, — radiating generally from some

ON THE ALKALOIDS IN CHINCHONA BARK.

585

small nucleus, and presenting very much the appearance of some compounds of the
alkaloids in their crystalline form. They evidently are not the product of vital
processes taking place in the plant in its living state, but must result from
changes in the juices of the bark after its removal from the tree ;* indeed, it
can be no surprise if a sap-fluid containing eleven or twelve parts of salts of the
alkaloids in a hundred should then at least (if not even whilst maturing on the
tree) betake itself to crystallization.

‘ ‘ In order to observe these perfectly, I found it necessary that the section of
bark should not be too thin, as otherwise the action of the caustic would be too
powerful, leaving only the ultimate structure of the cellular tissue. I compared
the crystals with those of Cinchonine, Quinidine, and Cinchonidine ; but the
character of the decoction of the bark being always acid, seemed to forbid the
expectation, which indeed was not realized, of finding the crystals coincide with
these. At length it occurred to me to compare the crystallized compound of
quinine, formed, as I have mentioned, under the head Ch. succirubra, by adding
quinine to the ethereal solution of the mother-substance from the heartwood
of the tree. I found the crystals, which under some circumstances this com¬
pound forms, to agree exceedingly well with those seen in the bark. The feeble
amount of polarization in the two was a point of coincidence that could not be
passed over ; and on the whole, it is almost certain that the quinine is in this
state of combination in lied Bark, since the decoction abandons, by cooling, a
deposit in which I have ascertained the presence of quinine, chinchona-red, and
kinovic acid, and after this has been deposited, no trace appears to exist of
kinate of quinine, the only other probable form.

u I therefore conclude that the crystals seen in the bark-section are Rinovate
of Quinine rather than kinova-tannate or cincho-tannate, since the cinclio-
tannic acid oxidizes off into chinchona-red, and leaves the quinine in combina¬
tion with kinovic acid, as an almost colourless salt, such as is seen in the sec¬
tion” (as published in the ‘ Quinologia’). It is, however, not improbable that
the cincho- tannic acid, during its oxidation, facilitates the combination, and
as the kinovic acid in the different parts of the plant holds the exactly inverse
proportion to the amount of alkaloid contained, it is difficult to avoid the pre¬
sumption that the elements of kinovic' or kinova-tannic acid in conjunction
with ammonia, which is always present, may give rise to the alkaloids in the
bark.f

The mother-substance I have referred to is described in the above work,
under the head Ch. succirubra. It is extracted unchanged from the heartwood
of the tree, by the simple action of ether, and appears like a resin when dried,
having the composition C46 H36 O104 In this state it is not deliquescent, differ¬
ing in this from cincho-tannic acid, and it is permanent. It may be heated in
a sealed tube for twenty- four hours with chloride of ammonium without being
decomposed ; but, by the addition of a few drops of liquid ammonia, the bright
yellow ethereal solution changes to a beautiful pink colour. By boiling with
lime and water, it is broken up into kinovic acid (which passes through the
filter in combination, separating with acids), and into very pure cinchona-red,
which remains behind with the rest of the lime on the filter. This last is evi¬
dently the product of the oxidation of the cincho-tannic acid. The mother-
substance appears to undergo some change in the roots. It becomes less soluble

Seven pounds of green give four pounds of dry bark in this species (Ch. succirubra),
(Spruce, Report, etc., p. 28,) whilst the freshly -peeled bark of the Ch. lancifolia dries to one-
tbird of its weight (Karsten, Medicinische Chinarinden, etc., p. 17), so much greater, in its
growing state, is the density of the fluid constituents in the former kind of bark than in the
latter.”

f* See, as above, under head C. magnifolia.
i See my ‘ Quinologia/ under head Ch. succirubra.

586

ON THE ALKALOIDS IN CHINCIIONA BARK.

in ether, contains less kinovic acid, and the substance, separating with lime, is
no longer pure chinchona-red.

Now it is possible, both by synthesis and analysis , to obtain presumptive
evidence that the crystals seen in Red Bark are in the above state of composi¬
tion. By synthesis , because by the addition of an ethereal solution of quinine to
that of the mother-substance, a red-coloured compound ensues, which is capable,
though with difficulty, of being crystallized from water, with separation of the
chinchona-red, and also from spirituous media. By analysis , since the same bark,
treated in exactly the same manner with Liq. Potass, and then boiled with
spirit of wine, yields Quinine, Cinclionidine, and Cinchonine.

We have next to consider whether one, or more than one, of the alkaloids are
perceptible, and to assist in answering this question, I must beg your readers to
compare my plates with those in Mr. Stoddart’s paper u On the Purity of Sul¬
phate of Quinine of Commerce.”* I think that the correspondent forms will at
once suggest the analogy which is probably the true one. The small tufted
groups of crystals are quinine, (quinidine, when combined as above, has much
the same appearance, but was not present,) and the larger and coarser crystals are
in all probability cinchonine. It is not at all unlikely that cinclionidine may
be indicated in some of the small aggregations of crystals. These crystals pre¬
sent a pleasing and varied appearance under the microscope, but I have not yet
succeeded in making permanent preparations, since the glycerine which I gene¬
rally employ gradually dissolves most of them, and I have not yet found any
medium free from this objection. I had some specimens mounted in cells in pure
water, intended for the museum of the Pharmaceutical Society, but found that
the crystals slowly dissolved even in water.

Dr. Berg, of Berlin, in a recent publication, remarks, “ The crystals which
Howard figures, are not found in that manner in the bark, but are first formed
through chemical treatment of the preparation.” In this, as in most of his ob¬
servations on barks, the professor seems to have drawn rather largely on the
stores of his own insight. I am unable to conceive how it is possible that boiling
a section of bark for two or three minutes in an exceeding weak caustic solution,
washing with abundance of distilled water, and placing the slice immediately
under the microscope, could by any possibility produce crystals intersecting
the cells in all directions, f neither can I understand why it should invariably do
this in one species of bark and in many others not at all.

The fact is that Dr. Berg’s mode of preparation empties the cells of all their
contents , and he cannot believe that anynme has seen what he has not himself
observed.

It is necessary for me to remark that Tuffen West, F.L.S., our most skilful
microscopical draughtsman, was employed in the first instance, and since then
two others, to delineate the crystals, so that it is no peculiarity either in the
vision or the microscope of one person that can be productive of inaccuracy in
the observation.

I will now proceed to a more particular description of the microscopical
drawings, which were made by my son John Eliot Howard, jun., with the best
powers of Powell and Lealand’s make, and the binocular arrangement, which
affords much clearer defining power in these cases.

Plate I. — No. 1 is a horizontal section of a portion of a quill of Chinchona
succirubra , from the collection of Pavon. The drawing No. 1 was made as the.
object appeared under the half- inch ; in No. 2, under P. and L.’s quarter-inch
lens. In No. 1 will be seen, as at a , the rather compressed cells of the paren-

* November, 1864.

f The bark must previously be macerated in water for twenty- four hours. From the time
the slice is cut to its being placed under the microscope, less than five minutes should elapse,
of which two minutes are passed in the boiling solution.

ON THE ALKALOIDS TN CHINCHONA BARK.

587

chyma of the liber mingled at 5, with the liber fibres, of which the sections
appear. These are bony spiculse, traversed longitudinally by spiral canals,
from which central point (the lumen of the Germans), when seen as cut trans¬
versely, radiate lines of communication, intersecting the layers of differing spe¬
cific gravity which constitute these fibres. These penetrate the skin so that
every one who handles the finest sorts of bark becomes experimentally acquainted
with them ; at c and d are the bundles of crystals of kinovate of quinine and
cinchonine, as they are seen traversing the parenchyma in all directions, some¬
times the ops only of the crystals appearing, whilst by focusing, these can be
followed throughout their whole extent. In many cases the whole substance
of the bark is penetrated by myriads of crystals. At g, to the right, is seen a
crystal cell containing (in itself) the small crystals which distinguish this forma¬
tion, which has nothing to do with the alkaloids of the bark, not being soluble as
they are. These cell-crystals are the Cristalzellen. or Steinzellen of the Germans.
The crystals are understood to be oxalate of lime. These small crystals contained
in special cells (and that chiefly in the poorer barks) contrast strikingly with
the large and conspicuous crystals of the alkaloids.

Plate II. — No. 1 is a section of bark of eighteen months’ growth, from Oota-
camund, in the East Indies. The letter a refers to the cell structure of the
parenchyma, seen here in its youuger and more recently-developed state, tra¬
versed by bands of darker-coloured cells. At b is seen one of the few scattered
liber-fibres, cut transversely. At f the branching crystallization of one of the
medicinal salts of the bark, probably kinova-tannate of quinidine. At It are
globules of some alkaloid in salts which I have seen put on similar appearance.
At i (Plate I., No. 1) are cubical or lozenge- shaped forms of alkaloids.

No. 2 shows at a (and throughout) the compressed parenchyma characteristic
of mature red bark, at b the liber fibres, and at e (and throughout the plate) the
contents of the cells appear to be gathered together in hard concrete rounded
masses, presenting no regular crystalline aspect. These occur at times in the
same barks with the crystals, and, I suspect, indicate the combination of alkaloid
with an acid resin of which I have made mention in my 4 Quinologia.’

Plate III. — No. 1 and No. 2 are sections of a very peculiar bark, mentioned by
M. Planchon in his work ‘ Des Quinquinas,’ p. 98, as sent by M. Rampon from New
Granada, and containing 28 to 32 grammes of sulphate of quinine to the kilo¬
gramme. This would equal in richness specimens of Ch. Calisaya. My speci¬
men was part of 272 serous from the Pitayo district, and gave per 1000 parts
— quinine, 15'0; cinchonidine, 7*7 ; cinchonine, 0'34. I call it doubtfully Cli.
lancifolial The peculiar parenchyma at once strikes the eye at a in both
drawings. The large coarsely- formed spiculte of liber fibre at b are scattered
almost in Calisaya fashion ; and in this bark I again found, at c and rf, groups
of crystals (which indeed are interspersed through the whole bark). They ap¬
pear to be of kinovate of cinchonidine, or of cinchonine, and quinine.

Plate IV. — No. 1 shows part of the section of a thick heavy quill of Ch. sued-
rubra , exactly of the sort described by Delondre as Quinquina rouge vif and
corresponding to a piece of this in my possession. Professor Guibourt, when at
my house in 1851, noticed this No. 1 as exactly resembling the sort of Red Bark
analysed by Pelletier. It is remarkable for the distinctness of the false medul¬
lary rays which penetrate its substance, as at 7q the portion shown being the
inner part of the liber.

The bark contains cinchonine, 2 '57; quinine, 1*71 ; cinchonidine, 1*43 ; or toge¬
ther, 5'71 of alkaloid. The crystals seen are probably those of quinine (<?),
cinchonidine ( d ). Those of cinchonine are seen in other parts both of this spe¬
cimen and of No. 2.

No. 2 is a bark apparently of very different botanical origin, as indicated by
the very distinct resin cells which mark this species, as at j, and which are en¬
tirely absent in genuine Red Bark. This No. 2 is a pale and spurious sort of

588

PHARMACEUTICAL LEGISLATION.

Red Bark, with a white epiderm, and is nearly, if not quite, the same with that
described by Spruce as the Cuchicara sort of Red Bark. Its contents are, qui-
nidine, 1*34 ; cinchonine, 1‘00 ; or together, 2*34 per cent, of alkaloid.

Several questions remain to be solved, but the present brief notice will, I
hope, justify the statement I have made of the existence of these crystals of alka¬
loid in the bark, and their being visible under the microscope by any person
who will use the precautions indicated. A microtom for cutting sections of
regulated thickness, though desirable, is not absolutely necessary ; and furnished
with a good razor and a tolerable microscope, any of your readers following
closely the instructions in this paper, can pursue the investigation for them¬
selves.

Reference to Plates.

a , Parenchyma.

b , Fibres of the Liber.

c, Kinovate of Quinine.

d, Kinovate of Cinchonine.

<?, Aggregation of contents of cell.
f Kinovate of Quinidine.
g, Crystal cells.

h. Globules (of alkaloid ?).

L Cubical or lozenge-shaped Crystals (of
Alkaloid ?).
j\ Resin cells. .
k, False medullary rays.

/, Kinovate of Cinclionidine.

PHARMACEUTICAL LEGISLATION.

HOUSE OF COMMONS.

Wednesday , March 29, 18G5.

Chemists and Druggists Bill, No. 1.

Numerous petitions were presented in favour of both Nos. 1 and 2 Bills.

On the order for the second reading of No. 1 Bill —

Sir Fitzroy Kelly rose and said, — Sir, in moving the second reading of this Bill. I
have to state to the House that it is designed for the regulation of the qualifications of
Chemists and Druggists in Great Britain. This is a measure which has been long and
urgently required for the protection of the public, and. a measure which has been
desired by all the more respectable and worthy members of the profession of Chemists
and Druggists throughout the kingdom. I shall be able, I trust, in a very few words to
explain to the House the object of this Bill, and also the means by which that object is
sought to be carried into effect. Sir, it is well known to the House, and, I fear, it is too
well known to most of us here, perhaps personally known to us, that as the law now
stands, there is absolutely no protection whatsoever to the public in general against the
mistakes of those persons who are permitted to carry on the trade or business of a
Chemist and Druggist, and, consequently, of those persons who are allowed to make up
medical or physicians’ prescriptions, and which are made up by persons who, as is well
known, are ignorant and incompetent for that duty. (Hear, hear.) Sir, I believe that
the law ought to provide some protection against the evils and dangers to which the
general body of the public are now exposed in this respect. I have been informed that
the Medical Council have recently called the attention of her Majesty’s Government to
this most important subject, in the hope that the right honourable baronet, the Secretary
for the Home Department, would himself introduce a Bill to provide a remedy against
the many evils complained of, and I can say with all sincerity that I should have been
very glad if the Government had accepted the suggestion of the Medical Council, and
had introduced a Bill upon this subject ; but as the Government have shown no disposi¬
tion to act upon the suggestions made to them, the Pharmaceutical Society, which has
been long established, and whose acts and proceedings have conferred a great benefit
upon the public generally, have thought it to be their duty to submit this measure to
the consideration of the House and the country. The Medical Council called the atten¬
tion of the right honourable baronet to the defects and to the present state of the law,
under which any person may dispense or make up medicines, and that Council expressed
an opinion that some enactment is required to prevent persons from keeping open shop,
for the purpose of such dispensing or making up of the prescriptions of physicians and

Plate /.

No. 1

No. 2.

CHINCHONA SUCCIRUBRA, Pavon.

[Pharmaceutical Journal, May, 1865.3

Plate II.

No. 1.

No. 2.

t

Plate 1 II.

No. 1.

No. 2.

CHINCHONA LANCIFOLIAP, var.

[Pharmaceutical Journal, May, 18G5.]

•: -

No. 2.

CHINCHONA SUCCI RUBRA, var.

[Pharmaceutical Journal, May, 1865.]

PHARMACEUTICAL LEGISLATION.

589

others, without having previously undergone an examination. (Hear, hear.) I think
many sound reasons exist why the Government should have undertaken the duty of
bringing in a Bill. However, the right honourable gentleman has thought it right not
to move in the matter, and consequently the society of Chemists and Druggists, which has
been long established in Bloomsbury Square, and with whose proceedings, as I have
already stated, the public are well acquainted, have done so; and, under the instructions of
the Council of the Society, the Bill which I have now the honour of submitting to the
House has been prepared. Sir, I may say that this Bill is neither more nor less than
this — there being now no qualification whatsoever, that is to say no qualification making
it necessary for any person who desires to follow the trade of a Chemist and Druggist to
undergo an examination, or to take out a license, before he commences business, nothing
in fact which, by force of any law, makes it necessary for a Chemist and Druggist,
or any other person, no matter however incompetent or ignorant he may be, to be
examined before he commences carrying on this business. (Hear, hear.) Sir, by this
Bill it is proposed, and it is thought to be expedient for the safety of the public, that all
persons who desire to carry on this business, in the keeping of open shop, shall possess a
competent practical knowledge of such business, and that they shall, before commencing
such business, be duly examined as to their skill and knowledge: and it is submitted that
this is the only mode by which the public can be protected from the dangers to which
they are liable. Therefore, with certain exceptions to which I will refer presently, it is
proposed that all Chemists and Druggists shall submit themselves to an examination, and
upon the result of that examination they will be allowed, or otherwise, to carry on the
business. Sir, this course will, I think, be considered a very obvious remedy for the
grievance which has been so long allowed to remain amongst us ; the proposition in the
Bill is, that all persons who shall hereafter carry on the business shall be subject to an
examination, and, upon receiving a certificate of fitness, shall be registered in a register
to be kept by the Pharmaceutical Society, and upon that registration they shall be
allowed to carry on the business of a Chemist and Druggist, and to make up medical
prescriptions. (Hear, hear.) The register will be kept, as I have mentioned, by the old-
established Pharmaceutical Society. The only question which remains for consideration
is, what is to be the nature of the examination, by whom shall it be conducted, and
where shall it be carried out ? Upon this point I may state to the House, with the most
perfect confidence, that there already exist the means and the machinery — an entire
system of machinery — upon which these examinations may take place with the most
perfect security and greatest satisfaction to and of the public. They can take place
within the building of the Pharmaceutical Society itself. (Hear, hear.) In consequence
of the powers conferred by charter upon the Pharmaceutical Society, I may state that
certain rules and regulations have been promulgated by the Society, the existence of which
dates from the year 1843, when it was incorporated ; and since 1852, other regulations
have been made under what is called the Pharmacy Act, which was sanctioned by Par¬
liament in that year. The benefits conferred upon the public by the Pharmaceutical
Society have been founded upon a system of examination of all persons who desired to
carry on business as Chemists and Druggists, and these examinations were instituted for
the purpose of preventing persons appearing before the public without a certificate of
fitness, granted under such circumstances as should satisfy the public that the person
named in it was duly qualified to dispense medicines. (Hear, hear.) The subjects upon
which these persons are examined are chemistry, botany, materia medica, and the
Latin language, and the body of gentlemen appointed to act as examiners undertake to
grant certificates to the successful candidates, and these certificates show that each holder
of them is qualified to be and to act as a Member or Associate of the Society. (Hear, hear.)
It is proposed by this Bill— the whole substance and effect of this Bill (hear) may be com¬
prised in this single proposition — that all persons who shall hereafter be desirous of
carrying on the business of a Chemist and Druggist and of preparing medical prescriptions
shall not be permitted to do so without first submitting themselves to an examination
by the Pharmaceutical Society, and that upon a certificate of fitness they will be allowed
to commence business. I should state to the House that after the examination the
candidates will have to pay a small sum to the Society for being registered, and I may
also state that if this Bill shall be passed into law certain duties will arise under it in
regard to the regulation of fees to be paid to the Society ; but as to this there is a pro¬
vision in the Bill that every arrangement made by the Society shall be subject to the
VOL. YI. 2 T

PHARMACEUTICAL LEGISLATION.

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approval of one of her Majesty’s Principal Secretaries of State. (Hear, hear.) The
only question for consideration is whether these examinations will afford that security to
the public which they have a right to expect, or whether they may not be too severe,
and thus exclude persons from carrying on the business of Chemists and Druggists who
might safely and properly be allowed to carry on this trade. (Hear, hear.) Now, Sir, it
is quite impossible for me to speak too confidently of the nature and character of these
examinations. The}1- have been in existence and in actual practice for more than twenty
years, and have been recognized and confirmed by an Act of Parliament which was
passed in the year 1852, in which Act these examinations were made the subject of
certain provisions. That Act was called the Pharmacy Act, and it received the sanction
©f her Majesty’s Government of that period, and has been upheld by successive Govern¬
ments, who approved of and supported it, and I now appeal to her Majesty’s Govern¬
ment to approve and support this Bill. (Hear, hear.) I may inform the House that
since the passing of the Act of 1852 the Government, or rather that part of it which
governs the army, have required every army dispenser to obtain a certificate from the
Pharmaceutical Society. This shows that those to whom the management of the army
has been entrusted have stamped their approval upon all the proceedings of the Society ;
they have forbidden any one from becoming an army dispenser, they have prevented
any one from dispensing or making up medicine for the army, in all its branches, except
upon a certificate of the examiners appointed by the Pharmaceutical Society. And
now it is desired to carry out the provisions of the Act of 1852 to a greater extent,
so that the public may be protected against the danger of persons making up pre¬
scriptions unless they have previously passed an examination under the auspices of
the Society. (Hear, hear.) Therefore, the whole effect of this Bill is neither more nor
less than this, first, to protect the public by enacting that no one shall be permitted, ex¬
cept those to whom I will hereafter allude, .to become or practise as a Chemist and
Druggist for the compounding of medicines, or for the making up of prescriptions, unless
he shall have been registered by the Pharmaceutical Society ; and in order to be registered
he must submit to an examination, and to be examined by the Pharmaceutical Society;
and upon their certificate he may cause himself to be registered. A very great number
of persons — some thousands — now carry on the business of Chemists and Druggists, and
it has been thought too strong a measure, at least for any one but her Majesty’s Govern¬
ment, to propose to this House to lay any important restrictions on those who now carry
on this business, and who may have done so for a great length of time. (Hear, hear.)
While therefore, on the one hand, the provisions of the Bill are stringent and precise, to the
effect of prohibiting any one hereafter from becoming a Chemist and Druggist to make up
prescriptions without having undergone an examination by competent examiners, it is
likewise provided, that everyone who can obtain the certificate of any medical practitioners
that he has actually and bond fide carried on the business of a Chemist and Druggist for
making up of prescriptions before the month of January, when this Bill shall have
become law and come into operation, — that he may on that certificate, and without fur¬
ther qualification, be entitled to be registered and to carry on business as heretofore. If
the Bill be read a second time, and when it comes into committee, if it should be thought
on the part of her Majesty’s Government that any restrictions of a severer character,
that any other conditions should be imposed on existing Chemists and Druggists, it will
be easy to introduce a clause to that effect. It will then undergo the consideration of the
committee, and it will then be for the House to consider and determine whether or not it
shall become law. In the meantime, all that we ask — all that I ask the assent of the
House at present to — is the second reading of this Bill, with a view of securing the public
against the carrying on of this business by utterly incompetent, unskilful, and altogether
ignorant persons ; that no one hereafter shall be held to be eligible to carry on the trade
without a certificate of examination, and consequent registration, to -which that certificate
will entitle him. Nowr I do not think that after having stated the length of time during
which the Pharmaceutical Society has been in existence, the universal approbation in
which it is held by the Chemists and Druggists of the country, — the class of persons who
are to be dealt with by this Bill, — as well as by those who have come within the operations
of that Society, but, above all, that department of her Majesty’s Government whose
attention has been called to the subject, and in the discharge of its important public duty
has found it necessary to protect those whose interest and safety are committed to their
charge, — I mean the entire army of Great Britain, — that if the examinations have been

V HAUMACEU TI C A L LE G I S L A TI ON .

591

carried on with success, and the approval of all classes and bodies of men, by the Phar¬
maceutical Society, I think I need not say more to the House than that here are at
once all the requirements of this Bill, which will satisfy the House, that while, on
the one hand, no undue restrictions will be imposed on any branch of a trading commu¬
nity, protection will be afforded to the public by that examination to which many have
been subjected, and with the effect of which I have spoken ; and that should this Bill
pass into a law in its present form, we shall have all the protection that can properly be
afforded by an Act of Parliament. (Hear, hear.) I should have contented myself writh the
few observations T have made, and have sat down, but I feel bound, in courtesy, and in
discharge of my duty to the House, to allude to the Bill on the same subject which the
honourable baronet, the Member for Westminster, has before the House. That Bill has
two objects in view — one identical in object with the Bill I have now submitted to the
House, the other, a much more extensive object, — being nothing more nor less than to
prescribe the form and conditions upon which the sale of poisons, and of drugs, and of
what are called chemicals in general, shall hereafter be sold. With regard to the latter
branch, if I might so call it, of the honourable baronet’s Bill, I have no more to say than
this, that I believe it is a matter far too difficult, and far too complicated, and interfering
too much with the freedom of many branches of trade, to be made the subject of a Bill
in this House, except by and under the authority of her Majesty’s Government. (Hear,
hear.) And whenever her Majesty’s Government shall undertake that question, the
experience I have acquired in preparing this measure I shall be happy to bring forward
and apply to the consideration of any such Bill ; but in the meantime, with all humility
and confidence, I do protest, most emphatically, against any such measure emanating from
any individuals or body of persons. (Hear, hear.) With regard to that part of the
honourable baronet’s Bill -which might be considered identical with that which 1 pro¬
pose now to read a second time, I have only to say this, — we are agreed that some
protection should be offered to the public against the incompetence and ignorance of
certain persons carrying on this trade, and we are agreed that some examination should
be applied, — that all such persons should be subjected to some examination, the result
of which is to determine whether they shall be permitted, with a view to the security of
the public, to carry on the trade of Chemists and Druggists. The whole question, therefore,
between the two Bills, and which can be determined without the slightest difficulty by
the House, is whether, if you find a body of examiners, and a mode and course of exami¬
nation now in being, recognized and sanctioned by law, which has been carried on with
effect and success, with the entire approval of the trade and the public in general, as
well as that of her Majesty’s Government, or, at all events, an important department of
the Government, — whether or not we shall at once sweep away, set aside, and disregard
that which is ready at our hands, and adopt that which the honourable baronet pro¬
poses, which is nothing more or less than to create a new corporate body, by a sort of
general council of the whole of the Chemists and Druggists of Great Britain. The
Chemists ar.d Druggists are to elect a council, I think, of some twenty-one members, but
what their qualification for the office is to be wre are not told. They are to appoint a certain
number of examiners, of whose qualification we know nothing, and these examiners are to
administer some sort of examination, as to which we are also left in ignorance ; and upon
their report, the Chemists and Druggists of the country are to be declared duly qualified.
That is the difference then between these two Bills, and that, I contend, may be decided,
with little discussion, by this House, the Pharmaceutical Society’s examinations having
met with the entire approval of the public, — unless the House should think that the
system already established, and which has been carried on with universal approval and
success for years, is to be set aside, and prefer something of a speculative character which
may or may not ever come into existence, there being no compulsory powers in the Bill,
— unless, as I have said, the House shall prefer that sort of conjectural speculation to the
established successful practical system which we find ready to our hands, established by
the Pharmaceutical Society. Now, Sir, that is the question to be decided ; and I shall, I
hope with confidence, ask the House to agree to the second reading of this Bill. (Hear,
hear.) I must, however, say one word more. It has been suggested that this and the
other Bill shall be referred to a select committee. (Hear, hear ; No, no.) Now, if there
■was anything in these two Bills upon which the select committee could obtain informa¬
tion, or could afford information or counsel to the House, — if there were any matter of
doubt which might be the subject of evidence before a select committee, and upon which

592

PHARMACEUTICAL LEGISLATION.

the report of a select committee could enlighten or assist the House, — I should be the last
to stand up, fora single moment, and object to it. But upon the statement which I have
made, — and, I hope, I have not unfairly stated the general effect of the honourable baro¬
net’s Bill, and I am correct in stating mine, — I am at a loss to conceive, as both are
agreed that some qualification is necessary, and that it should be on the certificate of
examiners upon an examination, — as both are agreed upon that point, and as the only
question is, whether we are to have this long-established, practical, and successful ex¬
amination, or an untried, conjectural, and speculative examination proposed by the
honourable baronet, — that being the case, I should say, that that question might as
well be discussed here, as before a select committee or any other tribunal. Under
these circumstances, Mr. Speaker, I have to move that this Bill be now read a second
time.

Sir John Shelley. — It may be convenient to the House if I now say a few
words on the proposition made by the honourable and learned gentleman. And, in the
first place, I beg to state distinctly, on the part of those I represent on this occasion, that
they have not the slightest intention of infringing or interfering with the privileges of
that chartered body who are the clients of the honourable and learned gentleman who
has moved the second reading of this Bill. The question is really a public one, and simply
whether one of the recommendations of Dr. Taylor, the Government Commissioner, to the
Government, as to the sale of poisons, shall be carried out or not. Now the honourable
and learned gentleman, the Member for Suffolk, has correctly pointed out the difference
between his Bill and that which I propose presently to ask the House also to read a
second time. The honourable and learned gentleman’s Bill goes, however, no further
than this, that it lays down a certain examination which every one shall go through,
under the superintendence of the Pharmaceutical Society, before they shall be allowed
to make up a prescription, but beyond that it does not go. Now, I beg respectfully to
point out to the House that this does not touch the trade of a Chemist and Druggist,
because everybody knows a large proportion of the trade do not carry on the lucrative
trade of dispensers ; and that, in fact, many of them do not see a prescription once a
month , nor once a week, and the honourable and learned gentleman’s Bill does not in
any way affect that portion of the trade. These persons who carry on the trade of
Chemists and Druggists must be divided into two classes, namely, those who wish to
become scientific chemists, and those who carry on the business of a Chemist and
Druggist with, in point of fact, very little education, and who require little or no qualifi¬
cation for the branch of the trade in which they have embarked. Now, if I may be
allowed, or may venture to say so, the Bill of the honourable and learned gentleman will
interfere with all Druggists throughout the country, and not with those only who carry
on business strictly as Chemists and Druggists. The position of the Pharmaceutical
Society is this : — The Society is stated to have been in existence for many years, and to
have acted under the Pharmacy Act since 1852. It has no doubt done a vast deal of
good, at least so I have been informed, but I am also informed that the most good which
has been done has been in towns, and that the operations of the Society have not
reached the agricultural and other large districts of the country, nor, in fact, reached the
public at large. Now this fact I think the House ought to know, and also that the
Pharmaceutical Society once numbered about 4000 members, and that it has dwindled
down to about 2300, including foreign and colonial members. (Hear, hear.) Now the
United Society of Chemists and Druggists, whose Bill I shall have the honour of pro¬
posing to the House for a second reading, is composed of over 3000 members. (Hear,
hear.) It is clear, I consider, that the examination prescribed by the Pharmaceutical
Society will be too expensive for many Chemists and Druggists to go into, and no doubt
this accounts for the falling off in the number of its members, and the superior
numerical strength of the United Society of Chemists and Druggists. Now, in looking
at the petitions which have been presented, it appears to me that the two Societies are
squabbling over these matters ; but the House ought to take care that while the doctors
differ the patients shall not die. There can be no doubt that this great Pharmaceutical
Society possesses many privileges and much wealth, but with them all it has not managed
to obtain the affection or get into its meshes the large United Society of the Chemists
and Druggists. With a view of guarding the public interests, it is the duty of the House
to sec that some regulation shall be made by which the sale of poisons shall be efficiently
protected. fHear, hear.) Now, so far as I understand the Bill of my honourable and

PHARMACEUTICAL LEGISLATION.

593

learned friend, it provides that no person shall make lip any prescription unless he shall
have previously gone through these examinations, (hear, hear.) conducted under the
supervision of the council of the Pharmaceutical Society. Now the House will agree that
it is a great pity that this great and important subject, most important to every person
in the kingdom and to everybody’s home, — I say it is a great pity that this great subject
should be a bone of contention between these two large and respectable Societies. (Hear,
hear.) I think it would have been better that these two Societies should have come
together, and have agreed upon a scheme which should not have affected free trade.
These Societies ought to have mutually agreed upon the principles of a Bill which should
not have interfered with the freedom of trade, but which at the same time should give the
public at large that protection which is absolutely necessary in regard to the sale of
poisonous drugs. The United Society of Chemists and Druggists — the larger Society —
have, so far as that Society is concerned, made certain advances to the Pharmaceutical
Society to that end, and in that respect that Society have placed themselves right in that
point of view. And, in the hope of promoting harmony between the whole body of
Chemists and Druggists, they suggested in the interests of the people, who are more
particularly concerned, that there should be one general measure which might meet with
and be introduced in this House under the sanction of all parties. (Hear, hear.) I
think that this would have been a better course for the great Pharmaceutical Society to
have followed. (Hear, hear.) It might have prevented many disputes between the two
Societies. The suggestion was however rejected by the Pharmaceutical Society, and the
House will see that, so far as the natural interests of the United Society are concerned,
they have been driven to bring in a Bill of their own. As the Pharmaceutical Society
would not recognize the appeal made to them, no one will deny that the United Society
have taken the proper course. The House will see that the Pharmaceutical Society not
only would not recognize the larger Society, but they wished to force the United Society
to come into Parliament under the shadow of their wings. The Secretary of the United
Society wrote a letter to the Secretary of the Pharmaceutical Society in the month of
February, 18GI, suggesting that the secretaries of the different branches of the United
Society in various parts of the country should meet together and make some overtures in
reference to the important and difficult subject under consideration, and it was also
suggested that some general arrangements should be made. The letter which was written
stated in effect, that the Council of the United Society had received several communi¬
cations from the different district committees, in which were contained resolutions strongly
recommending them, and pointing out the desirability of a co-operation with the Phar¬
maceutical Society with reference to the proposed new Medical Bill. The letter further
stated that the matter had been taken into consideration, and that the Council of the United
Society were deeply impressed with the importance of the results which would follow
from acting together in a cordial and friendly spirit, with a view of obtaining an Act of
Parliament for the extension of the Pharmacy Act of 1852, and which should recognize
all existing interests, and which should provide a full and fair representation of the trade.
In that respect my honourable and learned friend’s Bill and my own do not agree, because
it appears to me that my honourable and learned friend’s Bill does not provide for a fair
representation of the trade at large, for the Pharmaceutical Society proposes to regulate
the trade under their system of examinations and to receive certain fees, and that Society
do not propose to regulate the trade unless the members of it become members of their
Society. The letter further suggested the consideration, or expediency, of ascertaining an
inexpensive mode of examination. Now, upon that point, it is necessary to observe that
under the system carried on by the Pharmaceutical Society the charge for the examina¬
tions, if I have made the account out correctly, amounts to something like the sum of
ten guineas. Now, I think that this is a sum which is much too large tor persons to
pay for being allowed to sell medicines, and to make up physicians’ prescriptions, and to
sell domestic articles ; I think that such a sum should not be required. (Hear, hear.)
But, in addition to that sum, there will be the expense of coming up to London from all
parts of the country for the purpose of undergoing the examinations prescribed by the
Pharmaceutical Society. It has been represented to me that the expenses necessarily
attendant on such a course of examination, and in residing in London for that purpose,
will not be less than thirty or forty guineas more. (Hear, hear.) Therefore, I say, that
the Pharmaceutical Society ought not to require an examination of such an expensive
sort, and which will put it out of the power of many persons to undergo. It was sug-

594

PHAilMACEUTICAL LEGISLATION.

gested that the Pharmacy Act should not be interfered with without consent, and I am
informed that there is no intention upon the part of the United Society to interfere in
any way with the privileges of the Pharmaceutical Society. On the contrary, what is
desired is that every Chemist and Druggist shall be left to please ’himself, and if he
wishes to raise himself high up in his profession, that he shall go through an examination
with a view of taking a higher degree, and if he does do that he may place upon bis door
the fact that he had passed an examination under the regulations of the Pharmaceutical
Society. The letter to which I have referred asked whether, having regard to the interests
of both Societies, a conference might not be had with a vie^v of discussing all proposi¬
tions, and I will read the answer which was sent by the Pharmaceutical Society. It was
to the effect that the letter of the Secretary of the United Society had been laid before
the Council of the Pharmaceutical Society, and that they had instructed their Secretary
to inform the United Society that their Bill would be brought before Parliament, and it
was hoped that it would meet with the general approbation of the Chemists and Druggists.
Now, the House will see that the reply does not recognize the suggestions made b}r the
Secretary of the United Society, whose letter I have referred to, and they will also see
that it is important to all persons in the trade throughout the country that these questions
shall be considered. In a subsequent letter the Secretary of the Pharmaceutical Society
informed the United Society, in answer to certain inquiries, that a meeting which had
been announced was for the members of the Pharmaceutical Society only, and that no
other persons could be admitted. Thus the House will plainly see that those whom
I have the honour to represent — the United Society — did make advances to the Phar¬
maceutical Society, and that they were simply snubbed, and there was an end to the
communications. Under these circumstances, the House cannot blame the United
Society for having, in the interests of the trade generally, endeavoured to bring this
subject jointly before the House. There has been great difficulty created by the fact
of these Bills having the same title, but although there is the same title there is
no further analogy ; for, as I have already stated, the Bill of my honourable and
learned friend amounts to this, that the Society, which he represents, desires to force
all the members of the other Society, and the whole of the Chemists and Druggists
throughout the country, into their control, in order that they may pay certain fees; and
that being done, nothing more will be heard of the Society. Now the Bill of the United
Society, on the contrary, looks to the general interests of the public, and the House will
see that there is much more to be done, and that more is required, than is to be found in
the Bill of my honourable and learned friend. A Bill, which the Pharmaceutical Society
had not made wide enough to meet with the support of the general body of Chemists and
Druggists, and the best proof that the Pharmaceutical Society did not command the
respect and support of the Chemists and Druggists, is to be found in the fact, that
whereas, there were once 4000 members of that Society, there are now only about 2300,
while the United Society was composed of a much larger number of members than the
Society represented by my honourable and learned friend. I have listened to the obser¬
vations of my honourable and learned friend in reference to referring these two Bills to
a select committee, and, I think, the House will say, that it is not right or expedient that
they shall sit here and listen to a squabble between the members of these two Societies,
— a chartered Society, and the other having a Bill before the House, — simply for the
purpose of protecting the trade of Chemists and Druggists; I think quite sufficient has
been shown to the House, to convince them that the trade generally are not at all satis¬
fied with the proceedings of the Pharmaceutical Society. But it is not for me, or for
those whose interests I have undertaken to advocate here, to desire in the least to inter¬
fere with the privileges and wealth of the chartered Pharmaceutical Society ; I will say
that it is desired by the United Society that the other Society shall go on as they have
done. But I also say, that the Bill of my honourable and learned friend does not meet
with the views or provide for the interests of the trade at large, and one important sub¬
ject is that respecting the danger to the public, of allowing the sale of poisons by persons
■who are ignorant and incompetent for that duty. (Hear, hear.) I will not at present
go into the details of my own Bill, but will simply state that it is a Bill which does not
interfere in any way with those who desire to carry on the trade of a Chemist and Drug¬
gist, but it proposes that all Chemists and Druggists, whether Pharmaceutical or others,
shall be registered under the provisions in the Bill. This was a proposal made by the
Medical Council at the time when their Act was passed in 1858. I firmly believe that if

PHARMACEUTICAL LEGISLATION.

595

this Bill and the Bill of my honourable and learned friend shall be referred to a select
committee upstairs, they will be able to smooth down all difficulties, and that they will
make something out of the two Bills, notwithstanding that the difficulties at present ap¬
pear to be great. (Hear, hear.) Under these circumstances, the wiser course to pursue
will be to refer both Bills to a select committee. (Hear, hear.) This is the course which
I and those whom I represent desire shall be followed with the Bill which I have had
the honour of introducing. Though I know this is a very difficult question, I will take
the liberty of suggesting that the proceedings of the Pharmaceutical Society shall be
looked into by some independent body, for when we find a Society like this in existence,
— a Society which has hitherto shirked the question of the sale of poisons, but one which
it is for the interests of the public shall be taken up, — I think the Government ought to.
look into it, and they ought to consider this important question. Plitherto they have not
done so. (Plear, hear.) This being the case, and after the strong representations which
have been made upon both sides of the House of wrhat practically goes on in the agricul¬
tural districts, where everything from laudanum to a pair of boots is sold in the same shop,
and even in London, it is quite time that this trade in poisons shall be regulated. (Blear,
hear.) I believe that many gentlemen have given their attention to the subject, and
that upon the evidence which will be brought before a committee, they will be able to
frame a good Bill out of the two Bills before the House, and a Bill which shall be a good
and useful public measure of safety. (Hear, hear.) I believe that my Bill may be made
a useful measure, and that my honourable and learned friend’s may be combined with if,
on the principle that the smaller provisions may be combined with the larger ; and, I
think, it may be so arranged, that all persons who dispense prescriptions shall undergo
an examination. I again state that I do not wish to interfere for a moment with the
privileges of the Pharmaceutical Society, but, on the contrary, I should be glad to see
Chemists, desirous of raising themselves in the grade of their profession, taking advan¬
tage of the examinations wffiich may be afforded. But I cannot assent to the principle
of forcing the whole of the Chemists and Druggists to pay for those examinations when
they can be registered for a very small amount. (Hear, hear.) I shall have no objection
to the second reading of my honourable and learned friend’s Bill, if it be done with a
view of referring it to a select committee, and, upon this understanding, I will also agree
to refer my bill to the same committee. I have made more observations than I at first
intended to do, and for the patience with which I have been heard, I am much obliged to
the House. I hope, that upon due consideration, and after the committee have listened
to the evidence of the trade at large, they will frame a Bill which shall satisfy and take
care of the interests of the public at large.

Dr. Brady. — This certainly is a most important Bill, and one which it is absolutely
necessary should be passed into law as early as possible. It is w'onderful how a coun¬
try like this, with so much intelligence and so much wrealth, should have allowed so
many years to have elapsed without requiring that such a measure should be passed
into law. The Pharmaceutical Society has been in existence for many years, and it
has won for itself the highest possible character. (Hear, hear.) The Society was
established by gentlemen of the highest intelligence, and possessed of great knowledge
in the profession and practice of chemistry. Every man connected with the establish¬
ment of the Pharmaceutical Society must, from his learning and knowledge of his pro¬
fession, necessarily command the respect of the wffiole community, and if honourable
Members of this House and the country were aware of the great advantages which
have been derived from the establishment of the Pharmaceutical Society, they would
not hesitate one moment in passing this Bill which the honourable and learned gentle¬
man has introduced. The examinations instituted by the Pharmaceutical Society would
reflect great credit upon any corporate body in the world. There are no better examina¬
tions, even under the auspices of the Royal College of Surgeons, than are regulated by
this Society. These examinations are fully equal to the purposes intended, and are as
good as examinations can be, and therefore I shall give my support in favour of the
Bill which has been introduced by the honourable and learned gentleman, and I think
if the measure should fail it will be on account of its great moderation in the provisions
contained in it. Now what has been the state of things as regards the United Society
of Chemists and Druggists ? The members of this Society are called Chemists and
Druggists, but are they all Chemists ? I believe that one-half of them are not, and
until a few years ago, and before the establishment of the Society, the general body

59G

PHARMACEUTICAL LEGISLATION.

of the members knew nothing of the practice of chemistry, and they knew less of the
first principles of chemistry, but still they were styled Chemists and Druggists, and
they put up their names as such over their shop-doors. To obviate such an unhappy
state of things the Pharmaceutical Society was instituted, and the object of this Society
was to elevate the character, and to educate a better class of men for the business of
Chemists. The Pharmaceutical Society has done that, and it deserves well of the coun¬
try. The honourable Member who opposes this Bill, I mean the honourable baronet,
the Member for Westminster, who has introduced another Bill under the same title,
says that the Pharmaceutical Society is not now in such a prosperous state as it formerly
was, inasmuch as the members once numbered over 4000, and that now they have
dwindled down to about 2300.

Sir J. Shelley. — Yes, from over 4000.

Dr. Beady. — Now, when the Pharmaceutical Society was first established, when it
first came under the protection of the law, many highly respectable gentlemen who
were Chemists and Druggists joined the Society ; but as years have passed away, those
gentlemen who had given their assistance in instituting the Society have gradually
ceased to be members, and now the Pharmaceutical Society is composed of a body of
men whose knowledge of chemistry will enable them to compete with any other similar
body in the world. (Hear, hear.) I think that a Society composed of 2300 such mem¬
bers is a glorious array. But what is the United Society of Chemists and Druggists ?
Why, it is composed of all sorts of men, from Harper Twelvetrees down to certain
ladies, and it also comprises clerks and apprentices ; and all persons who sell drugs, and
even mere boys, are members of that Society. Men of education and standing in the
profession do not belong to it ; they are not among the members who compose the
United Society. The late lamented Member for the City of London (Mr. Western
W ood) was a member of this United Society, but he was not a Chemist and Druggist,
and the same may be said of many others — they have been solicited to allow their names
to appear, and they have accordingly become members of the Society. If one went
through the list of names he would find many names 'of persons who are in no way
connected with the drug trade, and if all these were deducted from the calculations of the
honourable baronet, he would find the United Society dwindle down to almost nothing.
I think the Bill of the honourable and learned gentleman will give security to the
public ; that is the great feature of the Bill, and I think it will have the effect of ele¬
vating the Chemists and Druggists, and the dispensers of medicines throughout this
country ; it will have an effect upon the different branches of the medical profession.
To say that a man should be allowed to keep open shop for the sale of drugs, and not
to know a sentence of the Latin language, and not to know whence drugs came, and
not to know how to dispense medicines, and if decomposition followed, not to know
how that arose, is monstrous. All this appears to me to be a warning that something
should be done, and that persons so deeply ignorant should not be allowed to mix medi¬
cines without a previous examination. This country is in fact far behind Ireland, for
m Ireland there has for many years been a magnificent Society, and no man is per¬
mitted in Ireland to dispense medicines or medical prescriptions unless he has previously
undergone a most searching examination, (hear, hear,) and that examination provides
for the safety of the people of Ireland. That Society has educated and elevated a great
many persons in Ireland who now follow the business of Chemists and Druggists, but
the existence of such a society in Ireland is far less necessary in proportion to the popu¬
lation than it is in this country. (Hear, hear.) Believing that a Bill of the kind intro¬
duced by the honourable and learned Member for Suffolk is absolutely necessary, I shall
give it my entire support. I may at the same time observe that the complicated Bill
which has been introduced by the honourable baronet, the Member for Westminster,
could never be carried into operation in its present shape. It is a Bill which professes
to be one for registration, and it also professes to be one for the regulation of the sale of
poisons and medicines of that nature, combined with regulations for the sale of drugs
generally ; but it should be remembered that the United Society is essentially a trading
body, while, on the other hand, the Pharmaceutical Society is not a trading body. (Hear,
hear.) The United Society is, I say, a trading body, and they want to get into their
hands the power of allowing the sale of drugs, and of managing those who carry on the
trade, — a monopoly which this House will not sanction, but which, if they did sanction,
would be highly detrimental to the interests of the public. If the honourable baronet

PHARMACEUTICAL LEGISLATION.

597

does not introduce a Bill having for its object the prevention of the sale of poisons, and
which it is competent for him to do, I hope the Home Secretary will bring in such a
Bill, and if he will have such a Bill prepared under good advice, he will confer a last¬
ing benefit upon the whole of the community at large. (Hear.)

Mr. Kinglake. — It is not very extraordinary that the honourable baronet, the Mem¬
ber for Westminster, should be able to boast of the United Society having a greater
strength of members than belongs to the Pharmaceutical Society, because, if I under¬
stand the matter correctly, the Pharmaceutical Society have for a long time adopted,
and now propose to continue, a very rigid examination, whereas the United Society
have not subjected their members to any examination at all. (Hear, hear.) Therefore
I think there is no force in that part of the honourable baronet’s argument. (Hear,
hear.) When the honourable baronet boasts of the large number of members of
the United Society in comparison with the members of the Pharmaceutical Society, it
is something like saying how inferior in point of numbers are the wranglers at Cam¬
bridge and the first-class men at Oxford to all that large number of men at both Uni¬
versities who go up for examination in honours, but who obtain none. (Hear, hear.)
Now if I understand the matter rightly, the Pharmaceutical Society have actually
instituted a machinery suitable in every respect for conducting these examinations ;
whereas the Society represented by my honourable friend the honourable baronet, have
no such machinery, but they must, if their Bill passes, begin their operations de novo ;
and the principle of their Bill is that for the future, and for the future only, shall those
persons who become new members be subjected to an examination under the auspices
of the Society. And there is an exception as regards all those who up to the present
time have been in the actual practice of the trade of Chemists and Druggists. This
exception is a most important feature in the Bill, and I think some important alterations
in that respect will have to be made in the Bill of my honourable and learned friend
opposite, so that all Chemists and Druggists may be placed upon the footing of the
Pharmaceuticals. The Bill of my honourable and learned friend will not have my
support unless that shall be effected in the most complete manner. There ought to be
one form of Register for all Chemists and Druggists, whether they are Pharmaceuticals
or not. If the form of Registration be the same, one person will not be able to say
that he is entitled to more than another, whether he be or not a Pharmaceutical
Chemist. If a Chemist has undergone an examination, there should be no legislative
sanction to a plan which may work to the detriment of one class of men and in favour of
another. Therefore upon that understanding I will give my support to the Bill of my
honourable and learned friend. (Hear, hear.)

Mr. Roebuck. — This is a very important subject, and one which the House may feel
itself not fully competent to decide without further inquiry before a Select Committee ;
matters connected the sale of drugs, poisons, and medicines have always been subjected
to a careful inquiry before a Select Committee ; but, according to the argument of my
honourable and learned friend, the great body whom he represents are fully entitled to
undertake the part of controlling the business of Chemists and Druggists throughout the
country. So far as the matter of examination is concerned, so far as I can judge, the
Pharmaceutical Society is justified in saying that they are fully entitled to the confidence
of the public, and that they are able to undertake the examination of all persons who
desire to carry on the business of Chemists and Druggists. Now, turning my attention
to the subject, the first question is, what are the Government going to do in reference to
it? Are they going to do anything? for, upon the course which the right honourable
gentleman the Home Secretary may take shall I feel myself bound, because this is a
matter which falls particularly within the right honourable gentleman’s cognizance.
(Hear, hear.) I am rather surprised that the Bill is not in the hands of the Govern¬
ment. (Hear, hear.)

Sir George Grey. — I confess that the subject is a very important one. I have no
objection to the second reading of the Bill of the honourable and learned gentleman
opposite. (Hear, hear.) I think that the Pharmaceutical Society is a very useful one ;
and if there are to be examinations of Chemists and Druggists, those examinations may
with safety be placed under the direction of the Council of that Society. But there is no
doubt that these subjects require very careful consideration. The honourable and learned
gentleman was quite right in saying that Bills having reference to medical subjects have
hitherto been very carefully inquired into. That was the case with the Pharmacy Act,

5 9 S

PHARMACEUTICAL LEGISLATION.

which received the close attention of a Select Committee of which my right honourable
friend the Member for Kilmarnock (Mr. Bouverie) was chairman, and the Bill which was
brought in was, after a careful inquiry, most essentially altered by the Select Committee,
and the House adopted the recommendation of that Committee. (Hear, hear.) It was
the same as regards the Medical Registration Act of 1858, as to which I recollect the
difficulty that was experienced in bringing together the different branches of the medical
profession ; and it was only after repeated communications that gentlemen could be in¬
duced to come before a Select Committee; but after a careful inquiry before thatCommittee,
an amended Bill was submitted, which met with very general concurrence, and which
Parliament ultimately adopted, with the approval of the medical profession. (Hear,
hear.) I have received representatives of the Pharmaceutical Society, and also repre¬
sentatives of the United Society of Chemists and Druggists, and my advice to them all
was that they should meet together and endeavour to agree upon a general outline of a
Bill. (Hear, hear.) I carefully considered the Bill of the Pharmaceutical Society. I
may say they wished me to introduce it ; but I could not undertake to do so ; and
I pointed out certain objections to the Bill. Unhappily, though it was perhaps not a
matter of surprise, there were mutual jealousies existing among members of the same
profession, and the difficulty was, that it was almost impossible to bring them together
and induce them to agree to the principles of a Bill, or agree to one Bill. Now, the
Bill of the honourable and learned gentleman opposite is good as far as it goes, but it
professes to deal with only a very limited portion of the subject. (Hear, hear.) It pro¬
poses to provide only an examination for Chemists who are to make up the prescriptions of
medical practitioners, and it omits all reference to a large portion of those persons who
carry on the trade or business of Chemists and Druggists. (Hear, hear.) In the other Bill,
which has been introduced by the honourable baronet, the Member for Westminster, there
are important provisions which relate to the sale of poisons and deleterious drugs, and it
would be extremely desirable when dealing with the subject to embody these provisions.
(Hear, hear.) I think there are in both Bills points which recommend them to the con¬
sideration of this House, and I think also that both Bills should be referred to a Select
Committee, with power to take evidence and call persons before them ; and they may
also bring before them the representatives of the conflicting societies and also persons
who are engaged in the business of Chemists and Druggists. Now, if this be done, a
Select Committee may be able to make one good Bill, and thus effect to the fullest ex¬
tent the object in which we have so deep an interest. The course, therefore, which I
would recommend is, that both Bills shall now be read a second time, and then referred,
to the same Select Committee ; and that is the course which I think will be the most
satisfactory to the House. (Hear, hear.)

Lord Elcho. — Mr. Speaker, I wish, Sir, to say a few -words upon this Bill. I have
come down to the House prepared to vote for this Bill, and if the honourable and learned
gentleman still presses it to a division I shall be prepared to follow him into the lobby ;
and I do so although I declined to bring in the Bill which he has brought in, and which
is now under the consideration of the House. I wTas asked by the Pharmaceutical
Society to undertake the conduct of this Bill through this House for the reasons, as I
apprehend, that in 1858 I took a very active part, from feeling strongly on the subject,
in the Medical Reform that was much needed at that time, both with regard to the
standard for education and the number of bodies, and amongst others the Archbishop
of Canterbury, who granted degrees, all bidding one against each other. At that time the
standard of medical education was very low in consequence, and it was then thought
desirable that as certain bodies had a monopoly of our bodies, and those who had quali¬
fied themselves at Edinburgh, Glasgow, and other parts, were not allowed to attend us
except with the fear of a prosecution, which however never took place, that we were not
doing justice to the public nor to the medical profession in allowing such a monopoly
to be established, and when the Council of the Pharmaceutical Society came to me I
pointed out, that by their Bill they went a little too far in one respect, and that an
injustice would be done to one class to whom my honourable friend the Member for
Westminster has not done justice, namely, to those who keep what are called village
shops. I hold that whatever this House does with regard to the large body of Chemists
throughout the country, that you must allow those persons who keep these village shops
to sell drugs, but regulate, if you can, the sale of poisons, and also allow them to dis¬
pense prescriptions. I feel strongly upon this point ; for it happened that last year I met

599

PHARMACEUTICAL LEGISLATION.

with an accident in the Highlands which rendered it necessary that I should, hav
a prescription dispensed, and I accordingly went to the village for that purpose. I
went into a village shop or store there, and I inquired where I could have it made up,
and I was directed to the Post-Office. I there found that the person who kept the
Post-Office, and dispensed medicines, sold hobnailed shoes, hobnails, fiddles, and a
variety of other things, and there was besides attached to the establishment a circulating
library. (Hear, and laughter.) I said to the man, “Good heavens! why you seem to
sell everything here, from hobnails to fiddles ; ” and that was really the case. The man,
however, went into a back shop and got out certain compounds, made up the prescrip¬
tion, and 1 derived great benefit therefrom. (Laughter.) Now, you must leave a dis¬
cretionary matter in these things, because you cannot expect men of that class to submi
to an examination, and it is for the interest of the public that that class of persons shall
exist. (Hear, hear.) I therefore told the promoters of the Bill that unless some pro¬
vision was made for guaranteeing the existence of that class of persons I could not bring
in the Bill ; and I subsequently was informed by them that the honourable and learned
gentleman had undertaken to take charge of it without qualification, and that he
intended to ask the leave of the House to introduce it. We have now two Bills before
us ; one of them is promoted by the Pharmaceutical Society and the other by the United
Society of Chemists and Druggists ; and, having looked over the latter Bill, I find that
having objected to the Bill of the honourable and learned gentleman as not being suffi¬
ciently liberal, I find that the Bill of the honourable baronet, the Member for West¬
minster, is still more illiberal. All that the Bill of the honourable and learned gentleman
professes to do is that these gentlemem shall be registered, and that they shall not be
allowed to dispense medicines unless they are registered. The honourable baronet’s
Bill, on the other hand, says that no man shall sell drugs of any description, whether
poisonous or not, unless he shall be registered.

Sir John Shelley. — No, that is not so.

Lord Elcho. — I will read the words of the 14th Clause, which are as follows : — “All
persons now keeping or who shall hereafter keep shop or store for the retailing of drugs,
and all persons who shall be in any manner engaged in retailing or dispensing dangerous
drugs.” I maintain that the class of persons I have referred to cannot be expected to be
examined in any way, if this Bill is to have any effect in raising the standard of educa¬
tion, and, therefore, I maintain that the honourable baronet’s Bill is more illiberal than
, than that of the honourable and learned gentleman’s opposite. Let us for one moment
look at the two Societies by which these two Bills are brought in. The Pharmaceutical
Society has existed ever since 1841. I have, within the last two hours, visited the hall
belonging to that body, and I must say that I was immensely struck by all I saw there.
The Society has a perfect library and museum, an admirable laboratory, and a great
lecture-room. They are, in fact, an educational body, and I maintain, that if you are
going to build a superstructure it is better to have a sound than an unsound foundation
to build upon, and the foundation of the Pharmaceutical Society is so much better to
build upon than that of the United Society of Chemists and Druggists, that it is on those
grounds that I have come down prepared to support this Bill in preference to that brought
in by the other Society. (Hear, hear.) Now what is the other Society ? (Hear, hear.) I
have the Bye-rules of that Society, and I find from them that they are nothing more nor
less than a Trading Society and a Benefit Society. (Hear.) The first rule is the es¬
tablishment of a benevolent fund for the assistance of the members in sickness, in desti¬
tution, or at death. They also promote the early closing movement, and they look after
all questions for the especial benefit of the trade. They have no hall, no museum, no
library, and all they have is a ten-shilling room where they occasionally meet ; and they
are nothing more or less than a trading body. They are nothing more than a Chemists
and Druggists’ trading club, and no matter what are their members, they cannot be put
on the same footing as the Pharmaceutical Society, which is an honour to the country,
and upon which the late Jacob Bell, who was at one time a well-known member of this
House, and who, I am sorry to say, died some years since, spent money in raising and
endowing. It is evident from the feeling of the House, that it will not take the re¬
sponsibility of deciding the merits of these two bodies, (hear, hear,) and I am
strongly of opinion that her Majesty’s Government instead of handing over, as is too
much the fashion nowadays, the responsibility of the Government to a committee up¬
stairs who are to deal with the subject, that the Government should undertake all mea-

GOO

PlI Aim ACE U TIC A L LEGIS L ATI ON .

sures connected with so important and vital a subject as regulating the sale of poisons ;
but as the right honourable baronet, the Secretary of State for the Home Department,
has stated that he is not inclined to take it up on the part of her Majesty’s Government,
and has suggested that it should be referred to a select committee, and seeing the feeling
of the House upon the subject, I would suggest to the honourable and learned gentleman
to consent to this Bill being sent before a select committee. If however, the honourable
and learned gentleman presses his motion to a division, I shall vote with him, but I would
recommend him to adopt what is apparently the feeling of the House, that both Bills
shall be referred to a select committee, (hear, hear,) from the labours of which committee
I hope to see as good result to the Chemists and Druggists as has been accomplished for
the medical profession.

Mr. Beecroft. — I hope the honourable and learned gentleman will consent to this Bill
being sent before a select committee, to be considered with the Bill of the honourable
baronet, the Member for Westminster, which I presume the House will also read a second
time. If the course proposed with reference to the Bill before the House is acceded to,
I will take the liberty of reading a short extract from a letter I have this morning re¬
ceived from Mr. Reynolds, the Local Secretary of the Pharmaceutical Society at Leeds.
He says, “ The tribunal of a select committee will show liow much the Pharmaceutical
Society has done, and personally I shall rejoice at the Bill being so treated. The basis
of Sir F. Kelly’s Bill is sound, though it should be made more conciliatory, by giving a
jury exemption and additional facilities to existing Chemists towards entering the Phar¬
maceutical Society. It is a fact that there are a considerable number of Chemists and
Druggists well qualified to become members of the Pharmaceutical Society, and it renders
it both just and politic to act liberally towards such persons.” Under these circumstances,
I hope both Bills will be sent to a select committee, so that both may have a fair hear¬
ing, when I have no doubt such a compromise will be arrived at as will be satisfactory to
both parties.

The Speaker then put the motion that the Bill be read a second time, which was
agreed to.

Sir Fitzroy Kelly. — I will only detain the House for a moment. I must admit, with
great reluctance, that after the appeal of the right honourable gentleman, the Home
Secretary, the noble lord opposite, and others favourable to the Bill I have had the
honour to introduce, that it should be referred to a select committee, I do not feel that I
ought to oppose it. (Hear, hear.)

The Speaker then put the question that the Bill be referred to a Select Committee,
which was agreed to.

CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS (No. 2) BILL.

Sir John Shelley and Mr. John Locke having presented petitions in favour of this
Bill, —

Sir John Shelley. — It is not necessary that I should detain the House with more than
two or three words in moving the second reading of this Bill; but before doing so
I desire to correct a misstatement of my noble friend’s with reference to one portion of a
clause of my Bill. I believe it will be found when the Bill is before the Select Committee
that we have taken care in every possible way not to interfere with the case of the village
shopkeeper, and that he will be enabled after the passing of this Bill to sell all those
drugs which he does at present, such as rhubarb and those things which do not require
over-much care ; but where he deals with dangerous drugs, then he will have to go through
an examination. Now, with regard to the Pharmaceutical Society, I had hoped that I
had endeavoured, as far as possible, not to say one word against the good they have done.
(Hear, hear.) I admit what that Society has done ; but it must be remembered, and it
is perfectly well known to the honourable and learned gentleman, that the members
of the Council of that Society, who were in business before the charter was obtained, are
non-examined persons ; that out of the 23 members only 3 have passed an examination,
G07 members out of 2005 members have passed no examination whatever, and are only
subscribing members, and no better than the United Society of Chemists and Druggists.
All those matters which have been referred to, such as Mr. Harper Twelvetrees and other
things, will come before the Select Committee ; and I am very glad to find that the
House has adopted that course with reference to these Bills, because I firmly believe that

REPORT OF MEDICAL COUNCIL ON THE PHARMACY RILL. 001

between the two Bills great good will result ; and I can only say for the Society which
I represent, there has never been any other wish and intention than that the two Societies
should come together and act for the good of the whole community. I now move, Sir,
that this Bill be read a second time.

Colonel Sykes. — I hope the Select Committee will take into their serious consideration
how far it is desirable that the dispensers of medicines in villages should also be dealers
in fiddles, hobnails, and the like, and dispensers of medicines at the same time.

The motion for reading the Bill a second time was agreed to, and also that it be
referred to the Select Committee upon Sir Fitzroy Kelly’s Bill.

CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS BILLS.

On the motion of Sir Fitzroy Kelly, the following Members have been appointed on the

SELECT COMMITTEE

Sir Fitzroy Kelly . East Suffolk.

Sir John Shelley . Westminster.

Lord Elcho . Haddingtonshire.

T. G. Baring . . . Penryn and Falmouth.

Dr. Brady . Leitrim.

F. C. Hastings Russell ...Bedfordshire.

Charles W. Wynn . Montgomeryshire.

A. S. Ayrton . Tower Hamlets

G. Sclater-Booth . North Hants.

W. Cox . Finsbury.

H. W. Schneider . Lancaster.

Sir J. Fergusson . Ayrshire.

Charles Forster . Walsall.

J. A. Roebuck . Sheffield.

Adam Black . Edinburgh.

April G, 18G5.

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE MEDICAL COUNCIL ON THE

PHARMACY BILL.

REPORT.

The Committee appointed on April 7th, 1865, to report whether the Medical Council
is charged under the Medical Act with any duty in relation to medical and surgical
practice by chemists and druggists, and also to consider and report on the two Bills
relating to Pharmacy now before Parliament, report as follows : — •

In 18G4, the General Medical Council represented to her Majesty’s Government the
necessity of regulating by statute the practice of pharmacy by chemists and druggists
throughout the kingdom. The committee are of opinion that this necessity continues as
cogent as ever ; and that the Council ought to encourage and support any approved
measure for effecting such legislation.

Two Bills for the purpose have been introduced into the House of Commons during
the present session, one promoted by the Pharmaceutical Society, the other by chemists
and druggists not belonging to that body. The Bill of the latter is confined to England
and Wales, that of the former to Great Britain.

After carefully considering both Bills, the Committee are of opinion that the pre¬
ferable mode of legislation is that which adopts the Pharmaceutical Society with the
Pharmacy Act of 1852 as a basis. They think the Bill promoted by the Society well
fitted to attain various important objects, and reasonable in its demands for powers and
privileges.

The main objects of the Bill are to form a register of legally-qualified Pharmaceut'cal

602

REPORT OP MEDICAL COUNCIL ON THE PHARMACY BILL.

Chemists ; to prohibit the use of certain pharmaceutic titles by persons not on the
Register; to confine to those registered the privilege of executing the prescriptions of
medical practitioners, subject to the provisions hereinafter named ; but not to restrict
the sale of medicines asked for in any other manner.

The Committee desire to bring before the Council certain defects which it appears to
them necessary to correct before the Bill becomes law.

1. The Bill should be altered so as to apply to Ireland, as well as to England and
Scotland. They are not aware that any state of things exists in Ireland to render the
regulation of pharmacy by the State less necessary there than in Britain.

2. The Committee are of opinion that a clause should be inserted in any Pharmacy
Bill, rendering it imperative on chemists and druggists to follow, in compounding pre¬
scriptions, the formularies of the British Pharmacopoeia, unless otherwise directed by the
prescriber.

3. The Committee consider that the promoters of the Bill, probably from a desire to
disarm opposition, propose to admit, on too easy terms, into their Society, practising
chemists and druggists not now belonging to it. The proposal is to admit all who offer
themselves for examination, or who produce a certificate from a qualified medical prac¬
titioner that they have been in the practice of dispensing medicines from the prescrip¬
tions of medical men before January 1, 1866. The latter alternative implies a facility
of entrance which will be apt to lead to abuse. The Committee are of opinion that more
satisfactory evidence of qualification should be required.

4. The last important defect in the Bill which the Committee have to notice is, that
no adequate provision has been made towards preventing registered Pharmaceutic
Chemists from converting themselves into unqualified medical practitioners.

Looking to the history of medical practice in this country, the Committee see great
danger to the interests of the public and of the medical profession from the body which
will be constituted by the Bill, should it become an Act in its present shape. The General
Medical Council, in carrying out the objects of the Medical Act, have raised, and, it is
hoped, may further raise, the qualifications of legally-qualified medical practitioners.
But their labours will be in vain, should the creation of a new race of unqualified prac¬
titioners be inadvertently encouraged by an Act of Parliament. It is well known that
many existing chemists and druggists, both members of the Pharmaceutical Society and
others, practise medicine, although unqualified by law and not competent by education.
To a limited extent this practice may be inevitable, and, at all events, cannot be pre¬
vented. But the existence of it gives peculiar facilities and temptations to the Pharma¬
ceutic Chemist to embark largely in irregular medical practice as an unqualified
practitioner.

The Committee have considered whether the danger here indicated might not be
averted by extending the jurisdiction of the General Medical Council, so as to include
control over Pharmaceutic Chemists as well as over practitioners in medicine. But they
believe that such a plan is at present attended with difficulties.

By Clause 55 of the Medical Act, chemists and druggists are expressly exempted from
the provisions of the Act, so far as the ‘‘selling, compounding, and dispensing medicines”
is concerned. Nor is there any provision in the Act which gives the Medical Council
any greater power to prevent chemists and druggists from practising medicine, also, than
the Act enables the Council to exercise over all other unqualified medical practitioners.
It is plain, therefore, that the Act did not contemplate the exercise by the Medical
Council of any control over chemists and druggists ; and the Committee consider that it
would be unwise to seek to alter the existing relations between the Medical Council and
chemists and druggists.

The Committee have further considered whether the danger they have pointed out
might be averted by some simple provision in the Pharmacy Bill. By Section 17 of
the Bill of the Pharmaceutical Society, it is declared that —

“Nothing in this Act contained shall extend, or be construed to extend, to lessen or
prejudice, or in any wise to interfere with, any of the rights, privileges and immunities
heretofore vested in, and exercised and enjoyed by any duly qualified medical practi¬
tioner.”

This clause sufficiently protects medical practitioners in such right of practising
pharmacy as they have hitherto enjoyed, but it does not attempt to prevent Pharma¬
ceutic Chemists from practising medicine. Considering their peculiar temptations to

PUBLIC OPINION ON TIIE TWO BILLS.

r,03

practise it, however, some check seems desirable. The Committee suggest that this
object may be attained, in some measure, were the following clause to be added to
Section 17, viz.

“ Or to entitle any person registered under this Act to practise medicine or surgery, or
any branch of medicine or surgery.”

The members of the pharmaceutic body would thus have constantly before them the
sentiments of the Legislature as to the principles on which the Pharmacy Act was
founded.

The Committee have reason to believe that the Council of the present Pharmaceutical
Society have every desire to discourage the practice of medicine by its members. They,
therefore, apprehend that no opposition would be made to the addition of such a clause.

The Committee call attention to the fact that the Bill proposes to confer on the whole
body of chemists and druggists the right of dispensing and selling medicines without
any control on the part of the Government, except such as is exercised under the
Pharmacy Act over registered Pharmaceutical Chemists. The medical profession has not
been so dealt with in the Medical Act. The Medical Council is properly restricted in
its action by the Medical Corporation and Universities, and is also controlled by the
Privy Council. They submit that the whole profession of pharmacy ought to be sub¬
jected to some control.

The Committee recommend that the above observations should be laid by the Presi¬
dent before the Secretary of State for the Home Department, and the Chairman of the
Select Committee on the two Bills.

Signed on behalf of the Committee,

Henry W. Acland, Chairman.

PUBLIC OPINION ON THE TWO BILLS.

From the 1 Lancet ,’ April 1st, 1865.

“The question of qualification and registration of chemists and druggists is fast assuming
a settlement. Two Bills have recently been presented to Parliament with a view of
defining and regulating their position, and of limiting to competent and known men the
sale of drugs and chemicals. Legislation on the subject is beset with many difficulties.
These difficulties chiefly rest in the apparent conflict of the proposed schemes and the
principles of free-trade in matters of general, we might almost add necessary, consump¬
tion. These difficulties we believe to be more imaginary than real. Laws which afford
general protection must, in some respects, exercise a restriction. The principle of both
Bills goes no further than this — that only those recognized by them will in future be
permitted to trade in commodities of a nature which pre-argues the necessity of caution
in their distribution. Heretofore the efforts of the Legislature to avert the danger
resulting from the use of certain materials have been directed chiefly to the materials
themselves as instances arose exemplifying the peril of unrestrained traffic in them.
Thus, the sale of arsenic is regulated by the 14 Yict. c. 13. To prevent accidents from
gunpowder or other explosive substances, their manufacture and storage are controlled
by the 23 & 24 Yict. c. 139. The storage of petroleum is governed by the 25 & 26
Viet. c. 66. These measures are, to a certain extent, examples of Government inter¬
ference and restriction in the manner of trade and manufacture when the general
welfare of the public is brought into competition with the personal interests of the few.
Public safety is thereby reduced to a matter of police. It has been long felt that the
absence of legislation to limit to competent men the sale of drugs and chemicals of at
least a known character, was an omission that could not be safely permitted to continue.
It has been argued that any measure partial in its provisions would be practically of
little real service ; and any Act absolute and general would be oppressive. So many
drugs and chemicals enter largely into the daily consumption of the artisan, mechanic,
and housekeeper, for the practical purposes of their art, manufacture, or establishment,
that to limit their sale or separate them from the ordinary articles of trade purchasable
at the general dealer’s, it is affirmed, would be productive of public inconvenience, and
an undue curtailment of commerce. We admit that in theory many arguments may be

60 fc

PUBLIC OPINION ON THE TWO BILLS.

urged against restricting the sale of such materials. When, however, the matter is
approached in a practical spirit, we recognize the absolute necessity for some control
other than that which has hitherto been ex'ercised. It matters little that arsenic must
be coloured with soot or indigo, so long as materials equally deadly and far more subtle
can be procured from the same seller. In these days of alkaloids and essences, arsenic
is but a vulgar instrument. It is true that by the 23 Viet. c. 8, to administer any poison
or noxious thing with intent to injure is a misdemeanour ; but to sell it is a matter of
mere mercantile adventure, requiring on the part of the vendor a knowledge neither of
its dangerous character and probable effects, nor of anything about it other than its
trade price and retail value. This condition of affairs excited the attention of earnest
and good men, who called to their aid the co-operation of the worthy members of their
craft, who in 1841 established the Pharmaceutical Society, for the purpose of advancing
chemistry and pharmacy, and promoting a uniform system of education for those who
should practise the same ; and also for the protection of those who carry on the business
of chemists and druggists. This association, from the excellence of its design, attracted to
its membership a large number of the better classes of the chemists and druggists of that
day. In 1843 it became an incorporated society, and in 1852 received special par¬
liamentary recognition. Were the Pharmacy Act of 1852 obligatory, further legislation
would not be needed. As, however, outside its provisions there is a very large number
of men who traffic in drugs as a mere matter of commerce, the necessity has arisen for
some regulating measure whereby at least the safety of the public may be ensured. The
Pharmaceutical Society, which has afforded such valid proofs of its high public spirit and
due appreciation of what is required, is known to have given much attention to the
preparation of such a Bill as might meet the more prominent necessities of the case.
Any suggestions put forward by that society are entitled, therefore, to be received with
consideration and respect.

“ The Bill introduced by Sir Fitzroy Kelly is the result of long and mature deliberation
of the Council and members of the Pharmaceutical Society. It is a temperate and well-
considered measure. It involves registration of those who at present have a vested
interest in the business of a chemist and druggist, and requires from those who may in
future become members of the body, or use its titles, the passing of an examination, and
proof of qualification. So far as this Act goes it is complete, and, we venture to affirm,
deseving of confidence and support. It limits its restrictions to those ‘ keeping open
shop for the compounding of prescriptions of duly qualified medical practitioners.’ In
this respect its provisions and proposed restrictions will be identical with those of the
Irish Apothecaries’ Company, that rigidly inhibit compounding of prescriptions to those
possessing their licence. We would desire a further extension of its provisions, and see
them include some regulations whereby the sale of poisons or dangerous drugs would be
confined to those whom the enactment is intended to include. The promoters of the
Bill have hesitated to do this, through the apprehension that such a complication might
endanger the success of their most useful and excellent measure, and also in the belief
that a register of duly- qualified chemists and druggists would be necessary as a condition
precedent to the operation of any restrictive measure respecting the sale of poisons.
Though there is much force in such arguments, we still believe that public attention is
now so alive to a necessity for some measure of this character, that Parliament would
sanction its provisions. Many Acts on the same subject are undesirable. True, the
present Bill is chiefly directed to the purposes of education, qualification, and registra¬
tion ; but we believe it would not be prejudiced by the insertion of such a clause, as it
virtually leaves intact the existing condition and privileges of those who do not com¬
pound prescriptions. The Bill introduced by Sir John Shelley is allowed to have
emanated from the United Society of Chemists and Druggists, which must be regarded
rather in the light of a trade association than of a scientific body. The provisions of
this Bill are crude and ill-considered. While that introduced by Sir Fitzroy Kelly
proposes an amendment and extension of an existing measure, whose operations have
been attended with the happiest results, the other contemplates the organization of a
new mechanism, the scheme of which bears undeniable evidence of a very imperfect
appreciation of the duties or objects for which it is designed. While Sir Fitzroy Kelly’s
Bill provides for a certificate, from a duly authorized board, of competent skill and
knowledge for compounding of prescriptions, which implies a knowledge of drugs and
chemicals in their combinations, that of Sir John Shelley limits the qualification ‘ to a

PUBLIC OPINION ON THE TWO BILLS.

605

knowledge of the nature of drugs and medicines in general use, with their doses,’ and
empowers the establishment of a roving commission throughout England and Wales for
the purpose of examination. The former\neasure submits the bye-laws embodying its
proposed examination to the approval of the Secretary of State ; the latter leaves it a
matter of discretion for those to whom such a duty or responsibility may be entrusted.
Sir Fitzroy Kelly’s Bill proposes to ensure public safety without undue interference with
trade ; Sir John Shelley’s measure unduly interferes with trade without ensuring public
safety. Registration and what the Bill terms examination are, by Sir John Shelley’s
proposal, made the basis for restricting the sale of drugs ; whereas the sale of drugs is
not affected by the Bill of Sir Fitzroy Kelly further than the compounding of prescrip¬
tions. Were the 18th section of Sir John Shelley’s Bill, setting forth restrictions and
penalties on the sale of poisons, included in that of Sir Fitzroy Kelly, we believe that a
measure eminently entitled to public support would be the result. We would fain hope
that such may be the case, and that this long-desired measure of protection may at length
be conceded. It is satisfactory to know that both Bills have been referred to a Select
Committee. The debate in the House was, on the whole, as temperate as might have been
expected from those advocating rival measures. It must be gratifying to the Pharma¬
ceutical Society that such deserved honour and praise were rendered to its exertions by
all who joined in the discussion. We venture to hope that the measure it has proposed
may be practically adopted, even though in some non-essential particulars its provisions
be modified ”

From the 1 Medical Tunes and Gazette April 8 th.

“We will venture to repeat here the objections which we have felt it our duty, on
behalf of the English general practitioner, to make to these Bills. The existence of a
grievanceor of danger to the public from incompetent dispensers is not proved nor probable.
Even if it were proved, it could not be remedied by Act of Parliament. The good objects of
the Bills can all be better obtained by voluntary effort without a Bill. The exclusive
privileges it is proposed to confer may be highly inconvenient to the public. The re¬
striction to certain persons of the right of ‘compounding the prescriptions of duly-
qualified medical practitioners,’ makes the whole affair seem ironical, so far as public
safety is concerned, because it clearly leaves the field open, and gives virtually legal
sanction to unduly-qualified medical men who shall prescribe, and unqualified person¬
ages who shall dispense, their prescriptions. Literally it will come to this, that a man,
who on an emergency shall make up a box of colocynth pills from a physician’s pre¬
scription shall be fined £5, whilst he may compound a drink from the receipt of a
‘ botanist ’ or sell a box of Morison’s pills with the sanction and approbation of the law.
Lastly, the habit of counter practice, and of consultations and prescriptions of chemists
in their back parlours will increase and multiply, and the regular practitioner be starved,
— all for the ‘ safety of the public.’

“There are, in London alone, hundreds of M.R.C.S. and L.A.C.’s, whose daily income
is affected by this Bill. If any of them think about it as we do, we ask them to forward
their names at once to the ‘ Medical Times and Gazette’ office, stating whether they are
willing to wait on the framers of these Bills to discuss the matter. They must bear in
mind that Sir F. Kelly and Sir John Shelley are well disposed to the Medical Profession,
but take their tone in the present matter from the very able, energetic men who — small
blame to them — desire to aggrandize the Pharmaceutical Society or the United Society of
Chemists and Druggists, and to substitute the pharmaceutical chemist for the general
practitioner. But if our medical brethren are silent now, it will be in vain to grumble
hereafter.”

From the ‘ Saturday Review, , April 8 th.

“It seems strange that it should be found difficult to obtain for the British public
protection against the dangers which arise from the sale of medicines by persons utterly
ignorant of their qualities and effects. But there are formidable obstacles arising, on
the one hand, from the reluctance of chemists and druggists to be taught anything, and,
on the other, from the fear entertained by some medical practitioners that they may be
taught too much. The apothecaries were originally, as their name signifies, nothing
more than keepers of general shops, like those which still exist in country places, for
the sale of everything from laudanum to a pair of boots. Afterwards they became more
VOL. VI. 2 u

606

PUBLIC OPINION ON THE TWO BILLS.

exclusively dealers in drugs and chemicals, and it was their business to compound the
medicines which the physician prescribed. Gradually they undertook to prescribe as well
as to compound, and, at the same time, it b»gan to be felt that some test was necessary
of the fitness of men who had assumed such important duties. Ultimately, examinations
were imposed, and the apothecaries became established as the most numerous class of
practitioners of the healing art. The business of selling drugs and chemicals now de¬
volved upon another class of tradesmen, who have in turn encroached upon the province
of the medical profession, and are likely to encroach upon it still more in proportion as they
are induced or compelled to acquire some of the knowledge which enables that profession
to perform its duties. This, however, is a matter which concerns only a fraction of a
class, while it concerns society that nobody should meddle with medicines who does not
understand their properties. The objection of the chemists and druggists to being edu¬
cated will obtain even less sympathy, but it is to be observed that the objection of some
of them is not absolutely to examinations, but only to examinations conducted by the
Pharmaceutical Society, between which and the Society of Chemists and Druggists,
which is of more recent origin, there prevails an intense jealousy. The demands which the
existing examinations of the Pharmaceutical Society make in the way of knowledge
are not large, and the demands which would be made by the examinations which have
been proposed by the Society of Chemists and Druggists seem to be ridiculously small ;
but whether either of these societies, or some new society, shall be taken to represent
the general body of chemists and druggists, is a question which concerns the public only
in this respect, that it is desirable that the conduct of examinations, if there are to be
any, should be placed in efficient hands.

“Bills have been brought into the House of Commons by both the rival societies, and
after some discussion have been referred to a Select Committee, which will endeavour to
reconcile their conflicting claims. The older society is represented in the House by Sir
Fitzrov Kelly, and the younger by Sir John Shelley. The Phannaceutical Society was
incorporated by Royal Charter in 1843, and in the year 1852 it was empowered, by a
statute called the Pharmacy Act, to conduct examinations and establish registers of ex¬
amined persons and members of the society. The word ‘ pharmaceutical ’ is obviously
a derivative of the Greek word which is sometimes translated ‘ poison ’ and sometimes
‘ remedy.’ A chemist and druggist is a person who deals in all the substances, mineral
and vegetable, from which remedies are prepared ; and it would seem that the addition
of the word ‘pharmaceutical’ adds nothing to the idea which would be conveyed by the
words ‘chemist and druggist ’ simply. But this word ‘ pharmaceutical’ is at any rate a
long word, and probably it is understood by those who bear it as designating a chemist and
druggist of superior education and intelligence.

“The advantages, whatever they may be, of the designation are, by the Act of 1852,
restricted to persons registered under the Act, and no person can now be registered unless
he passes an examination, which certainly affords security for the possession of a com¬
petent degree of knowledge. It is proposed by Sir F. Kelly’s Bill to provide that shops
for the compounding of prescriptions shall only be ke^t by registered chemists and
druggists, and that, except in the case of persons now in business, registration shall only
be granted on passing the examination of the Pharmaceutical Society. It is certain that
the Society of Chemists and Druggists will oppose with all its might the proposal to
place the conduct of examinations in the hands of the rival body ; and it might be pos¬
sible and expedient to construct a board which should inspire public confidence at the
same time that it conciliated the support of chemists and druggists generally. We do
not, however, think that Sir John Shelley’s proposal to commit the appointment of ex¬
aminers to a council to be composed of ‘ twenty-one gentlemen to be annually elected
from the general body of chemists and druggists,’ would be likely to inspire public con¬
fidence : nor do we think that an examination in ; the nature of drugs and medicines in
general use, with their doses,’ would secure the possession of adequate knowledge. There
is reason to suspect that, under the authority of the twenty-one ‘gentlemen,’ an easy test
would be applied in the mildest possible way. At the present time, chemists and drug¬
gists not only make up prescriptions, but actually prescribe themselves to a very great
extent. There seems to be no prospect of their being restrained from prescribing, and,
therefore, it would be a great public gain to diminish the risk of their committing
grievous errors. In this view, the proposal of the Pharmaceutical Society to examine in ‘the
-Latin language, Botany, Materia Medica, and Pharmaceutical Chemistry,’ as the test of

PUBLIC OPINION ON THE TWO BILLS.

(307

qualification for a chemist and druggist, does not appear to contemplate an extravagantly
high standard. In several Continental countries the ordinary drug-dispenser would pass
such an examination without difficulty. There would still be nothing to prevent any¬
body from putting blue and red bottles in a window, or to restrain the sale of drugs,
either simple or compounded ; but the use of the designations ‘Pharmaceutical Chemist,’
or ‘ Chemist and Druggist,’ or 4 Chemist,’ or ‘ Druggist,’ by unqualified persons, would
be prohibited ; and if people chose to trust unqualified persons in matters affecting health,
they must be left to take the consequences. This, at any rate, is the conclusion of the
clients of Sir Fitzroy Kelly, who propose only to prohibit ‘ carrying on the business of a
chemist and druggist in the keeping of open shop for the compounding of the prescrip¬
tions of duly-qualified medical practitioners,’ as well as the use of the titles above
enumerated, by persons who shall not be duly registered.

“ It is urged by the opponents of the Pharmaceutical Society that their proposal is
better adapted for large towns than for small and secluded villages. Lord Elcho told the
House of Commons that, having occasion to get a prescription made up, he had to go to
the post-office of a village, which he found to be a store for the sale of almost every
article, from fiddles to hobnails. But if a village cannot support a pharmaceutical
chemist, it usually does support, although in a poor and mean way, a doctor, as he would
be called, who is probably both surgeon and apothecary ; and no doubt such a doctor
would consent, on an emergency, to make up a prescription of another doctor practising
in a more conspicuous sphere. It may be that the far-shooting Apollo, having some
family" influence over pharmacy, took Lord Elcho under his special care, but it would
probably be imprudent in ordinary people to have their prescriptions made up at a
village post-office. It would, at any rate, be hard that large towns should not have pro¬
tection because small villages cannot afford to pay for it. There is an almost immeasur¬
able distance between Professor Faraday and a shopkeeper who displays coloured
bottles on one side of his door and grocery on the other, and yet both are called chemists.
It may be that the heads of the Pharmaceutical Society belong rather to the class of
the professor than to that of the country shopkeeper, and it is possible that, if they were
uncontrolled, they would fix the standard of examination higher than would be suitable
to the wants and duties of that numerous body of persons who, although Sir John
Shelley’s Bill makes them gentlemen, would not object to be called tradesmen. But it
would be easy to correct this tendency, if it exists, by infusing a little common sense
into the proceedings of a body which possibly sets too high a value upon science. There
can, however, be little doubt that the Pharmaceutical Society, whose examinations are
satisfactory to the medical profession, and are the only recognized examinations for army
dispensers, will satisfy the Select Committee that it deserves an increased amount of
public confidence. Whatever be the means employed, it is to be hoped that Parliament
will ensure the competency of persons keeping open shops for dispensing medicines and
compounding prescriptions.”

From the 1 Scotsman? April %fh.

“ Men busy themselves often the least with that with which they have the closest
connection ; or they busy themselves only with it in part, forgetful that the arrange¬
ment which is not complete everywhere is complete nowhere. Thus the Legislature has
recently given us, by means of a register recording the names of all duly authorized for
medical practice, the opportunity of ascertaining the identity and qualifications of those
whose momentous duty it is to bestow that guidance and aid in times of sickness and
suffering, which few are inclined to slight, unless when the need of them can be contem¬
plated at a distance. But the ablest of medical practitioners is no unfettered autocrat,
who has but to direct wisely in order to have his injunctions fulfilled faithfully and
successfully. In addition to the docility of the patient, and the assiduity of the nurse,
he must have, what is most to the present purpose, the skill and care of the compounder
and dispenser of medicines to sustain him in his efforts, otherwise his best-devised plans
may prove but a source of failure, in the worst of forms of deception and disappoint¬
ment, to himself and to his charge. And yet the public, however lavish its faith, and
whatever the real merit of individual exceptions, has no existing guarantee that the
larger portion of those who assume the function of the compounder of medicines, or of
chemist and druggist, as they generally prefer to style themselves, may not be so
thoroughly ignorant of chemistry, and of the characters and qualities of druns, as to

608

PUBLIC OPINION ON THE TWO BILLS.

fail even to stand appalled by the sliarae of their own incompetence. This is no
pleasant reflection for the medical practitioner, and ought to be none for a public which,
even while the most devoted to freedom of trade, may yet well pause before tolerating a
licence that tampers with life by simulating and vitiating science. And it is the less
agreeable when we find one authority after another abroad, the highest in medical
policy and in the art of healing, exclaiming with pity against the blindness and reck¬
lessness of a country which leaves such specially important interests to such false and
defective handling.

“ It was but in giving voice, then, to the feelings of the medical profession, and in
the exercise of a becoming solicitude for the public credit and welfare, that the General
Medical Council, constituted under the Medical Registration Act, came lately to the
resolution : —

“ ‘ That a communication be addressed to the Secretary of State for the Home
Department, drawing his attention to the present defective state of the law regarding
the practice of pharmacy, under which any person, however ignorant, may undertake
it; and expressing the opinion of the General Medical Council that some Legislative
enactment is urgently called for to ensure competency in persons keeping open shops
for dispensing medicines, and for the compounding of physicians’ and surgeons’
prescriptions.’

“On the facts and consciousness thus expressed, has ensued the introduction of two
separate Bills into Parliament; each bearing the identical title of a ‘Chemists and
Druggists Bill,’ but each emanating from a different source, and differing, too, in the
extent of its aims, as in the instrumentality for their accomplishment. The first
originates with the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, a body incorporated by
Royal Charter in 1843, and which, in 1852, had pow'ers for the examination of Phar¬
maceutical Chemists, assistants, and students, conferred upon it by Act of Parliament,
but only in so far as that examination, and its resulting attestation of competency,
might be voluntarily sought for. This Society has now on its registers about 4000
individuals in England and Scotland ; and since 1853 it has registered none unless upon
previous trial. It has established lectureships, a benevolent fund amounting to £7000,
a museum and a library, a laboratory for practical instruction, and a meritorious
journal, the agencylof which, in advancing and diffusing pharmaceutical knowledge, has
been singularly valuable. It now asks to have confided to it, as merely an extension of
its present functions, the duty of examining and registering all new entrants on the
occupation of chemist and druggist, upon whom such examination is to be henceforward
compulsory ; and of simply registering, but without subjection to examination, all
those already engaged in the exercise of the trade. Thus all present chemists and
druggists might acquire, on the easiest of terms, an authenticated and legal position,
ascertainable by reference to a single register common to them and to the already certi¬
ficated Pharmaceutical Chemists ; while all future entrants would have their competence
duly tried, and attested by their position in the same register.

“ The rival Bill emanates from a body designating itself as the Society of Chemists and
Druggists of England and Wales, which has existed only since 1861 ; but of which the
public knows little, and the scientific world nothing, inasmuch as, being destitute of all
apparatus for study or teaching, whether lectureship, museum, library, laboratory, or
journal, it subsists only obscurely, with apparently an approach to the character of a
mere trade’s guild or commercial protection society. This body seeks also to be elevated
into a corporation, and asks from the State that fulness of power of examining and
registering members and entrants which the older and more distinguished body already
in part possesses; thus aspiring to establish, with exceedingly doubtful expediency, a
second order and source of qualification for druggists, to be attested by a second and its
own peculiar register. The Bill of the Pharmaceutical Society includes Scotland ; and
a petition in its favour has been sent to Parliament, signed by 105 chemists aud druggists
and their assistants resident in Edinburgh. The rival Bill is designed for England and
Wales only. The latter Bill embodies a clause regulating the sale of poisons ; a matter
so important in itself as to deserve a separate enactment, yet which can still easily be
provided for by an addition to the former Bill, should it be judged fit by Parliament that
the kind of Act contemplated ought to be at once a measure for education and for
police — a combination the propriety and advantage of which may fairly be considered
debateable.

PUBLIC OPINION ON THE TWO BILLS.

609

“ But the question at once arises, as to how and wherefore this young Society of
Chemists and Druggists has sprung up into fiscal, if not into scientific competition with
the earlier Pharmaceutical Society. If it represents, as it assumes to represent, the
general body of the craft not yet embraced in the first constituted incorporation, whose
merits are sufficiently proved by its public-spirited and widely-appreciated labours, it
must obviously include, and so represent also, the bulk of that crass ignorance, to the
danger of the existence of which the attention of the Secretary of State has been sought
to be drawn by the General Medical Council. Has it, then, been through a fear of the
examination that its members, in the mass, have hitherto been held back from offering
themselves as associates of the older institution? And is it now only by the pressure of the
times that they are compelled at last to devise some less rigorous test of their own,
whose leniency and narrowness of range, in contrast with the by no means excessive
requirements of the Pharmaceutical Society, may doubtless be more agreeable to the
candidate, if less assuring to the public ?

“ Such a degree of leniency appears, indeed, to be not indistinctly indicated in the
thirteenth and fourteenth clauses of their Bill. But the plea of costliness, it is of
course natural to expect, is one more likely to have been advanced here than that of
reluctance through consciousness of defective knowledge ; and yet even this, it seems,
could have been urged with only scanty reason. The comprehensively instructed and
rigorously tested pharmacien of France, receiving his attestation of competency at Paris,
pays for it 1200/., or £48 sterling. If he appear before a commission in the depart¬
ments, the expense is only 350/., or £14 sterling ; but in the latter case he can pursue
his vocation within only the particular department of country in which he has been
admitted, while in the former the whole empire is open to him. But the Pharmaceutical
Society gives its ordinary certificate of competency, available everywhere, for £5. 5$. ;
and its highest attestation, qualifying for election for its membership, costs only twice
that sum. The regulations for study and for examination in Germany and Sweden are,
like those of France, lying before us, and certainly none need complain of the rigour of
even the highest tests hitherto proposed at home, who are familiar with those known to
be prevalently required abroad. It may be significant to our chemists and druggists, who
have assumed these titles without previous trial and proof of competency, that, by a law
still in authority in Germany, all those similarly placed are strictly prohibited from pre¬
paring and dispensing medicines ; being particularized to this end along with a motley
tribe of others, embracing distillers, itinerant quacks, Jews, ^shepherds, executioners,
honorary doctors, old wives, and charmers.

“ Manifestly, then, this is a subject on which legislation is demanded, that the public
may be protected from the possible danger, positive or negative, which arises from its
present ignorance as to who is, or who is not, properly qualified by skill and knowledge
for the sale and dispensing of medicines and prescriptions ; and, almost equally mani¬
festly, it seems reasonable to be to that body which has hitherto shown the greatest
energy and zeal for improvement, and upon which, besides, a large measure of authority
of an approximate description has already been conferred by the State, that the instru¬
mentality should be entrusted for carrying the law into effect. All antecedents are in
favour of the Pharmaceutical Society, while those of the Society of Chemists and
Druggists are worse than null. Even their projects for the future are such as to involve
a retrogression when compared with those of the earlier institution. There must
unquestionably be much individual merit in the ranks of the newer society ; and yet it
is painful to the expert to remark, in the very schedules appended to the Bill proffering
its claims, such medicines as lettuce, and ipecacuan, and, above all, grains of paradise,
classed as dangerous drugs, along with nux vomica, opium, and oxalic acid ; while,
among the active poisons, ergot of rye is placed beside strychnine and atropine, and
prussic acid is omitted. From the Pharmaceutical Society such defects and incon¬
gruities of classification could never have proceeded. It is for the Bill emanating from
this body, therefore, that upon the whole, success in Parliament seems the more desirable,
in the best interests of the public. Doubtless, it may undergo some amendments in
committee ; and perhaps among these should be introduced a provision allowing bodies
of examiners (as, indeed, is already permitted, at least for Scotland, in the Pharmacy
Act of 1852) to be named and to act in a few of our more populous cities, besides those
sitting in either capital, in order to promote economy and convenience on behalf of the
candidates. The obligatory presence of assessors, delegated from the Royal Colleges of

610

OPPOSITION TO TREE TRADE.

Physicians and Surgeons, could not fail also to add a further confidence and value to the
results of these examinations, whether on the part of the medical profession, the public,
or the candidates themselves.

“ Objections, too, will inevitably be pressed in committee against the Bill ; and one or
two of these have already been indicated in the debate on the second reading. Lord
Elcho, for example, contended that it was necessary that persons in remote localities,
keeping stores to supply all the promiscuous wants of the vicinity, should be permitted
to sell medicines, and even to make up prescriptions, although it could not be expected
that they should be competent to undergo examinations. Both these points may be
passively conceded ; for necessity must sometimes rule for them, where there is only a
choice between a greater and a smaller danger ; and, indeed, the thirteenth clause of
the preferable Bill actually gives, in anticipation, all the latitude on the subject that
need be desired. On the occasion when his lordship tells us he adventured his own
personal experience, we might imagine him asking, after the precedent of the great
Conde with the village barber-surgeon, whether the huckster before him was not afraid
to administer such services to the son of a peer, a statesman, and a chief and champion
of the volunteer movement ; and can conceive a repetition of the appropriate answer —
‘ My faith, your lordship, it is for you to be afraid.’ ”

Articles expressing opinions, more or less identical with the majority of those given
above, have also appeared in ‘Bell’s Weekly Messenger,’ ‘Birmingham Daily Post,’
‘ Daily News,’ ‘ Standard,’ ‘ Pall Mall Gazette,’ ‘ Morning Star,’ ‘ Daily Telegraph,’
‘ Morning Advertiser,’ 1 Montrose Standard,’ etc. etc.

OPPOSITION TO TREE TRADE.

TO THE EDITORS OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Gentlemen, — The Bills now before Parliament will be little or no use to the
Druggists of this town. What militates against our interests here is, that nearly
or quite every grocer sells drugs. It is much to be lamented that Sir Fitzroy
Kelly's Bill will not have the effect of compelling them to desist as soon as it
comes into force. However good the Bill may be in one sense, yet it miserably
fails to protect the trade, — even members of the Society (like myself), wrho have
had* to pay the inevitable price for qualifying themselves for their profession.

Yours faithfully,

W. Rayner.

Sheerness , April 8, 1865.

LETTER EROM MR. BUOTT.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — Amongst the numerous statements put forward in the ‘ Pharmaceutical
Journal’ for this month which seem to demand correction or contradiction,
there is one charging me personally with making an accusation which is “slan¬
derous and untrue.”

I have hitherto passed by whatever you may have written or inserted in your
Journal reflecting upon me as the mere expression of party prejudice, but, as
the cause which I have advocated is now a matter of legislative consideration,-
and might suffer through my silence, I feel it my duty to establish the accusa¬
tion I made in the name of others in the columns of the journal which has been
the vehicle of that charge, against me.

The passage to which I refer runs thus : —

“ We cannot avoid remarking on the gratuitous insult which was offered to

LETTER FROM MR. BUOTT.

611

both by one of the deputation from the United Society to Sir George Grey, who
talked of the 1 misrepresentations 1 which had been used to obtain signatures to
the recent memorials. Some correspondence from Walsall, bearing on this sub¬
ject, will be found in another part of this journal. He did not venture to de¬
scribe the misrepresentations, but we do venture to describe his accusation as
slanderous and untrue.’’

I did not “ describe the misrepresentations,” that is, I did not give the preen e
words used by fifty men in fifty different towns, all tending to a common resu:t
upon 1000 minds, simply because it was an impossibility. The nature of the
effect shows the nature of the cause. The effect was, that something like 1000
members of the United Society were induced to sign a memorial in favour of a
Bill which proposed to register and tax them without enfranchising them. Can
it be possible that they so understood it ? ISTo ! Indeed it is a moral impossibi¬
lity that they should. Then what is the inevitable conclusion? Why have
they repudiated their signatures? The answer is what they themselves affirm,
viz. that they were deceived as to the nature of the Bill for which they were in¬
duced to give their signatures.

But what are the facts? It is indisputable that 100 non-pharmaceutical chemist s
at Birmingham, with several pharmaceutists and Mr. Snape, the chairman,
Mr. Packwood, the secretary, Mr. Miller, Mr. Foster, Mr. Litchfield, and other
members of the United Society who signed the memorial, afterwards repudiated
their signatures, because, as they say (not as 1 say), the Bill for wdiich they
signed had been misrepresented to them. These 100 chemists of Birmingham
amply prove my case.

I refer with equal confidence to Wolverhampton. What say Mr. Lowe,
Mr. Perkins, Mr. Wedge, Mr. Lister, and others who constitute the petitioners
of that town? I think I recollect their statement word for word, because it
was uniform. They were, it was intimated, to be freed from the competition
of huckstering druggists, and to be admitted to membership with the Pharma-
eeutical Society. Even at Nottingham, where unusual efforts have been made to
stifle the reforming spirit of the United Society, the non-pharmaceutists generally
(and some pharmaceutists too) gave their consent to the Pharmacy Bill only
upon the condition that the privilege of exemption from jury service should be
extended to all chemists brought under its provisions. *

But why need I individualize towns ? The case of Birmingham is that of the
Potteries, of Liverpool, of Manchester, of Hull, of Wolverhampton, of Walsall,
and numerous other towns. The statement from each is substantially the
same, — that by a suppression of the fact that the non-pharmaceutical chemists
to be registered under the Pharmacy Bill were not to be incorporated or repre¬
sented ; or, by the assurance that the Bill had been so altered to meet the wishes
of the trade, that they would be relieved from competition with small shop¬
keepers and grocers, be exempt from jury service, and brought within the pale
of the Pharmaceutical Society, they were induced to sign the memorial, and
that they repudiated their signatures on finding the impression produced upon
their minds by such misrepresentations was not correct. Indeed, even without
this direct and incontrovertible evidence bearing upon the case, it is impossible
to account for such uniform misunderstanding and such uniform repudiation,
except upon the theory of “ misrepresentation.”

t I trust I have said enough to vindicate my character from the aspersion cast
upon it. I will do the writer the justice to believe that in his own heart he
does not accuse me of wilful untruth and slander ; but that he wrould say u an
accusation affecting the reputation of others, unsupported by evidence, is slan¬
der and untruth and I am willing to accept that qualification, in the absence
of any impartial tribunal to which the matter might be referred ; but, failing
such qualification, I hurl back the charge of slander and untruth upon those
who made it, and at their door be the responsibility of embittered strife.

612

LETTER FROM MR. EUOTT.

Permit me, Sir, in concluding this hurried letter, respectfully to address a
word of remonstrance to those gentlemen who constitute the Pharmaceutical
Council. They would have Parliament believe that their Bill is produced out
kindness for their non -pharmaceutical brethren. Every Member of Parliament
who has read the bitter tirades put into the mouth of Dr. Brady and Lord
Elcho, and repeated with increased venom in the ‘ Standard ’ newspaper, will,
as sensible men, receive such a profession with incredulity, and find a more pro¬
bable, but less creditable motive for their zeal.

Am I doing them injustice? Are they really sincere? Can it be possible
they are only evidencing their love for their non -pharmaceutical brethren by
abusing them ? Seriously, do they desire to conciliate them ? I will try to be¬
lieve it. Then let that Council cease at once to insult them by ranking them
with the low grade of huckstering druggists who belong as much to the Pharma¬
ceutical Society as to the United Society, which, they must admit, represents
the intelligence, the respectability, and the energy of the non-pharmaceutical
chemists of the country. Do they wish the non- pharmaceutists of the country
to promote the usefulness, the prosperity, the dignity of the Pharmaceutical
Society, as the collegiate institution of the trade ? — then let the wise counsel of
Mr. Procter, Mr. Yizer, and Mr. Reynolds prevail in the eleventh hour, and a
friendly smile and a willing hand be extended to the United Society, and all may
yet be well.

I am, Sir, your obedient Servant,

20, New Ormond Street , W.C. , C. Buott.

April 20, 1865.

[We willingly comply with Mr. Buott’s request to insert the foregoing letter.
If, in his interview with Sir George Grey, he had stated that the charge of mis¬
representation which he brought against our local secretaries was merely founded
on inference, his accusation might have passed unchallenged. Every man is
entitled to his own judgment, and by different minds the same effect may be
traced to different causes. We do not wonder that an effect so startling as the
expression of approval of the Bill prepared by the Pharmaceutical Society by
members of the society which Mr. Buott represents, should be ascribed by him
to /my cause but the right one. Mr. Buott may talk of “ moral impossibilities ”
and “ inevitable conclusions ,” but these are not evidence; and, when speaking of
a charge founded on such a basis, we cannot do better than adopt the expression
he himself offers us, that u an accusation affecting the reputation of others , un¬
supported by evidence , is slander and untruth.'1'1

As to the “facts” which Mr. Buott produces, we still say they do not prove
his case, and still deny that any deception was used. The Bill itself accompa¬
nied the memorial, and if, on reading it, men could not understand it, or if they
chose to sign without reading it, the fault was their own ; and as to “ repudia¬
tion ,” we have taken some pains to ascertain where it occurred and are unable
to do so. — Ed. Pharm. Journal.]

We have received a communication from Mr. Slugg, of Manchester, in reply to some
observations by Mr. Richardson, which appeared in our last number. Mr. Slugg depre¬
cates the language used by Mr. Richardson, and observes, “ I did not sign both petitions ;
I did not admit that I had, and it is nowhere stated that I made such admission. I can¬
not but express my surprise that a gentleman, who writes F.C.S. at the end of his name,
should think so loosely, and read so carelessly, as not to perceive the difference between
an admission to have signed a memorial to the Pharmaceutical Council, and an admis¬
sion to have signed two petitions to Parliament. I did admit that I had done the former,

PREPARATION OF LIQUOR BISMUTHI.

013

and that I then repudiated that signature. My reason was this : — I have for the last
twenty years advocated the incorporation of the trade and the compulsory examination of
those who enter it. The lack of such provision in the Pharmacy Act "of 1852 was one
reason why I refused to enter the Society. I prefer the Bill of the United Society to
that of the Pharmaceutical Society, but prefer the latter to none at all ; and so, fearing
that the same tactics which prevailed two years ago in reference to the attempt to
exempt chemists from serving on juries might prevail again, and that our society would
not be able to gain that position With the Government and with Parliament which they
have since gained, I made the mistake of signing the memorial. When I found the
Government were willing to listen to us, and place us on a footing with the other So¬
ciety, I did what I had a right to do — I confessed I had made a mistake.”

ACTION OF PERMANGANATE OF POTASH ON GLYCERINE,

TO THE EDITORS OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Gentlemen, — The prominent position in which glycerine is 'placed in Dr.
Redwood’s admirable Paper on the Construction of a Pharmacopoeia, will in¬
duce many experiments to be made with it. I therefore wish to caution those
who may not think twice before they act once, not to attempt the mixture of
permanganate of potash, or its solution vvith glycerine, without taking the
same precautions as when operating with nitric acid on that substance. The
solution of permanganate of potash is such a harmless and apparently inoffen¬
sive substance, that the readiness with which it parts with its oxygen when in
contact with organic substances may possibly be overlooked. I have not been
caught myself.

Your obedient servant,

George Mee.

8, Torrington Place, Gordon Square, W.C.

PREPARATION OF LIQUOR BISMUTHI.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — The process for the preparation of “ Liquor Bismuthi,” which has ap¬
peared this month in your Journal, and which came under my notice some little
time ago in the pages of the 4 Chemical News,’ is similar in many important
points to one which I have used successfully for more than a year ; the latter
resulted from a series of experiments suggested by the process of Mr. Tich-
bourne, which I, like Mr. Gray Bartlett, found impracticable.

Upon the appearance of the communication of the last-named gentleman, in
the 4 Chemical News,’ I tested the method there given. The results in my hands
were not satisfactory, the quantity of precipitate formed being scanty in pro¬
portion to the weight of bismuth used, and a considerable portion proving quite
insoluble in ammonia. I must acknowledge, however, my great obligations to
that paper, from which I have largely drawn, since its appearance, for my own
process ; the proportions there given being almost universally adopted, as well as
certain points of manipulation, which will be duly mentioned in the account to
be given below. I have thus been enabled to attain for it a certainty and accuracy
in which it was previously somewhat wanting, and which will, I hope, recom¬
mend it to such operative chemists as will give it a fair trial.

I had intended to reserve the following account for a paper, which I hoped to
read before the Pharmaceutical Conference at its next meeting ; since, however

P HEP All AT I ON OF L1Q.U Oil B1SMUTHI.

OH

the subject has been brought prominently forward in your Journal, it will be
more satisfactory that it should make its appearance there.

Take of Subcarbonate of Bismuth, 2 oz.

Citric Acid, If oz.

Nitric Acid, 3 oz.

Water ;

Solution of Potash ;

Spirit of Wine, — of each what is sufficient.

Dissolve the bismuth in the nitric acid, add sufficient water to take up the
nitrate precipitated (from two to three ounces) ; carefully avoiding excess.
Dissolve the citric acid in the solution thus formed (which will not be perfectly
clear), and add gradually solution of potash (Liquor Potassse) until the mixture
is only faintly acid, and gives, after filtration, but a slight cloud on the addition
of more potash. Filter, collect the precipitate, wash slightly (the presence of a
trace of nitrate of ammonia in the product is of no consequence), and transfer
the precipitate to a dish ; add solution of ammonia gradually, until the precipi¬
tate is dissolved (a little oxide will remain) ; filter. Measure 4 fluid drachms of
the solution, add excess of sulphide of ammonium, collect the precipitate on a
counterpoised filter, wash, dry, and weigh ; 261 grains of the precipitate thus ob¬
tained represent 237 of oxide of bismuth. Dilute the whole of the solution with
water and spirit of wine, in such proportions that a mixture of 1 part of spirit
with 7 of water shall contain the required number of grains (I generally prefer
4) to the drachm of solution. In the above process, it is especially necessary to
avoid the addition of an excess of potash, which appears to decompose the citrate
formed and precipitate an oxide insoluble in ammonia, and this appears indeed
to take place to some extent previously to saturation ; a slight waste is therefore
incurred, by leaving the solution faintly acid, in order to avoid the formation of
this insoluble precipitate.

The chief points in which I am indebted to Mr. Bartlett, in addition to those
mentioned previously, are the following : —

1. The substitution of carbonate for nitrate of bismuth. The former is far more
soluble than the latter, which was used by me in consequence of its supposed
greater constancy of composition.

2. The solution of the precipitate in pure ammonia. Before the appearance of
Mr. Bartlett’s communication, a mixture cf citrate of ammonia with free ammo¬
nia was used, and heat was applied.

3. The highly important addition of a quantitative analysis. A margin was
formerly left to allow for loss (which is not considerable) in the manufacture,
and, as above stated, the nitrate of bismuth was used as a more uniform salt
than the carbonate.

The weak points in Mr. Bartlett’s process appear to be the following : —

1. The great acidity of the solution from which the citrate of bismuth is ulti¬
mately separated, causes the precipitation to be extremely imperfect ; there is con¬
sequently great waste of material and labour.

2. The extreme dilution of each portion of the acid bismuth solution, in the
act of addition to the solution of citrate of potash, seems to determine the preci¬
pitation of basic nitrate, insoluble in ammonia, before the double decomposition
necessary to the formation of the citrate can take place.

I am, Sir, your obedient servant,

Thomas P. BlujStt, F.C.S.

Shrewsbury , April Mh, 1865.

615

COCHINEAL COLOURING.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — After having tried many forms for the preparation of Cochineal
Colouring, all of which I found had some objections to urge against them, I
tried the following with most perfect success. Perhaps expense may be urged
against it, but where that is not so much an object, I think it will be found the
best receipt hitherto published : —

Best Carmine, S'j-

Liq. Ammon. Fort.iss. q.s., about £vj.

Macerate for a few days, and when the carmine is dissolved, gently heat the
mixture, so as to drive off the excess of ammonia, taking care not to carry it too
far, so as to precipitate the carmine. Put this into a wine quart bottle, add —

Sp. Yin. Rect. ~iv.

Saccli. Alb. Ibiij.

Then fill up the bottle with warm water, and shake it occasionally, till the
sugar is dissolved.

I am, Sir, yours obediently,

Robert Palmer.

ON THE ARSENIC-EATERS OF STYRIA.

BY CRAIG MACLAGAN, M.D., EDINBURGH.

In the spring of this year, at the conclusion of a short residence in Vienna, I resolved
to visit Italy, and finding that my route led me through Styria, I thought it might be
interesting to endeavour, by personal inquiry, to gain some information as to the
reputed arsenic- eaters of that country; and as my travelling companion Dr. Joseph
Rutter, of London, was also professionally interested in i he question of their existence,
we determined to make a short stay at Gratz, the capital of the duchy, and thence to
make any excursions into the country, which the knowledge I might acquire should
point out as necessary.

My object in the present paper is succinctly to narrate what I learned by actual
observation ; but before doing so I ma}r be permitted to glance rapidly at the existing
condition of our information on the subject.

Although medico-legal observations on this practice had already been made so early
as between 1817 and 1820 (Professor Schallgruber, ‘ Medicin-Jahrbuch des Oestreich
Staates,’ 1822) in Gratz, the first time that any great interest was manifested in Britain
on the subject seems to have been when a paper by I)r. You Tschudi, which had
originally been published in one of the Viennese medical journals (‘Wiener Mediciniscbe
Wochenschrift,’ October 11, 1851), appeared in an English dress, and found its way into
many of the popular as well as scientific publications of the time, including ‘Chambers’s
Journal,’ and the late Professor Johnston’s ‘ Chemistry of Common Life.’

The embellishments which Yon Tschudi’s narrative received from other writers, as
well as the apparently incredible nature of the original statement, caused it to become
a subject of much discussion. The general opinion of scientific men in this country was,
that the statements of Yon Tschudi were not worthy of belief, and this view of the
subject was specially maintained by Mr. Kestevcn, of London, in a series of papers which
appeared in the ‘Association Medical Journal’ for 1856, in which he quotes the opinions
of the most celebrated toxicologists of the time, in confirmation of his own belief of the
practice.

Careful inquiry, however, was set on foot by other scientific men, both British and
Austrian. Mr. Ileisch, of the Middlesex Hospital, having put himself in communication
with persons living in the districts where the practice existed, was enabled to quote
several very interesting cases, which were very thoroughly authenticated (‘Pharmaceu¬
tical Journal,’ 1859-60, p. 556), and Dr. Yon Vest, the Landesmedicinalrath for Styria,
residing in Gratz, having issued a circular to the medical men in his district, asking for

616

ON THE ARSENIC-EATERS OF STYRIA.

information on the subject, was enabled also to arrive at tolerably satisfactory proof of
the existence of the custom. The most interesting example of it was communicated
to him by Dr. Ivnappe, then residing at Obertzeiring, in Upper Styria, who had
persuaded an “ arsenikophagite” to come and live under his observation for a few
days, and who not only was thus enabled to see the man take his dose, but
was enabled to transmit to Dr. Schafer, a practical chemist in the Styrian capital,
a specimen of the urine passed after the ingestion of the drug, and which was proved to
contain it.

The facts ascertained by Knappe were made known in Britain by a paper by
Dr. Eoscoe, read to the Manchester Philosophical Society, and published in the ‘Mechanics’
Magazine and the existence of the practice has been admitted by some scientific men
who have written since the date of Koscoe’s paper. Dr. Guy (‘Forensic Medicine,
2nd edit., p. 368), admits that Eoscoe has brought forward “ conclusive evidence” of the
fact ; but from its being denounced as incredible in most of our standard works which
have occasion to treat of the subject, such as those of Taylor and Pereira, and from its
having been strongly denied in some important criminal trials, as by Dr: Christison in
the case of Wooler (‘Edinburgh Monthly Journal’) 1855-56, pp. 709, 710), whilst
Eoscoe's valuable paper appears not to be sufficiently known, it seems to me the general
belief in this country that there is no foundation in fact for the alleged arsenic-eating
in Styria.

What seemed to result from the inquiries of Yon Tschudi, Knappe, and Heisch, was
this : —

I. That in various parts of Styria and the adjoining countries certain individuals
were in the habit of swallowing daily, or twice or thrice a week, or at longer intervals,
a certain quantity of a mineral substance, called “Hiittereich,” * for various purposes, such
as the improvement of the appearance, the rendering more easy the respiration during
mountain climbing, as a condiment, as a tonic and stimulant, as a prophylactic against
disease, and as a preservative of health ; and that this so-called Hiittereich was arsenic.

II. That these individuals became, through custom, capable of taking doses
of arsenic varying from one grain to several grains daily.

III. That its more immediate effect on the system was to make them lively,
combative, and of strong sexual desire. This latter physiological effect may perhaps be
held to be indirectly proved by the inordinate number of illegitimate children in some
of these places, the proportion sometimes rising nearly as high as 60 per cent, of
the total births.

Against all this was to be placed —

I. The experience of medical men in other countries, who have found that by the
continued use of arsenic as a drug, even in fractional parts of a grain, certain
consequences arose directly contrary to those experienced by the partakers of it
in Styria.

II. The want of proof by analysis that the substance said to be taken was
really arsenic ; the absence of any chemical examination of the excretions of an arsenic-
eater, so as to prove that arsenic really had been swallowed; the want of any accounts
of its effects when first begun to be used, or of any information as to the origin of the
custom.

Most of these objections, however, have been removed by the investigations of
Drs. Knappe and Heisch, to the former of whom I am indebted for much interesting
information on the subject.

It is not at all surprising that in other countries there should be a prevalent
impression of the non-existence of this practice in StjTria, seeing that in Austria itself,
those who have not made special inquiries on the subject are generally sceptical as to it.
Any one, therefore, passing through Austria and making casual inquiries, would most
likely be told that the practice of arsenic-eating was not generally known or believed
in. It is not difficult to account for this. The people who eat arsenic have the idea
that it is regarded as a bad habit, and therefore one to be concealed as much as possible,
just like opium-eating in this country; and they have the additional reason for

* I use the spelling adopted by Dr. Macliar in his ‘ Mediziuisch-statistische Topografie
Steiermarks.’ Although the pronunciation of the Styrians makes it Hiitrach, it is obvious
that the word really is Hiitteh-rauch — literally, furnace-smoke or vapour.

ON THE ARSENIC-EATERS Of' STY11IA.

617

-concealing the practice, that from the strictness of the laws regarding the sale of
poisons, they cannot get the arsenic by open purchase, as the opium-eater in this
country can get his laudanum, and therefore they are generally obliged to purchase it
from illicit dealers.

I now proceed to narrate what I have myself ascertained by personal observatior.
Though without an introduction to him, I called on the Medicinalrath, Dr. Von Vest,
who on learning the object of my visit, with great courtesy put at my command any
papers that his office contained, and in addition, supplied me with introductions
to Drs. Knappe, Machar, and Tingler, the two former of whom I was fortunate enough
to see, but I was unable to spare time to see Dr. Tingler.

Dr. Machar, now resident at Stainz, who is thoroughly acquainted with all the medical
matters of Styria, and whose experience during a long period of active professional work
there makes his opinion of no small value, informed me that, although cognizant of the
existence of the practice, he had little personal experience in the matter. He related to
me, however, one case in which a woman who had been tried for poisoning her husband
with arsenic, had been acquitted, from “ want of evidence,” the plea for the defence
being that the man had been an arsenic-eater. Though this defence was generally
believed to be false, it shows at all events that the practice has, in a court of justice,
been admitted to exist, and has served in at least one instance as a successful ground of
defence.

Dr. Knappe, of Liegist, in Middle Styria, an hour’s journey from Gratz, was my next
informant ; and when I first spoke with him of the case of J. W., already alluded to as
the subject of experiment, and whose urine had been examined by Dr. Schafer, he
described him as a small strongly-built man, with a great muscular development, a
wood-cutter by trade, who had taken the drug for a period of twelve years.
Dr. Knappe further stated to me that, while personally ignorant of the actual existence
of an arsenic-eater in the neighbourhood, he could go with me to Upper Styria, and
show me the above man; but he suggested that we should first make inquiry in the
village, whether or not any of those persons described to him as indulging in the habit
could not be got to take a portion of it before me. I accordingly slept in Liegist that
night, and next morning I had the satisfaction, in presence of Dr. Knappe and my
companion Dr. Butter, of having my first interview with an arsenic-eater.

Case 1. — Mathias Schober, a healthy-looking, fresh complexioned, fairly muscular
3Toung man, of the age of twenty-six years, and about five feet nine inches in height, a
native of Liegist, and employed as a house servant there, said he had taken Hiittereich
for about a year and a half, — not however, white arsenic, but the yellow arsenic,
or orpiment, of which he took a specimen from his pocket and showed it to me. Of
this I retained a piece for chemical investigation. He informed me that he took the
arsenic in order to keep strong, though he had never suffered from ill-health. He said
he had never experienced any bad effects even wdien he first began using it, that he had
at first taken rather less than a grain every fortnight, that he now took it twdee a week,
.and that on omitting to take it for any longer period he experienced a longing for it,
which was relieved by a repetition of the usual dose. His reason for taking the
orpiment instead of the white arsenic was, that it was more easily procured ; but
having professed himself quite indifferent whether it were arsenious acid or the
sulphuret, Dr. Knappe produced a paper containing the former (of which I also kept a
sample), and having asked him to choose out a piece such as he was in the habit of
taking, it was weighed and found to be nearly five grains; we had no finer weight than
one grain, but the piece of arsenic was much over four, though less than five.
Dr. Knappe having carefully ground this to powder on a clean piece of paper, it was
transferred to a small piece of plain white bread, about as large as a man’s thumb-nail,
and this the doctor put into his mouth; Schober chewed it and swallowed it, and then
swallowed another portioii of bread the same size immediately after. This was
at 9.30 a.m. He stayed with us a few minutes, but he had to reurn to his work,
promising however to come back in a short while. This he did at 11.30, two hours
after, and made water in my presence to the amount of what I estimated at twrenty-
eight ounces, into a vessel previously carefully cleaned, and the urine was put into
bottles thoroughly washed by myself. Unfortunately, in the hurry of my departure,
in trying to pack these bottles into my hat-box, I broke one, and thus lost part of the
urine. Since my arrival in this country I subjected the contents of the two remaining

618

ON THE ARSENIC-EATERS OF STYRIA.

bottles to chemical analysis, adopting the distillation process of Dr. Taylor as the most
convenient way of separating arsenic from the organic matters of the urine. For this
purpose the urine was carefully evaporated to dryness in a clean retort ; the nearly dry
residue was covered with strong hydrochloric acid, and distilled into a well-cooled
receiver. The product, amounting to about half an ounce, was a clear, feebly pinkish
fluid, thirty minims of which, when treated both by Eeinsch’s and Marsh’s process, gave
very characteristic arsenical deposits.

Schober also came the following day to see me, having taken no more arsenic since
the dose which he had swallowed before me twenty-six hours previously. I again
secured some urine which he passed in my presence, and this, when chemically
examined as above, also yielded arsenic freely.

Case 2. — Joseph Flecker, set. 46, a muscular, healthy-looking, clear complexioned
man, a tailor by occupation, told us that he had taken Huttereich (generally the
orpiment) for a period of fifteen years. He first began to do so on the occasion of the
inhabitants of a house in the neighbourhood where he lived being attacked with fever;
and when fourteen people had died in it, and no one would enter the premises, he
determined to do so, and took, as a prophylactic, about one grain of arsenic daily for
three successive days, while going to the infected house, and though he said he had not
felt quite well at the time, he was unable now to describe specially what had ailed him ;
but on being asked if he had ever suffered from vomiting or irritation in the stomach, he
said he had not.

The day before my interview with him he twice, viz. at 10.80 and 3 o’clock, had — in
the presence of several of the villagers of Liegist, and on one of those occasions in
presence of the btirgermeister, who informed me that he had seen him do it — taken a piece
of the sulphuret of arsenic from his pocket, and scraped off a certain quantity of it on a
piece of bread and eaten it. He brought with him a small bottle of his urine, which
he stated to have been passed eighteen hours after the last of the two doses, and in
which I have since found a considerable quantity of arsenic. The reason which he
assigned for this public exhibition of his arsenic-eating capacities was, that it became the
subject of conversation in the village that two strangers had come a very considerable
distance to witness an example of arsenic-eating and inquire into the practice, and that
he wished to make an open demonstration of his assertion that he was capable of
tolerating a considerable dose of arsenic. V/hen he first came to me he seemed
somewhat unwilling to take a dose that day, owing to his previous performance, and
seemed to fancy it possible that he might have some slight irritation of the stomach,
such as a feeling of warmth accompanied by thirst. He did not appear to be able to
give any reason for anticipating this result ; perhaps he intended it as a gentle hint
that the thirst might require assuaging ; at all events, having been informed that he
should not want the wherewithal to quench it (he confessed to being by no means
abstemious in the matter of alcoholic potations), he, to satisfy our curiosity, picked out
a piece of arsenious acid from the same parcel that had been shown to Schober. and
which, on being weighed, was found to be as nearly as possible six grains. This he
placed entire on a small piece of bread, and taking it into his mouth, crunched it up
audibly, and in about two minutes after swallowed six or seven ounces of cold water,
stating that he liked to drink immediately after swallowing a dose, and on such
occasions preferred water. I then made him open his mouth and inspected it narrowly,
but found it quite clear of bread crumbs or anything else, thus assuring myself that no
jugglery could have been practised. After having swallowed the arsenic four minutes
he eructated slightly, but till he left us, a quarter of an hour after, he had no symptoms
of any bad effect. The six grains were taken at 11.80, and at 12.15 he returned, and
passed a small quantity of light-coloured urine. Nearly the whole of this was bottled
for exportation, and the twelve ounces thus secured were treated by the process of
distillation above described, and also yielded a characteristic deposit of arsenic.

Flecker gave me the following account of his use of arsenic. He stated that he
generally takes about the quantity we saw him swallow once a week, but with
variations in the intervals, there being sometimes four days only, sometimes eight days
between the doses. That when he has a distance to walk to his work, he takes a larger
dose, and is then in good spirits for about eight days. That if he, however, intermits it
for fourteen days he feels stiff in the feet, with general lassitude and a craving for
another dose. If his victuals are hard of digestion, he takes a dose to assist the stomach,

ON THE ARSENIC-EATERS OF STYllIA.

619

and if he takes a rather full dose he brings a good deal of wind off his stomach, but
never vomits. He stated that his father had taken arsenic before him, and in
considerable quantity, and that in the immediate neighbourhood of Liegist numbers use
it, several taking it daily, and many in larger doses than he. He said that all who
take it are healthy; that he never knew of anyone vomiting from its use, and he
believed that, like the use of tobacco, if the dose is very gradually diminished, an arsenic-
eater can break himself of the habit.

One of the objections which has been made to the acknowledgment of the reality of
arsenic-eating is, that the substance swallowed has not been ascertained by chemical
examination really to be arsenic. This link in the chain of evidence I am able to
supply. The white substance which I saw Schober and Flecker swallow, part of which
I have now in my possession, is pure arsenious acid. It sublimes into octahedral
crystals, and leaves no appreciable residue. The yellow substance which Schober used
is a fair sample of the orpirnent of commerce, and contains, as that substance usually
does, a considerable portion of free arsenious acid.

I am of course not in a position to give any opinion as to the extent to which arsenic-
eating prevails in Styria, — my time would not have permitted me to enter upon such an
inquiry, nor would it be easy to get satisfactory information as to a practice which is
generally kept secret ; confirmation of the fact of its existence is more interesting to us
scientifically than its extent ; and that it is a fact, my personal observation enables
me confidently to affirm. That arsenic-eating in Styria is a universal habit, or one
indulged in by even a majority of the male peasantry, I do not for a moment suppose;
but the averment “that the story of the Styrian arsenic-eaters is not only unsup¬
ported by adequate testimony, but isinconsistent, improbable, and utterly incredible”
(Kesteven, Assoc. Med. Journal, 1856, p. 811); or that these are “absurd and
exaggerated statements, utterly inconsistent with all that is known concerning the
action of arsenic in this or other countries, and but for the fact that they for a time
received the literary support of Professor Johnston, and were diffused by him in an
amusing book, they would not have required any serious refutation” (Taylor, ‘On
Poisons,’ 2nd ed., p. 92); or that it is a “mass of absurdity,” “a pure fable”
(Christison, Edin. Med. Journal, 1855-56, pp. 709, 710) — are, although justified by the
state of knowledge at the time they were made, no longer tenable ; but on the contrary,
we can no longer doubt, to use nearly the words of Roscoe, “ that decisive evidence has
been brought forward, not only to prove that arsenic is well known and widely
distributed in Styria, but that it is likewise regularly eaten in quantities usually
considered sufficient to cause immediate death.”

It is probable that many of the physiological actions attributed to it are fanciful, and
that its use is mixed up with a good deal of superstition, as for example, in the case of
the poacher who takes it to give him courage to pursue his depredations on ground that
is new to him ; or that of the ostler, who in giving it to his horses to improve their
coats, thinks that it will have no beneficial effect unless he partakes of it at the
same time.

It is evident that the confirmation of the existence of the practice of arsenic-eating
must lead us to modify some of the opinions that are entertained with regard to the
influence of habit on the action of poisons. It has long been notorious, that by habit,
the human body may be brought to bear with impunity, doses of organic poisons, such
as opium, which, to those uuaccustomed to them, would certainly prove fatal; but “it
has hitherto been considered by toxicologists that, except within very narrow limits ,
habit appears to exercise no influence on the action of mineral poisons” (Taylor, ‘ On
Poisons,’ p. 89). Though, the experiment of M. Flandin, by which he proved that he
could bring dogs to bear fifteen grains of arsenious acid in powder in twenty-four hours,
without injury to their appetite or health, and the practice of administering arsenic to
horses, have long been known as pointing rather in the contrary direction, — this has been
supposed to be due to some peculiarity in the constitution of the lower animals. The
facts which have been ascertained with regard to the Styrian arsenic-eaters, and which
the above observations confirm, entitle us to maintain that the modifying effect of habit
is not confined to organic poisons, but extends to those of mineral nature, at all events
to arsenic. — Edinburgh Medical Journal.

620

BOOKS RECEIVED.

The Ward Manual ; on, Index of Surgical Diseases and Injuries. Arranged
bv Thomas Nunn, Surgeon to the Middlesex Hospital. London : Hardwicke,
192, Piccadilly. 1865.

Thomson’s Conspectus oe the British Piiarmacopceia. Edited by Edmund
Lloyd Birkett, M.D., etc. New edition. London: Longman, Green, Long¬
man, Huberts, and Green. 1865. (From the Publishers.)

Nitrogen shown to be Carbonic Oxide in an Allotropic State. By IIenry
Xilgour. London : John Churchill and Sons. (Pamphlet.)

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

Persons having seceded from the Society may be restored to their former status on
payment of arrears of subscription and the registration fee for the current year.

Those who were Associates before the 1st of July, 1842, are privileged (as Founders
of the Society) to become Members without examination.

We beg to thank Mr. Thonger for his communications. As the label referred to has
already been fully described in this Journal, we are unable to publish the correspon¬
dence on the subject.

J. C. W. (York). — Bentham’s ‘Handbook of the British Flora’ and Bentlpy’s
c Manual of Botany ’ are distinct works, as may be seen by their titles, etc.

Apprentice (Manchester). — Bentley’s ‘Manual of Botany’ is published by Churchill
and Sons, price 12s. Gel.

Inquirer (Nottingham). — Will be published, we are informed, some time in June.

R. A. R. (Bristol)). — The lectures at the Royal Botanic Gardens will commence, as
may be seen by the notice on the inside of the cover, on Friday, May 19tli.

J. J ., P. C. — The Patent Medicine Stamp Act applies to medicines intended for the
human subject only.

“ Chemicus ” (Carlisle). — Those chemists only whose names are on the Register as
Pharmaceutical Chemists can claim exemption from service on juries.

“ Surrey A — Benzoated Zinc Ointment .* See vol. xiv. p. 207.

“ An Apprentice” (Liverpool) sends us a sample of Unguentum Hydrargyri Nitratis,
and is surprised that any difficulty should be experienced in making the ointment, if
the instructions of the Pharmacopoeia are followed ; and suggests that the quality of
the lard used in the process may be the cause of failure.

Mr. Mmnbray (Richmond) and “ An Apprentice ” (York) are thanked for their com¬
munications.

Erratum. — Page 534, line 19, and page 535, lines 7 and 18, for “treated” read
“heated.”

Instructions from Members and Associates respecting the transmission of the
-Journal before the 25th of the month, to Elias Beemridge, Secretary, 17,
Bloomsbury Square, W.C.

Advertisements (not later than the 23rd) to Messrs. Churchill, New Bur¬
lington Street. Other communications to the Editors, 17, Bloomsbury Square.

THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

SECOND SERIES.

VOL. VI.— No. XII.— JUNE 1st, 1865.

TITE PROGRESS OE LEGISLATION RESPECTING PHARMACY.

Our readers will doubtless expect some information as to the present position
of the Chemists and Druggists’ Bills now before Parliament, but we have nothing
very definite to offer, owing partly to the multiplicity of questions addressed to
each witness before the Select Committee of the House of Commons, and partly
to the adjournment of the Committee from Thursday the 18th to Thursday the
25th ult., and again the postponement to the 1st inst., making in all a loss of
a fortnight. This is indeed a most important delay, and we shaU not be sur¬
prised if the session close, the Parliament go out in fact, without completing our
work.

At the first sitting of the Committee, Dr. Alfred Swaine Taylor was examined at
great length ; Mr. Simon more briefly. The evidence of both was strongly in fa¬
vour of legislation ; the former gentleman perhaps dwelt more particularly on the
necessity for restrictions on the sale of poisons than the dispensing of medicines
under the authority of prescriptions ; but both spoke confidently as to the pro¬
priety of entrusting whatever examination might be instituted to the hands of
the Pharmaceutical Society.

On the second day Dr. Quain, in an examination of three hours’ duration,
never wavered or failed to express most clearly his opinion, however tortuous
and apparently irrelevant the questions put to him might be, that what is
called u free- trade ” in physic implies danger to the public. Dr. Wilson followed,
and was equally strong in the same conviction. Mr. Mackay, of Edinburgh,
closed the day, and had been only a part heard’1'1 when the Committee broke up.

On the third day the Committee consulted, with closed doors, for more than
twTo hours, and then called Mr. Mackay ; on the completion of his examination
the room was again cleared, and when reopened the Chairman read the following
resolutions as having been agreed to : —

1. That no compulsory examination or registration under the Bills referred
to the Committee should be required of persons now carrying on the trade of
chemists and druggists.

2. That the Bills do provide that no other person shall, after a day to be
fixed by the Bill, sell certain dangerous drugs to be scheduled in the Bill, unless
he shall be examined and registered.

3. That the Committee do proceed on this day week with Chemists and
Druggists’ (No. 2) Bill.

This then is the present position of the whole affair. The registration of men
in business at the time of the passing of the Act, which had been made compul¬
sory in both Bills, is struck out. Its insertion in Sir Fitzroy Kelly’s Bill had

VOL. vi. 2 u

622

PHARMACEUTICAL LEGISLATION.

been made for two reasons ; first, that all members of the trade might be brought
together ; secondly, that their vested interests might be more perfectly preserved,
and even augmented by a permanent record. Under the new arrangement
chemists and druggists now in business would be left, as the apothecaries were
in 1815, to work on without any interference.

It may be that a voluntary registration would be instituted ; but that does
not appear at present. There is no principle lost in this resolution, and it affects
both Bills alike.

The second resolution is of more consequence, and that from what it omits
rather than what it contains. There can be no doubt that dangerous drugs
should be sold only by qualified persons, but to put the sale forward as more
important than dispensing them in compounds is a vast mistake, and one which,
in the interest of the public, we hope will be rectified before any new Bill resulting
from the inquiry of this Committee be launched in the House. If a man require
a poison in its simple form he may be expected, of his own judgment, to know
enough of its nature to ascertain whether he be rightly or wrongly supplied.
Not so with regard to mixed medicines.

For the rest all is for the moment uncertain. We know the opinion of
Government, as expressed by Sir George Grey, on the second reading of the Bills,
as to the examining board which should be entrusted to carry out what may be
enacted ; that opinion seems to be shared by the whole House of Commons,
and strengthened as it must have been by all the evidence of the medical officers
of the State and the independent medical witnesses, we feel no fear as to the
result ; but the proceedings of the Select Committee on these Bills have
not been such as to inspire much confidence in the future. If the resolutions
already passed be adhered to, any measure that may be framed in accordance
with them will but imperfectly accomplish the objects contemplated by the origi¬
nators of the existing Bills, and it is quite possible that further resolutions may
convert what was a beneficial measure into one of an undesirable character. The
subject is at present in a critical position, and requires more than ever that
every step should be carefully watched by the Council, and that our members
throughout the country should be prepared for prompt and energetic action in
case of need. We cannot say that it would be impossible now to frame, upon
the resolutions of the Committee, such a Bill as we should be prepared to accept ;
but there is some ground for apprehension that au attempt may be made to sub¬
stitute for a really good and comprehensive measure, one the effect of which
would be to impose unnecessary and objectionable restrictions on trade, and, by
recognizing and establishing an imperfect and insufficient qualification for dealers
in and dispensers of medicine, to discourage rather than promote the advance¬
ment of the art and science of pharmacy. The Pharmaceutical Society, who,
for nearly a quarter of a century, have upheld the standard of pharmaceutical
qualification, and have stood alone as the promoters and supporters of pharmaceu¬
tical education, have a heavy responsibility resting upon them. At the suggestion of
the Medical Council they have endeavoured to give extension to the operation
of the principles which, as a voluntary association, they have hitherto advocated
and applied ; but rather than sacrifice these principles, they should be ready to
fall back upon their existing position, and to rest satisfied for the present with
the privileges they possess, and the confidence they have acquired from the
whole of the medical profession and a large proportion of the general public.

TRANSACTIONS

♦

OF

THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

SPECIAL MEETING OF THE COUNCIL, March 27th, 1805,

Present — Messrs. Bird, Bottle, Evans, Banbury, Haselden, Hills, Morson, Orridge,
Sandford, Savage, Standring, Watts, and Waugh.

AT A MEETING OF THE COUNCIL, May 3rd , 1865,

Present— Messrs. Bird, Deane, George Edwards, J. B. Edwards, Hanbury, Haselden,
Hills, Morson, Orridge, Sandford, Savage, Squire, Standring, and Waugh, —

The following were elected

MEMBERS.

Cambridge . Edwin Bing.

Codnor . Thomas Farnsworth.

Durham . William Sarsfield.

Hawthorn, Victoria . Robert Appleton.

Kaffraria . . Thomas Daines.

Leicester . Alfred Berridge.

London . John Cahill Hyslop.

New Brighton . William Jarvis.

Newtown, Montgomery . Richard Morgan.

Preston . . . William Hogarth.

Ramsgate . Henry Sawyer.

Stockport . John Yeoman.

MEETING OF COUNCIL, May 17 th, 1865.

Present — Messrs. Bird, Bottle, Deane, George Edwards, J. B. Edwards, Evans, Han¬
bury, Haselden, Hills, Mackay, Morson, Orridge, Sandford, Savage, Watts, and Waugh,

To arrange the business for the General Annual Meeting.

EXAMINATION, May 10 th, 1865.

MAJOR.

Davies, Moses Prosser . Newcastle Emlyn.

Hudson, John William . Bradford, Yorkshire.

MINOR.

Chubb, Osborn . Taunton.

Jelley, Stephen John . Hull.

Kirkman, Charles John . Ilorndean.

Selfe, William Gilbert . London.

Starkey, Ebenezer Benjamin . London.

Watson, James . . . Mauritius.

REGISTERED APPRENTICES.

Name. Residing with

Took, William John . Mr. Gowland .

King, Abraham . Mr. Stroud .

Hills, Walter . Mr. Gibbs .

EXAMINATION, EDINBURGH, May 10 th, 1865.

MAJOR.

Cameron, William . Edinburgh.

Morris, Thomas E . New Brighton.

REGISTERED APPRENTICE.

Lindsay, Robert . Mr. Macdonald . Lasswade, N.B.

2 u 2

Address.
.London.
.Bristol.
.Ryde, I. W.

624

THE ANNUAL CONVERSAZIONE

CONVERSAZIONE.

The usual annual Conversazione was held in the Society’s rooms on Tuesday,
the 16th of May, and the invitations which had been issued by the President,
the Vice-President, and Council were responded to by an unusually large num¬
ber of visitors. A great variety of most interesting objects were provided by
the kind assistance of friends, many of whom have on former occasions contri¬
buted in a similar manner. On the walls of the principal rooms were several
valuable pictures and prints, lent by Messrs. Hills, Bird, and Vokins, but the
greatest space was occupied by a large collection of most beautiful specimens of
dried ferns and seaweeds, arranged and contributed by Mr. Jardine. Some
handsome busts were contributed by Mr. Butler, some bronzes by Messrs. Jack-
son and Graham ; a lqctern, on which were exhibited some photographs en¬
larged from “ cartes de visite,” by the London Stereoscopic and Photographic
Company ; literary antiquities by Mr. Campkin ; and a collection of rough
sketches from nature, made by the late Mr. Gendall, of Exeter, by Mr. Brem-
ridge.

Several fine buffalo and other heads and some antlers, a pair of which were
immovably locked together by the animals while fighting, were lent by Mr.
Leadbeater; some valuable minerals and fossils by Mr. Gregory, and a collec¬
tion of minerals by Mr. Wright; models of crystals by Air. Larkin ; various*
sizes of Thompson’s patent universal air-tight stopper for bottles and jars, by Mr.
P. Graham ; a variety of articles in ebonite by Messrs. Silver and Company ;
model of an aerial machine, invented by Air. Quartermain, by Mr. Martin ; patent
flexible diaphragm, for the preservation of liquids liable to be injured by exposure
to the atmosphere, and patent elastic valve, by Air. L. Bourne ; pharmaceutical
apparatus by Alessrs. Maw and Sou ; specimens of glass by Messrs. Phillips ;
specimens of Russian hardstone manufacture from Siberia by Messrs. Phillips
Brothers ; microscopes by Mr. Ross ; improved ophthalmoscope and microscopes
by Alessrs. Smith and Beck ; the asteroscope, stereoscopes, microscopes, and
new photographic manipulating apparatus by Alessrs. Alurray and Heath ; a
new aneroid barometer, showing a movement of three feet to one inch of the
mercurial barometer, the Herschel- Browning spectroscope arranged for observ¬
ing the spectra of the stars, star spectroscopes as used by Huggins, large model
spectroscope with eight prisms, five-guinea spectroscopes, micrometric apparatus
in aluminum, etc., by Air. John Browning, of the Strand ; Berthon’s improved
telescope stand, and apparatus for polarized light by Alessrs. Horne, Thorn-
thwaite, and Company; barometers, etc., by Air. Casella; electro-magnetic
engine in motion, and other philosophical apparatus by Air. How ; oil-lamp
furnace by Mr. Griffin ; cube of glass, perforated by the spark from an induc¬
tion coil, by Air. Gassiot ; and simple needle telegraph by Air. T. Boverton Red¬
wood. A large collection of valuable specimens (some most beautifully crystal¬
lized), illustrating the manufacture of aniline dyes, including a set of products,
with their proportions, from the common coal yielding the tar to the solid dye,
also specimens of silks dyed of various colours, were contributed by Alessrs.
Simpson, Alaule, and Nicholson. These specimens were illuminated by the
magnesium light by Mr. Solomon, the co- inventor of Solomon and Grant’s
patent magnesium lamp. Specimens of pure crystallized carbolic and picric
acids, dyeing materials obtained from this source, and dyed silk illustrating the
colours produced, by Alessrs. Grace Calvert and Co. ; specimens illustrating
the manufacture of iodine and other products from seaweed, by Stanford’s pro¬
cess, as carried out by the British Seaweed Company (Limited), by Air. E. C.
C. Stanford ; ancient chemical apparatus, peroxide of barium, peroxide of liy-

OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

625

drogen, “ oxygennesis,” etc. by Mr. Robbins. Some specimens of new organic
compounds containing iodine, details of the preparation and analysis of which
were given at a recent meeting of the Chemical Society, by Mr. W. A. Tilden.
In this collection is a fresh example of an artificial tourmaline produced by the
action of iodine upon an organic base, the first instance of a similarly consti¬
tuted body exhibiting this remarkable action upon light having been discovered
by Dr. Herapath, and well known as iodo-sulphate of quinine.

The new crystals are obtained from caffeine or theine, the alkaloid which con¬
stitutes the active principle of tea and coffee, and are analogous in composition
to Herapa Ill’s salt, but differ from it in containing hydriodic in place of sulphu¬
ric acid, their chemical formula being represented thus — C16H1()N404,III,I2,
with sometimes six and sometimes two atoms of water of crystallization.

The other specimens consist of substances perfectly similar in constitution,
but containing ethyl and methyl in place of hydrogen, to the formation of which
the author of this investigation was led in the pursuit of experiments upon the
internal constitution of bodies of this class. The identity of construction of the
new caffeine derivatives is easily seen by reference to the formulae written
below :

ci6Hwsr4o4, HI, I2

Ci6HioN404,C2H31, I2

C16H10N4O4, C41151, 12

A similar compound from strychnine has also been prepared in addition to the
one already known.

Messrs. Johnson and Matthey contributed a large platinum still of about 100
gallons capacity, and of the value of £2000, such as is used in the manufacture
of oil of vitriol ; model of ingo't of pure platinum, weighing 266^ pounds, and
of the value of £3840 ; fine specimens of pure distilled magnesium, a platinum
pyrometer, small platinum still, specimens of gold and its compounds, etc. etc. ;
the same gentlemen also exhibited the magnesium light on a large scale during
the evening.

Dr. Maddox’s micro-photographs, manufactured by Mr. How, were exhibited
on the screen by Mr. Jones; and a model of a fish ladder, invented by Mr.
Smith, of Deanston, and lent by Mr. Ffennell, was in operation, the little fish
appearing to like the exercise. This contrivance is for the purpose of enabling
fish to pass mill-dams without causing much loss of water to the miller, and is
practically in use in Great Britain, Canada, and elsewhere.

In one of the principal rooms was a large collection of medical and economic
plants from the Royal Botanic Society’s Gardens, Regent’s Park ; and some
amulets or charms, prescribed and sanctioned in days gone by by the faculty of
our own land, and still in vogue in the Celestial Empire and elsewhere, from
Mr. Daniel Hanbury.

A model of Adams’s radial axle for locomotives and railway carriages, ena¬
bling the wheels to adapt themselves to curves in the permanent way, was con¬
tributed by Mr. Davenport; and a patented still for the continuous fractional
distillation of petroleum, etc., and a variety of pharmaceutical steam and other
apparatus, by Mr. Coffey.

An improved dispensing counter, designed by Mr. Joseph Ince, 26, St. George’s
Place, Hyde Park Corner, and manufactured by George Treble and Son, Glou¬
cester Street, Iloxton, attracted considerable attention ; the proportions for a
perfect counter have been calculated for two compartments, each three feet three
inches. In this arrangement the dispensing bottles are placed in the centre be¬
tween the two assistants ; the space thus gained relieves the crowding of the
sides ; the right (head dispenser’s) side has then twice the room allowed for mea¬
sures, pigeon holes, etc., together with a row of three dispensing extracts and
three pid-masses, viz,

62G

THE ANNUAL CONVERSAZIONE.

1. Ext. Hyoscyami. 1. Pil. Rhei Comp.

2. Ext. Conii. 2. Pil. Hydrarg. c, Coloc.

3. Ext. Coloc. Cotnp. 3. Pil. Ferri Comp.

The left side to be filled up with infusion jars for the junior dispenser ; the large

dispensing stock bottles in the drawers not to be repeated, but the sizes varied,
so that every requisite bottle may be at hand.

Carre and Company’s ammonia ice-making machine, lent by the agent, Mr.
Sheppard, of Leadenhall Street, was in operation during the evening, and by
means of it some ice creams were made, so that the visitors had an opportunity
of practically testing the quality of the ice produced. This apparatus, the action
of which depends upon the fact that intense cold is produced by the volatiliza¬
tion of ammoniacal gas, consists of two vessels made of iron and hermetically
closed, which may be compared to a retort and receiver ; the retort or boiler,
having been previously half filled with the strongest liquor ammonise, is heated
by a charcoal fire or other source of heat, the receiver being cooled by immersion
in cold water ; under these circumstances the ammonia volatilizes under pressure
and condenses in the receiver. When the process has been continued for a
length of time varying from forty-five minutes to one hour and twenty-five
minutes, according to the size of the machine, the boiler is withdrawn from the
fire and the receiver from the water, the former is immersed in cold water, while
the latter is clothed in a flannel jacket, and is exposed to the atmosphere, and
the water or mixture to be frozen or cooled, having been placed in a tin vessel,
is dropped into a cavity provided in the centre of the receiver. After the lapse
of about the same time as was required for the heating process, the tin cylinder
within the receiver may be withdrawn, when, if water was previously intro¬
duced, a block of ice will be found (varying in weight from one to four pounds,
according to size of apparatus). The ammonia, of course, is never wasted, being
merely distilled from one vessel to the other, and the expense is therefore very
trifling.

Mr. George Lansdown exhibited a model illustrating his patented method of
communicating between passengers and guards in railway trains. The object of
this patent is to introduce in the construction and arrangements of railway car¬
riages a continuous thoroughfare or way along a train, by the aid of adjustable open
or enclosed platforms or footways, which shall bridge across the space between
any two adjoining carriages, leaving free play for the buffers. The proposed
thoroughfare or way may be either along the interior or exterior, depending
upon the width of each carriage. The patentee states that the advantages of
the proposed method of communication are : — 1. That it will secure the perfect
supervision of the whole interior of the train by the guard or attendant in
charge of the same. 2. That it will combine the convenience and seclusion of
the English system of railway carriages, with the advantages and protection of
the American system. 3. That the present railway carriages can be altered in
accordance with this patent without any very great expenditure, and the new
carriages, it is believer!, can be constructed without any additional cost. 4.
That the existing carriages can be gradually replaced by either new or altered
ones, and thus prevent the necessity of any immediate great change in the pre¬
sent system of carriages.

Messrs. E. B. Bernard and Co. showed in action a working model of their
Kailway Passengers’ Safety Signal ; they state that the advantages this sigual
possesses are its simplicity of action, and the instaut assistance that can be ob¬
tained from the travellers in the adjoining compartment, rendering it unneces¬
sary to stop the train, until its arrival at the next station, when the porter,
seeing the signal exhibited, would prevent any person leaving that compartment
until satisfied as to the cause of its being used, thus rendering detection certain.
When the signal is exhibited the bell may be rung until assistance is given.

627

THE TWENTY-FOURTH ANNIVERSARY MEETING,

t'or short distances between stations nothing further will be required, so that
carriages may be added to, or taken from the train without delay. For long
distances, an electric wire fixed underneath the carriages, and joined by the
coupling chains, can be used to ring a bell in the guard’s brake, the contact
being completed by the “ disc ” of the signal going out. One pull of the handle
opens the communication with the adjoining compartment, exhibits the u disc
and rings the bell in the carriage, and also in the guard’s brake.

Leuoir’s patent prize-medal gas engine, of half-horse power (from the London
depot, Cranbourn Street, Leicester Square), was at work during the evening.
The motive power in this engine is a mixture of one part of coal-gas and eleven
parts of air, which is exploded by the spark from an induction coil. It is in ap¬
pearance very much like a horizontal steam-engine, having a cylinder, piston,
crank-shaft, and fly-wheel ; the cylinder has the necessary slide arrangements
for the admission of coal gas and atmospheric air in due proportions, which at
the proper moment is ignited by the electric spark— the connection being made
and detached by the rotary action of the crank shaft — the expansive force, con¬
sequent on the ignition, gives motion to the piston on each side alternately.
The cylinder has a water jacket surrounding it, through which a stream of hot
or cold water is kept gradually flowing, to absorb any excess of heat. It is
found that its consumption of gas is about 70 feet per horse power per hour of
actual work, giving a cost, with gas at 4s. 6d. per 1000 feet, of about 4d., and
no better practical proof of its safety can be offered than the following, viz.
that Lenoir’s gas engine was the only prime mover permitted by the Commis¬
sioners of the International Exhibition, 1862, to generate its own power within
the building.

At intervals during the evening the lecture theatre was crowded to witness
the exhibition of Mr. Stewart Harrison’s self-acting preserver valve for the ex¬
tinguishing of fires. This consists of a peculiarly- constructed water-valve,
which is kept closed by a ring of fusible metal. We will suppose that a ware¬
house has a number of these valves fixed in different parts of the ceiling ; a fire
breaks out in the goods piled up upon the floor, and the heat ascending impinges
on the valve in that part of the ceiling which is over the ignited goods; when
the valve acquires a temperature of about 212° F. the fusible metal melts, the
valve is opened, and a stream of water is poured down upon the precise spot
where the fire originated, while the passage of the water causes the ringing of
an alarm bell, and completes an electric circuit which may be made to ring
another bell at any distance off, say, at the residence of the superintendent of
the warehouse. For purposes of demonstration the inventor used a model
house in which a fire of shavings was lighted ; in less than a minute from the
time of applying the light, the valve was opened, the water poured down, the
fire extinguished, and two alarm bells set ringing, one on the top of the house,
and the other at some distance from it.

THE TWENTY-FOURTH ANNIVERSARY MEETING
OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

Wednesday , May 11th, 1865.

MR. G. W. SANDFORD, PRESIDENT, IN THE CHAIR.

The President opened the Meeting with the following Address : —
Gentlemen, — It was the will of the Council to which you entrusted the
affairs of our Society last year that I should again occupy the President’s chair.
The period has been critical, big with the fate of Pharmacy, and the duties
of my office have necessarily been onerous ; but the labour of fulfilling them
has been lightened by the privilege they afforded of working in a good cause,

628

THE TWENTY-FOURTH ANNIVERSARY OF

and the pleasure of again meeting you here is a reward and encouragement. I
say an encouragement, because 1 believe you come actuated, as I have been,
by a desire to promote the great objects of our institution. The advancement
of pharmaceutists in Great Britain to their legitimate position has occupied us
all more or less for nearly a quarter of a century ; and if at times we have
worked under discouragement, or at least with no very definite prospect of
success, and still have not wavered in our course, I feel assured that under pre¬
sent circumstances we shall not flag. These anniversaries are, as it were, halt¬
ing-stations on our road ; not stations at which we are to rest, but opportuni¬
ties for refreshing each other on the journey, — high ground from which we
look back to difficulties surmounted, and forward to still higher ground yet to
be attained. And, gentlemen, there have been difficulties in our path. There
was on the surface so little interest in common amongst chemists and druggists
at the commencement of our Association, that the very men of whom it was
necessary to form it seemed to be discordant elements ; but beneath the surface,
under the petty jealousies which druggists were supposed to harbour more than
other men of one calling towards each other, despite the conviction of each
individual that he best understood his own business, there was an iuterest,
latent it might be but capable of development as time has proved, strong
enough to hold us together. I mean the interest we all have in the education
of pharmaceutists. Year by year, our success in making this interest manifest
has increased ; year by year, in proportion, those petty trade jealousies which
were one of our difficulties have decreased, and we meet here in honest and
hearty fellowship to promote our common cause. But, gentlemen, our common
cause is the common cause of the public ; and now that we are united in
recognizing it ourselves, we are able to obtain recognition for it from others.
When we met here last year, we were commencing an effort to obtain legisla¬
tive enactments rendering examination compulsory on all future dispensers ; the
prosecution of that object has been the chief work of the year, and I hope its
completion is at hand. The Select Committee of the House of Commons 'has
spent two days in hearing evidence on the subject ; on the first, the preamble
of our Bill was proved, that the safety of the public does require an educational
qualification in our body. At the second sitting, the form in which legislative
enactments should be cast occupied the Committee. It would be manifestly un¬
safe for me under these circumstances to attempt to foreshadow the ultimate
decision ; but this much I may say, that the testimony of every witness who
has appeared before the Committee up to this time — and they have included
Dr. Swaine Taylor, Mr. Simon, Dr. Quain, and Dr. Wilson — has been abun¬
dantly in favour of the Pharmaceutical Society, and I feel that whether our
Bill be carried through, this Session or not, our Society must be a gainer by the
discussion which brings it so prominently before the Legislature and the public.
Gentlemen, it is for us to uphold the character which we have received from
these witnesses. I say to uphold it, but in that I would not be misunderstood :
I mean, to maintain it so clearly, so unequivocally, by our individual
course — and it is here that we must acknowledge our duty to the Society as
individuals — as to confirm that testimony. I would not counsel you to hold
your privileges in a narrow and illiberal spirit. Much has been said during our
discussions on legislation about the equality of Pharmaceutical Chemists who
entered this Society in its commencement without examination, and those who
being in a position to do so, from some reason or other, thought fit to stand aloof.
It would be easy to set up a claim of superiority on the mere fact of the instant
acknowledgment of the necessity for education and the active assistance to pro¬
mote it ; we might establish it, too, or rather consider that it is established by
the anxiety of the outsiders, as they are now called, to come in and share our
honours and our privileges. But I would not scan too closely the motives for

T1IE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

029

standing aloof which may have actuated many good men in our trade ; the
Society was then, and is now, but a voluntary one ; the “ cui bono ? ” question
might not be so easily answered before Pharmaceutical Chemists were declared
necessary for the Government services, were recognized and consulted by the
higher medical authorities, and were exempted from jury service ; nevertheless,
I say, although these men have not shared with us the heat and burden of the
day, I think, for the sake of bringing all into union, and securing a compulsory
examination hereafter for dispensers, it would be wise in us to receive them
liberally. There is the one title granted by Parliament to what I may call the
founders of the Society, and to those who have passed the Major examination — -
the title of Pharmaceutical Chemist — that I think should be zealously guarded ;
it is a “ vested interest,” and as much entitled to respect and reservation as the
vested interest in the drug trade of those men who may be in business at the
passing of the Act ; but if it be possible to give all men, registered under the
Chemists and Druggists Act, a voice, and thereby an interest, in the registering
board, I consider it would be wise and politic to do so.

I may tell you that on this very morning the Vice-President and myself have
had an interview with the promoters of the “ Chemists and Druggists Bill,
No. 2.” It was suggested to us by a most influential member of the Select
Committee of the House of Commons, who felt that time might be saved by
such a meeting, and indeed time is now important, for it is generally under¬
stood that the present Session of Parliament will be a short one. And, gentle¬
men, I may remind you that all, or at least very many of you, may aid
in forwarding our Bill. You have all representatives in Parliament ; call
on them, make them understand that the Pharmaceutical Society does repre¬
sent the chemists and druggists of Great Britain more fully and perfectly
than any other association. If we were to believe all we hear said on that
subject, we should be driven to the conclusion that as soon as a man became
incorporated with us he ceased to be a chemist and druggist, losing all interest
in matters of trade, and becoming at once a mere votary of science by some
refin iug process ; that our learned professor perhaps had at last found the
philosopher’s stone, whereby he could convert the baser metals into gold.
Gentlemen, we all know that the baser metals are England’s wealth, and
in like manner the good, sound, practical Pharmaceutical Chemist — chemist
and druggist if you will — maintaining the credit of his cloth throughout the
length and breadth of the land, is the type of the class we desire to develope.
There may be brilliant examples cropping up now and then in our school, men
who would have had no incentive to progress, no opportunity of rising from the
common level but for this institution. We are proud of them ; but they are
exceptions only. I have always thought that the Great Exhibition of 1851 pro¬
duced its greatest good not by bringing brilliant genius to the surface, but by
its more quiet effect of introducing high art into common things, and so im¬
proving the taste of the whole population. No one, I think, can have failed to
mark the change in English manufactures since 1851. And so, on a small scale,
has the Pharmaceutical Society, by bringing its members into communication,
and an honourable rivalry with each other, advanced the whole body, but not
elevated them beyond their proper position.

Gentlemen, there are no strictly Pharmaceutical subjects for me to bring
before you this morning, and if there were, I feel that for the moment our atten¬
tion is so completely absorbed by what I may call the political affairs of our
community that other matters would be deemed out of place, and that even
now perhaps I may have trespassed too much on the time of the meeting which
would have been better occupied by others. We will therefore, if you please,
proceed to business, which our Secretary will commence by reading the Report
of the Council.

630

THE TWENTY-FOURTH ANNIVERSARY OF

FINANCIAL STATEMENT. — From 1st January to 31s£ December , 1864.

Receipts.

Balance in Treasurer’s hands ....
Benevolent Fund :

Donations . 13 13 0

Subscriptions ..... 153 2 0

Interest . . . 180 13 11

£.

443

s. d.
6 11

Life Members’ Fund :

Fees .

Interest .

78 15
70 10

347 8 11

149 5 1

Government Securities:

Interest . 29 9 9

Rent . 83 10 0

Arrears of Subscription . 186 7 6

Donation to the Society . 1 1 0

Subscriptions :

353 London Members 369 12 0
1418 Country Members 1488 18 0

104 Associates . 54 12 0

113 Apprentices .... 59 6 6

- 1972 8 6

Fees :

65 Pharmaceutical ) D

Chemists ... | 470 8

0

58 Assistants . 243 12

103 Apprentices .... 216 6
38 Registration Cer- -i
tificates . j

0
0

1 18 0

■ - 932 4 0

Fees :

Lecture . 152 15 6

Laboratory . 424 8 0

Balance due to Secretary ....... 2 11 6

Expenditure.
Benevolent Fund ;

Relief granted . ... £11 b 0 0
Investment . 232 8 11

Life Members’ Fund :

Investment .

Government Securities’ )_ r

Investment . j"

Conversazione . 67

Pharmaceutical Meetings . 13

Repayments . 2

Sundries . 18

564 19 5

£. s. di

347 8 11

78 15 0
500 0 0

6

11

2

18

4

n

0

0

House Expenses .

Rent, Rates, Taxes, and Insurance .

Repairs and Alterations .

Fixtures and Fittings .

Apparatus .

Library .

Museum .

Fufniture .

Stationery . .

Postage . .

Printing and Engraving .

Advertisements .

Journals: Balance of Account . . . .

Carriage .

Collector’s Commission .

Travelling Expenses .

Secretary and Registrar’s Salary . .
Gratuity to Secretary and Registrar

Wages . • .

Expenses of Society in Scotland . . .

Board of Examiners .

Professor of Chemistry and Phar¬
macy, including duties as Cu¬
rator, etc . .

Professor of Botany and Materia 'I
Medica, including duties as Cu- >

rator, etc . j

Special Lectures .

Subscription to Royal Botanic)

Gardens . J

Prize Medals, etc .

Laboratory :

Director’s Salary and >

Percentage on Fees j 293 14 3

Demonstrator . 100 0 0

Porter’s Wages .... 53 0 0

Chemicals, etc . 106 11 2

101 17 6^
41 5
446 14
28 19
50 10
18 2 8
47 10 5
0 12 10
14 9 9

5

1

1

3

16

56

95

23

47

2

31

8J

1

3

0

9

8

0

3

137 18 11

300 0 0
21 0 0
166 1 0
61 11 0
120 15 0

300 0 0

250 0

18 12 0
21 0 0
6 16

Repayment to Secretary . . .
Balance in Treasurer’s hands

- 553 5 5
5 5 1
. 815 01

£4724 10 8

We, the undersigned Auditors, have examined the Accounts of the Pharmaceutical
Society, and find them correct agreeably with the foregoing statement, and that, as
shown by the Books of the Society, there was standing in the names of the Trustees
of the Society, at the Bank of England, on the 31st of December, 1864 : —

On Account of the General Fund, New 3 per Cents . £1564 19 5

Life Members’ Fund, 3 per Cent. Consols . 2563 11 11

Benevolent Fund, 3 per Cent. Consols . 6440 5 4

Bell Memorial Fund, 3 per Cent. Consols . 2050 0 0

February 21, 1865.

Frederick Barron,
James Burgoyne,
Michael Carteighe,
James Crispe,

John Garle.

\

^Auditors.

/

THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

631

The Council have again the satisfaction of commencing their aunual report
with a favourable financial statement, — a statement which gives ample evidence
of a healthy vigour in the Pharmaceutical Society, and the estimation in which
it is held by the trade it represents. On examination it will be seen, that
whereas, in 1863, the subscriptions and fees amounted to £2715. Is., they were
in 1864 £3167. 17s., being an actual increase of £452. 16s., or rather more
than 14 ‘per cent. Yvrhen it is further noticed that the improvement occurs
principally in the fees received by the registrar, the satisfaction is increased,
because it is thereby proved that the one great object of the institution is steadily
progressing. The advance in the lecture and laboratory fees, although small,
tends also to demonstrate that the desire for education spreads among those
who are hereafter to uphold the honour of Pharmacy in Great Britain : that
they will also exert themselves in supporting the Society which has opened for
them the road to distinction may be fairly inferred by the greater desire mani¬
fested by assistants and apprentices under the Pharmacy Act to connect them¬
selves with the Society. In 1863 there were 93 subscribing associates and 66
apprentices; in 1864, 104 associates and 113 apprentices.

The attendance at the morning lectures delivered by the professors has been
somewhat better than in preceding sessions, and the number of students in the
laboratory, as well as lecture-room, is larger ; the financial statement dealing
with the receipts and disbursements of a year, beginning and ending in the
middle of a session, does not show exactly the present condition of the school,
and the Council have much pleasure in stating that the attendance for 1864-65,
is better than that of 1863-64, although still below the standard hoped for when
such extensive alterations were made in the laboratories. A much larger class
might be accommodated, but it cannot be doubted that apprentices now enjoy
greater opportunities of acquiring a knowledge of the science of Pharmacy in
the ordinary routine of their business than were afforded formerly ; and those
who are diligent in the use ‘of those opportunities never appear here until they
come for examination. This school was established to supply a great want,
and it is satisfactory to find that want less urgent now than it was twenty
years ago ; its diminution may be in a great measure ascribed to the influence
of the Pharmaceutical Society, which first drew attention to the unsatisfactory
condition of Pharmacy in Great Britain, and has since acted as a constant
stimulus to improvement. That this is not a merely imaginative inference,
but one drawn from the statistics of the Board of Examiners, is shown by the
following figures : —

Candidates for Major Had not Had not

and Minor Exams, attended Lectures, attended Laboratory.

1862 .... 75 .... 32 ... . 49

1863 .... 100 .... 59 ... . 84

1864 .... 152 .... 89 .... 123

Now, taking into consideration that the Pharmaceutical Society was instituted
to advance the qualification of dispensers in the aggregate, rather than indi¬
vidually, the demand for examination must be taken as better evidence of
success than the extent of the school. Still the Council would not for a moment
relax their efforts to maintain the School of Pharmacy in the highest state of
efficiency, deeming the outlay of the Society’s money thus incurred a most ju¬
dicious expenditure. They trust Pharmaceutical Chemists generally will aid
them by insisting on a good preliminary education in apprentices.

In the Report of 1864 it was stated that no applicant had ever appeared for the
u Senior” Bell Scholarship, and the Council had consequently resolved to grant
two “ Juniors,” rather than allow half the benefit of the endowment to lie dor¬
mant in any one year. At the commencement of the present session a claim
was put in for the Senior, and so well sustained in the examination by Mr.

632

THE TWENTY-FOURTH ANNIVERSARY OF

Watts, that the Council had no difficulty as to the award, and have now the
satisfaction of reporting that both scholarships have this year been granted ac¬
cording to the original intention of the founders.

The general expeuses of the Society have not increased, and the cost of publish¬
ing and distributing the Journal has been diminished. In the last report the
balance against the Journal was £70 ; it is now reduced to £47. 8s., which is all
the' outlay incurred by the Society for a journal of which 36,000 copies are dis¬
tributed annually to its members and associates free of charge.

Besides investing the sums belonging specially to the Life Members’ and
Benevolent Funds, the Council were enabled in 1864 to add £500 to the in¬
vested capital of the General Fund, and still the account closes with a balance
of £815. 0s. 10 d. in the treasurer’s hands (nearly double the amount of that
which appears at the commencement of the year). Of this a further invest¬
ment of £500 has taken place since Christmas.

Although the gross sum contributed to the Benevolent Fund is somewhat
less than in the preceding year, it represents a more cheering prospect ; inas¬
much as it comes from annual subscribers, of whom the number is greatly
augmented. The subscriptions in 1864 doubled those of 1863. The Council
have further the pleasure of announcing that the recent revision of the regula¬
tions for the distribution of the fund has been practically approved, in the most
satisfactory manner, by subscriptions and donations to the extent of £215 in the
first four months of the current year , — a sum exceeding the contributions for
the whole of any previous year.

The disbursements on behalf of this fund, as usual, stand first on the expendi¬
ture side of the statement, and, it will be seen, a smaller sum has been required
for relief and a larger amount invested in Government securities than in 1863.

During the present year an important arrangement has been made by the
Council to enable chemists and druggists in business on their own account to
appear before the Board of Examiners apart from *what may be termed junior
candidates.

The question had been long under consideration. It was felt that union with
the Pharmaceutical Society not being compulsory, but it being nevertheless de¬
sirable to extend it as far as possible without sacrifice of principle, all unneces¬
sary impediments should be removed. Great care was, however, necessary in
arranging the synopsis for these “ separate examinations.” To have reduced the
standard of knowledge would have rendered the examiners’ certificate valueless
to those who passed the Board ; would have been an injustice to Pharmaceutical
Chemists previously examined, and positive destruction to the Society itself.
'The Council believe that the great experience of the Board of Examiners enabled
them to overcome the difficulty, and while, on the one hand, it will be admitted
that the requirements are not excessive, it must, on the other, be allowed that
the chemist who complies with them, and has in addition the benefit of certain
practical experience, is fully entitled to a certificate of competency. The
success of the arrangement seems to be established by the number who have
already availed themselves of it ; and the assurance that the examination will be
faithfully carried out, leads candidates to make due preparation.

The present method of appointing Local Secretaries appears to work wrell,
and these gentlemen have rendered great assistance since the last annual meeting.
More than usual activity has been required of them in communicating with
chemists and druggists throughout the country on the matter of legislation, and
the work has been done not only cheerfully, but successfully. From the earnest
goodwill with which their time and labour have been given, the Council feel
that the attendant success must be a most gratifying reward, and cannot omit
this opportunity of publicly acknowledging their services.

Legislation has withal been the great feature of 1864-65, and it is hopec\ that

THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

633

the “ Chemists and Druggists Act ’’ of this year will take its place in the Statute
Book as the consummation of the Pharmacy Act of 1852. During the progress
of the Bill through Parliament it is difficult to speak with any certainty, and as
to the proceedings of the Council, they have been amply reported and com¬
mented on from time to time in the Journal and Transactions. The work has
been one of no small labour and anxiety. There is always a difficulty in in¬
fusing a knowledge of special subjects into the minds of men who have no
practical acquaintance therewith, and although the demand for the educational
qualification of chemists and druggists, put forth by the Medical Council in
1864 and at once indorsed by the public, has been earnestly taken up in Par¬
liament, there yet remains much more for the Council to do.

During the past year one of the oldest members of the Council has been re¬
moved. It would be unreasonable to mourn the loss of him who goes down full
of years and honour to the grave, but a feeling of regret comes over us when
we miss a cheery voice to which we have long been accustomed. Among the
founders and supporters of the Pharmaceutical Society there was not one more
active, more earnest, or more honest than Thomas Herring, of whose assistance
and encouragement we are now deprived. His memory will remain, and it
may be that some will say, with justice too, that Thomas Herring worked hard
for the advancement of Pharmacy years before the Pharmaceutical Society was
thought of.

Mr. Hollier, in moving the adoption of the Report, congratulated the meeting upon
the very satisfactory position of the Society with respect to its income and expenditure,
the former being much larger than that of last year, whilst the expenditure had not
been, perhaps, much more this year than it was last year. That was a fact upon which
they might safely congratulate themselves ; and with regard to the Report that had been
read, he felt certain it would be received with great pleasure by all the members and
friends of the institution. He must, however, express his regret at so small an attend¬
ance of country members, especially as he had always looked upon their annual meeting
as one of the high holidays of the year. It was but natural that a larger number of
Loudon members than country members should assemble on these occasions, but on the
present occasion, when they had a Bill before Parliament, which was of vital conse¬
quence to them, he certainly anticipated seeing a very large attendance of country mem¬
bers. It was, however, satisfactory to find that the country members felt they were
so ably supported by the Council, in whose hands they were disposed to place them¬
selves, that they could safely leave what was best to be done to them, and if it were
possible to carry a Bill through Parliament that would not interfere with the pri¬
vilege and influence of the Pharmaceutical Council, he thought that it would not only
be acceptable to the public, but also to the great body of the chemists and druggists.
He felt certain that many of the latter would rather have such a Bill carried than tha
promoted by the United Society. It had been stated in the ‘ Chemist and Druggist ’ that
the support given to the Bill now before Parliament had been obtained, in some in¬
stances, by misrepresentation, and as he had taken a great interest in the matter, he
wrote to the editor upon the subject, informing him of the mistake he had made, and he
(Mr. Hollier) had taken care to communicate his opinion upon the matter to the proper
authorities. He had taken a great interest in the Society, and he had taken part in the
country in the agitation that had occurred with reference to further legislation. He
wished to see the privileges of the Society maintained, but at the same time he was de¬
sirous of seeing the outsiders admitted into their ranks, if it could be done, and it was
the opinion of some that by an amalgamation it would be possible to get a Bill that
would work satisfactorily for all parties. The sale of poisons was a very difficult ques¬
tion, and if they could legislate satisfactorily with reference to it and dangerous drugs,
it would advance materially the interests not only of Pharmaceutical Chemists, but also
the chemist and druggist generally. He could state from his own knowledge in his
own district, that drysalters distributed these poisons and dangerous drugs at great
risk to the public and themselves ; but he thought it might be prevented by the intro-

634

THE TWENTY-FOURTH ANNIVERSARY OF

ductiou of a clause into the present Bill. Between the two Bills he thought it was pos¬
sible to produce a good one. It had been urged against this Society that there were
many members who had not passed an examination, but it should be recollected that
those were the men who, twenty years ago, banded themselves together and paid their
money with the view of founding this Society for the joint benefit of themselves and
others. It was urged that apprentices and associates were put to a great expense in
passing their examination, but it was done at a comparatively small cost to them, the
gi'eater portion being paid from the subscriptions of the members. He cordially con¬
curred in the Report. As a local secretary he had called meetings of the profession
within his own district, and he must admit that they had always listened attentively
and carefully to everything he had put before them ; and if they could so construct a
clause as would meet the views of the outsiders, he felt certain that many of them would
be heartily willing to join this Society. He concluded by moving the following reso¬
lution, “That the Report now read be received and adopted, and printed in the Society’s
Journal and Transactions.”

Mr. Humpage had much pleasure in seconding the motion. The financial Report was
most encouraging, and it had been so completely analysed in the Report that had just
been read, that it was unnecessary for him to enter into any details. The finances were
increasing in the right direction, and it was a matter of congratulation to find that the
large sum which at one time was charged against the Journal had been so materially
reduced. The candidates for admission was another matter for congratulation. In 1862
the examinations were only seventy-five, and in 1864 they had increased to 152, and the
most surprising thing was to find that most of them had been able to pass without hav¬
ing first to attend the Society’s lectures or the laboratory, which was due to those exa¬
mined members who had taken apprentices being so thoroughly competent to instruct
them in the various branches of the profession. It would have been impossible twenty-
five years ago for eighty-nine young men to have presented themselves for examination
without having first had to go through a course of instruction similar to that which was
to be obtained by attending the lectures and the laboratory. In dealing with the ques¬
tion of what were termed the outsiders, two interests were to be considered. He had
met with many of them who came up to the true ordeal which the Society had esta¬
blished, but he who could not ensure a few weeks’ attention which would enable him
to take his true position ought not to be admitted a member. With regard to the sub¬
ject of legislation, he admitted it would be a very good thing if the sale of drugs and
medicines could be confined to educated men only, but the question was, how was it to
be accomplished ? It was, he admitted, a difficult question, but he thought the best thing
the Society could do would be to leave it in the hands of the Council to solve. Their past
conduct had been all that they could wish, and he felt confident they would do every¬
thing in their power for the advancement of the Society, and also of individual members
of the profession. The Society was in a very healthy position, and the man who said
to the contrary was — he would not say what. The Society was never more healthy
than at present, and though the cost of legislation would be — must necessarily be —
heavy, it would be the best mode of advertising that ever could have been adopted, for
hundreds, nay thousands, now read about the Pharmaceutical Society who, prior to the
agitation, knew nothing about it, and probably could not pronounce its name. He was
confident that the more the Society was known the better it would be appreciated, and
whenever he had come in contact with persons who really had inquired about it for the
purpose of information, he had had no difficulty in proving to them that if the Society
had not done everything that was wished, it had accomplished sufficient to make the
profession and the public thankful for its existence.

Mr. Collins said that a stranger would imagine, after having heard the speeches of
the mover and seconder of the motion, that there never had been such a Society before,
and that they were never likely to have such another. Now, with regard to the subject
of legislation, he should be glad if information could be given to him and to the meet¬
ing with reference to the progress of the Bill now before Parliament.

The President said that had already been done.

Mr. Collins (who came in late) said then he must not complain. He must say,
however, that he thought the Medical Council had put forward a most extraordinary
recommendation with regard to the Bill. He hoped that those who had charge of
the Bill would not allow such a monstrous clause to be inserted. He and many others

THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

G35

had no desire to prescribe in the strict sense of the word over the counter ; but whilst
medical men sent out medicine, he thought they ought not to object to chemists and
druggists prescribing any simple remedy over the counter. If they dealt in those matters
they knew the penalty which attached to it, and, should application be made to them,
every sensible man, when he saw a case of difficulty, would advise the applicant to apply
to a properly qualified man.

Mr. Hills said that he had never heard it mentioned that the Medical Council wished
to prevent Pharmaceutical Chemists from prescribing over the counter.

Mr. Collins said it appeared so from the report published by the Medical Council.

The President said it went only so far as to say, that the Bill now before Parliament
should not be supposed to give any authority to practise. The object was to dis¬
courage it as much as possible. It was a mere expression of opinion, and not binding
upon any one.

Mr. Collins said he thought there was something behind it, and asked for an expla¬
nation of what was meant by “ any branch of medicine.” His opinion was, that under that
clause, a chemist and druggist might be prevented from prescribing a simple chalk mix¬
ture, under the plea that he was practising a branch of medicine, and he called upon the
Council to strongly oppose any restriction being placed upon their present liberty with
regard to prescribing. What the chemists and druggists wanted to be was not pre¬
scribes, but the sole compounders of medicines. He next called attention to the discon¬
tinuance on the voting-paper of the number of attendances of the respective members
of the Council. Probably there were good reasons for it.

Mr. Hills said Mr. Collins would find the information he required in the Journal.

Mr. Collins said that was so, and he had been obliged to go there for it, and at much
pains and trouble he had arrived at it, and he thought it showed the misapprehension
that existed as to the desirability of having so many country members on the Council.
There had been eleven meetings of the Council during the last year, and he found that
although one country member, Mr. Savage, had attended ten meetings, yet others had
only attended four or five times. The attendance of country members must necessarily
be less than town members, and the election of so many country members of the Council
had the practical effect of throwing the management of the Society into the hands of the
few London members who attended. All the Committee work was done by the town
members, and the country members were only required to attend and receive their reports.
He had thought it right to mention the matter, and he hoped it would be reported in
the Journal. It was found on a former occasion highly important and necessary that
the information now withheld should be given, and he saw no reason why it should not
be continued. In conclusion, Mr. Collins called attention to the ‘ Chemists and Druggists
Bill (No. 2)’ which he characterized as a most monstrous Bill, but he hoped something
might be done between the two Bills that would give the public and the profession
satisfaction.

Mr. Savage said he must reply to Mr. Collins’s remarks, although he was one of those
who had been complimented by him. He felt that many of the members of the Council
had been unfairly represented b^ that gentleman, because the attendance of the Council,
as given in the Journal, was no criterion of the amount of work performed by the various
members; besides, it would be very unjust towards the Society if the country members
of the Council incurred large expenses for travelling, when their attendances were not
absolutely required. Mr. Collins was wrong in his statement with reference to the num¬
ber of meetings. There had been fourteen, and out of that number he had attended
twelve of them, and the same applied to many other of the members. Allusion had
been made to Mr. Edwards, but surely it was not desirable that that gentleman, and
others, who reside at a great distance from town, should come up, at a great expense, if
there was no business to be transacted which required their especial attention ; and it
was desirable to avoid, as much as possible, two members of the Council coming from
the same place. It had been urged that it was only by the number of attendances that
the members could know hov? to vote for the re-election of the Council, but he begged
to inform him that it was a most fallacious test, and no publicity of the kind would give
the remotest idea of the quantity of work performed by each individual member of the
Council ; it could only be obtained from inquiries on the spot, and he thought it would
be unwise, injudicious, and unfair, from the circumstances he had stated, if the Council
were to publish a summary of the attendances. In justice to the other members of the

636

THE TWENTY-FOURTH ANNIVERSARY OF

Council, it was but right that he should say they had all been present on every occasion
when their services were required, and they had most efficiently discharged their duties,
and if the Society was more indebted to some than to others for their attendances, they
were much indebted to Mr. Edwards and Mr. Mackay, to the latter of whom they were
indebted for the great reduction that had taken place in the cost of the Journal. In
fact, they were greatly indebted to the two Mr. Edwards, for the valuable and vigilant
attention they had paid to the interests of the Society. The mover of the adoption of
the Report had said that it was very desirable to insert in our Bill certain portions of
the United Society’s Bill, but there was, as there always had been, great difficulty about
the matter. Now the question of poisons had never been solved. It had been often
mooted there, but no one had been able to solve it. Many persons had been poisoned from
drinking excessively of gin, but to suppose that Government would pass a special enact¬
ment with regard to the sale of gin, was absurd.

Mr. Collins said Mr. Savage had mentioned fourteen meetings of the Council during
the year. They were only monthly meetings, and he was not aware there were more
than twelve months in the year.

Mr. Flux (Solicitor) asked to be permitted to address the meeting. Time, he assured
them, was very pressing with reference to the Bill before Parliament, and the Council
were then waiting to hold another meeting in order to decide upon their course the
following day before the Select Committee. He wished to inform the meeting that he
could from experience state that the attendances of the Council were fallacious, and
could not be relied on as a test of the work done. And if they knew, as he did, how
much time the Council devoted to the affairs of the Society they would be truly
astonished, and if they were to do as lawyers do, charge for their attendances, the
Society would have such a bill to pay that they would never be able to meet. He
wished to bear his testimony to the attendances of those gentlemen of the Council who
lived at great distances from London. During the past year the claims on the members
of the Council had been without precedent. He had had to communicate with them on
numberless occasions, and he did not know an instance in which he could not do so
when necessary and in which he did not find their time most willingly given. Instance
the present Bill, Mr. Black, one of the members for Edinburgh, being on the Select
Committee, he (Mr. Flux) considered it necessary for the support of the Bill that Mr.
Mackay should appear before the Committee. He telegraphed to him, and at great
personal inconvenience he was in the House of Commons on Thursday last, he had re¬
mained in town ever since, and would again go before the Committee the following day
at great sacrifice of his business time. Then, again, Dr. Edwards stood in precisely the
same position. Hecame to town last week, but as his engagements required him to return
home he did so, and he was again in the committee-room on the following Monday and
had remained in town ever since. They had now wasted nearly half an hour about
what had come to be a fallacy after all. He entreated them to stick as closely as they
could to the business of the day, and allow the Council to adjourn to the Council-room
and dispose of the important business that must come before them that day.

Mr. Collins complained that it was irregular for the Solicitor to give them such
advice. It was not allowed in other societies.

The President said that Mr. Flux first asked permission to address them. He
thought it might now be desirable that he should state to them how the Bill stood
in Parliament. There had been two sittings of the committee. At the first meet¬
ing they had to prove that legislation was necessary, and that they did to the perfect
satisfaction of the committee. On the second occasion, certain medical men were
called, who proved that the Society’s examinations were efficient. After they have dis¬
posed of Bill No. 1, the committee will proceed with Bill No. 2 (the United Society’s
Bill). On Monday last, a rather important member of the select committee suggested
that the Council should have a conference with the promoters of the Bill No. 2. The
Council assented to it, and it took place that morning at half-past nine o’clock ; two
gentlemen and the secretary of the United Society having come there for the purpose.
The conference lasted till eleven o’clock, and the end of it was that they proposed as a
sine, qua non that all Chemists in business should be admitted on the passing of the Act
to the register of Pharmaceutical Chemists. The other matters were merely arrangements
of details less liberal than those in No. 1 Bill. The great point made by the deputa¬
tion had not been sufficiently considered by the Council, but after that meeting the

THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

G37

Council would again consider the proposition, in order to decide upon it. The Council
proposed to make an alteration in their Bill, which would give the members of the
trade a more extensive voice in the election of the Council. By the 16th clause it
was proposed that chemists and druggists registered under the Act, having passed the
Minor examination, might be elected Associates, and might vote at the meetings of
the Society. It was now proposed to alter the clause so that all the chemists and
druggists registered under the Act, whether they passed the Minor examination or not,
should be as eligible as Associates to have a vote at the Society’s meetings. It was also
proposed to allow in future all voters the same privilege as that now enjoyed by
country members, that of sending their voting papers, and to insert a clause in the Bill
guaranteeing exemption from serving on juries to all who were registered under the Act.
The Council thought these concessions would be ample — that they were very liberal —
protecting nothing but the title of Pharmaceutical Chemist.

Mr. Pedler hoped the meeting would not pass over in silence the demand which the
United Society had made as a sine qua non. He could not for a moment allow it to be
considered that they at all assented to it.

Mr. "VVaugii asked if he was to understand that the meeting wished to limit the dis¬
cretion of the Council in that respect. Did they mean to say that they could not allow
those gentlemen to come in on the terms proposed ? It was very necessary that the
meeting should most unequivocally decide what should be done by the Council. He
was in this difficulty, that he did not know who the gentlemen referred to represented,
and he wished to be informed whether they were authorized to speak the sentiments of
those who were called outsiders, as the Council was those of the Pharmaceutical Che¬
mists and Druggists. Unless they were assured of that, they did not know that the
outside gentlemen would be disposed to accept what they might do in the matter. The
United Society, he thought, was something in the position of the United States, and
that many of them would object to be represented by the persons who were holding the
conference.

Mr. Watts reminded the meeting that last year the admission of chemists and drug¬
gists to the benefits of the Pharmaceutical Society was somewhat fully discussed, and
Mr. Dickinson on that occasion made some very pertinent and just remarks upon the ques¬
tion. He (Mr. Watts) had been connected with the Society almost ever since its for¬
mation, and he should loudly protest against those gentlemen being admitted to all the
privileges of the Society. With regard to the other alterations he did not object to them,
and he must add that he considered them very liberal indeed. When they might have
joined the Society in 1852 they objected, because, they said, they would only get the
Journal for their guinea, and they did not want it ; but the moment the Society had a
Bill passed exempting Pharmaceutical Chemists from serving on juries, they thought it
was something worth having for their guinea. He protested against their being ad¬
mitted to the position which the members of the Society had worked for, laboured for,
and paid for, and that if they were admitted as Associates it would be treating them very
liberally. He hoped the meeting would not separate without passing a unanimous
vote to that effect.

Mr. Collins said he thought it would be very indiscreet of the meeting to do so.
They had much better leave the Council unfettered in the matter, because it would
place them in this difficulty, that if the select committee insisted upon it they would
have to abandon the Bill. The members of the Council, he was proud to say, were men
of the world, of great experience and judgment, and capable of being trusted in the
matter. They knew what was wanted, and would, no doubt, do all in their power to
get it ; but if they could not, why we must say no more about it. They must recollect
that the select committee might report that it was desirable to legislate in a certain way.
If so, what was then to be done ?

Mr. Long expressed a hope that they would not lose their Bill through any bickerings
between the two Societies.

Mr. Randall considered it was much better to leave the Council to deal with the Bill
before Parliament in the manner they deemed best, and not pass any abstract resolution.
At the same time, it would be desirable to strengthen their hands by an expression, of
the opinion of the meeting. There was more to be done by constituents writing or talk¬
ing to their representatives than by passing abstract resolutions. To show the Council
what was the general feeling of the meeting would be a much better guidance for them

VOL. VI. 2 X

638

THE TWENTY-FOURTH ANNIVERSARY OF

than a mere resolution. He would rather throw the Bill over than be dishonest towards
the present body of Pharmaceutical Chemists ; and he could assure them that he should
be the last man to feel pleasure in thrusting his tongue in his check, as Mr. Collins had
advised them, tie thought it would be desirable if they could now let in the outsiders
• on the same terms as were proposed in 1852, but he confessed he was at a loss to see
how it could be done. He advised the meeting to re-elect every member of the Council,
who he felt certain would go back and complete the work that they had well and
earnestly begun.

Mr. Pedler said he had the greatest confidence in the Council, and so far from ap¬
pearing to sanction the kind of compromise that had been thrown out, he wrould rather
lose fifty Bills than lower the standard of the Society. He hoped the meeting would
place implicit confidence in the Council, and leave the matter in their hands.

The resolution was then put, and carried unanimously.

Mr. Pedler then moved the next resolution : — “ That the thanks of the meeting be
tendered and are hereby given to the President and Council, for their active and zealous
services on behalf of the Society during the past year.”

He said he was rejoiced to hear the statement just made by Mr. Flux, the solicitor,
because he was a gentleman who, from his position with regard to the Society, was
enabled to give a disinterested opinion with regard to the labour and the attendance of
the members of the Council. There could be but one feeling with regard to the conduct
of the Council during the past year, and that was that they had carried out to the very
letter the views expressed by the meeting of last year. There could be no two opinions
with reference to the two Bills before Parliament, and he thought it would be better to
have no Bill at all than to be compelled to agree to the alteration mentioned by the
President as required by the United Chemists and Druggists’ Society. The manner in
which the Council had transacted the business of the past year entitled them to the
thanks of every member of the Society.

Mr. Boyce seconded the motion. He concurred in what had been stated by the last
speaker, and he felt satisfied the meeting would have much pleasure in unanimously
agreeing to the motion.

The motion was unanimously agreed to.

The President acknowledged the compliment on behalf of the Council. He heartily
thanked them for the gratifying manner in which they had acknowledged the past
services of the Council, and he assured them that what the Council felt to be their
interest was and must be the interest of the whole profession. "What they had now
to do would be done in a liberal spirit, but at the same time in a conservative and
just spirit towards those who enjoyed privileges under our present Act of Parliament.
The Council, strengthened by the expression of the approbation and confidence of the
meeting, would, he hoped, successfully terminate the work they had commenced. There
was no intention on the part of the Select Committee to introduce such a clause as Mr.
Collins imagined, and the proposition of the Medical Council would not interfere with
a chemist’s prescribing over the counter, as in certain circumstances he is compelled to
do now. All that was intended was that Pharmaceutical Chemists and druggists should
not take authority under the Bill to do so. • The Bill, if carried, would prevent dispensing
by men who had not passed an examination. Dr. Quain, when before the Select Com¬
mittee, said it was utterly impossible to prevent chemists from prescribing over the
counter altogether, but what was objected to was, chemists going out to visit patients.
That was no part of their profession, and if they asked Parliament to restrict persons
from encroaching on their grounds they ought to respect the preserves of others ; but
there was a case on record, brought before the Medical Council at its late sitting, where
a chemist had gone beyond the legitimate range of his duties and taken charge of a
benefit club ; it was found, on inquiry, that the person referred to had been educated
as a medical practitioner, though he had not passed his examination as such. The
Medical Council, however, gave chemists credit generally for discountenancing such
practice.

Mr. Orridge moved the thanks cf the meeting to Mr. Bremridge, the Secretarv. It
was but due to that gentleman that they should recognize his valuable services.

The President hoped he should not be considered out of order if he seconded the
vote of thanks to their estimable Secretary, Mr. Bremridge. He had been as much, if
not more, in communication with him, than any member of the Council or of the

TIIE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

639

Society, and he could with truth assert that great credit was due to Mr. Bremridge for
the assiduous manner in which he had so long discharged the onerous duties of his
office. It was Mr. Bremridge who stirred them up and obtained for them exemption
from serving on juries, and for that agitation, which had done the Society an inestimable
amount of benefit, he thanked him. Mr. Bremridge was ever ready to advance the status
of his profession, and he was ready to undertake any amount of work to accomplish that
object.

The motion was carried by acclamation.

Mr. Bremridge, in returning thanks, expressed his grateful thanks to the meeting
for the kind and cordial manner in which they had been pleased to recognize his services.
He should be most happy at all times to do all he could to assist, in any way, the in¬
terests of the Society. He felt much pleased at the honour the meeting had unani¬
mously conferred upon him.

The appointment of Scrutineers then took place, and the meeting was adjourned to
Friday the 19th, to receive the report of the election of the Council for the ensuing
year.

ADJOURNED MEETING.

Friday , May 19 th, 18G5.

MR. SANDFORD, PRESIDENT, IN THE CHAIR.

The Scrutineers brought up their Report, as follows : —

We, the undersigned Scrutineers, appointed at the Twenty-fourth Annual General
Meeting of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, do hereby certify that we have
examined the voting-papers committed to us, and report the following results : —

Voting-papers received... . 692

Disallowed for informality ... 17

675

Ballard

. 184

Doughty .

182

Haselden . . .

... 559

Sandford ...

... 548

Bird .

. 512

Edwards,G....

489

Hills .

... 553

Standring

... 514

Bottle ..

. 512

Edwards, J. B.

586

Ilollier .

.. 251

Thomas . . .

... 203

Brady ..

. 353

Evans .

479

Mackey . . .

.. 156

Vizer .

... 172

Breton . .

. 223

Faulconer . . .

219

Orridge . . .

.. 449

Watts .

... 435

Collins..

. . 173

Hogg .

186

Randall . . .

.. 445

Waugh ...

... 535

William Watts, Chairman.
Samuel Gale.

Henry Neal Bootiiby.
Thomas Kent.

Henry Owen Huskisson.

J. W. Clark.

Joseph Kettle.
Frederick Andrews.
Edwin Applegate.
Bexj. Humpage.
Maurice Howell.

C. R. Quiller.

The following Members were therefore declared to constitute the Coineil for the

ensuing year : —

Council.

Bird, William Lionel, 42, Castle Street East.

Bottle, Alexander, 37, Townwall Street, Dover.

Brady, Henry B., 40, Mosley Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Deane, Henry, Clapham.

Davenport, John T., 33, Great Russell Street.

Edwards, George, Dartford.

Edwards, John B., Royal Institution, Liverpool.

Evans, Henry Sugden, 56, Hanover Street, Liverpool.
Hanbury, Daniel Bell, Plough Court, Lombard Street.
Haselden, Adolphus Frederick, 18, Conduit Street.
Hills, Thomas Hyde, 338, Oxford Street.

2x2

040

PREPARATION OF LIQUOR BISMUT1II.

Mackay, John, 121, George Street, Edinburgh.

Morson, Thomas N. R., 88, Queen Square.

Orridge, Benjamin B., 30, Bucklesbuiy.

Randall, William Brodrieb, 146, High Street, Southampton.
Sandford, George Webb, 47, Piccadilly.

Savage, William Dawson, 65, Edward Street, Brighton.

Squire, Peter, 277, Oxford Street.

Standring, Thomas, 1, Piccadilly. Manchester.

Watts, William Manning, 32, Whitecross Street.

Waugii, George, 177, Regent Street.

There being only the requisite number of Candidates proposed for election as Audi¬
tors, the Chairman declared the following, who had been nominated and had signified
their willingness to accept the office, duly elected

Auditors.

Barron, Frederick, 2, Bush Lane.

Beckett, William E., 6, Giltspur Street.

MUullocii, William, 5, Coleman Street.

Westwood, Robert, 16, Newgate Street.

Tippett, Benjamin M., 8, Sloane Street.

The Scrutineers handed to the President their Report of the return for the Local Se¬
cretaries.

A vote of thanks having been passed to the Scrutineers and to the Chairman, the
meeting separated.

ORIGINAL AND EXTRACTED ARTICLES.

LIQUOR BISMUTH!.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir, — Two communications have lately appeared upon the above subject;
one from the pen of Mr. Bartlett, of America, and another from the pen of
Mr. Blunt. On the appearance of the first, which was' kindly forwarded to
me by the author some months ago, I determined not to enter upon the theme
again, as I thought the subject had been thoroughly ventilated in my original
paper, and by the remarks made thereon by Mr. Schacht, the inventor of the
fluid. Nor should I take up the time of the readers of your Journal now, ex¬
cept that my silence might be construed into an acknowledgment of the cor¬
rectness of a statement made by Mr. Blunt, i. e. that lie found the process of
Mr. Tichborne impracticable. In connection with this, I may remark that I
am sorry the process to which he refers has failed in his hands, but I shall be
most happy, if he be sufficiently interested in the subject, to forward him a
specimen containing the prescribed amount of oxide of bismuth, and made
strictly according to my formula.

But, throwing this on one side, the purport of my original communication
must have been misunderstood ; indeed, it must liave been read very superfi¬
cially. In that communication the process is given as one calculated to pro¬
duce a corresponding fluid to Mr. Schacht’s. Thus, after having given the
analysis, I say, “The following is probably the mode pursued in making
the solution,” etc., and then fellows a process the product of which will agree
in composition with the analysis of Mr. Schacht’s preparation. A formula such
as recommended by Mr. Blunt would not give a fluid representing Mr. Schacht’s,
as it would invariably contain nitric acid. My paper was written to describe

DETECTION OF METIIYLIC ALCOHOL.

641

■v.'hat was then a novelty, and to give its composition, not to invent the best
formula for its preparation.

In wishing good-bye to this subject, I may remark that Mr. Blunt’s process
is essentially Mr. Bartlett’s, viz. the precipitation of citrate of bismuth by citrate
of potash and nitrate of bismuth, and the solution of this in ammonia.

rIke whole of this will be found in my original paper, although in perhaps as
many lines as pages have since been devoted to it. Thus I say, “ It [Liq. Bis-
muthi] is more elegantly made by dissolving the citrate of bismuth in citrate of
ammonia. Citrate of bismuth is a very insoluble salt, got by the double de¬
composition of citrate of potash, or soda, and ternitrate of bismuth. The ci¬
trate as made in this manner is extremely soluble in ammonia, or a solution of
citrate of ammonia.” The difference in Mr. Bartlett’s modification of the
above process is, that he adds ammonia to the citrate and forms a basic com¬
pound which is prone to decomposition, even with the addition of spirit ;
whilst if this bismuthic compound be dissolved in an excess of citrate of am¬
monia, and exactly neutralized, it will keep for an indefinite time without the
addition of spirit.

interesting

which is merely a repetition of the only part
which is wanting in this respect.

The objection to this process is the following: — Citrate of bismuth is not
perfectly insoluble in water ; therefore to get it anything approaching perfectly
free from the nitrate of potash formed (not nitrate of ammonia), would entail
so great a loss as to necessitate an analysis of the product before it could be
made up a definite strength. If a quick method of making Liq. Bismuthi is
required, and the presence of nitrates be no objection, this can be arranged in
a very simple and efficacious manner, the whole operation only taking a few
minutes.* A known weight of crystallized nitrate of bismuth is dissolved in
a small quantity of water, to which has previously been added a like weight of
citric acid. Ammonia is then added until it is neutralized, when it may be at
once made up the required strength by the addition of water. This solution
may be made any strength (50 per cent, if necessary), and will keep indefi¬
nitely. It contains, in addition to the bismuth and citrate of ammonia, a little
1-ess than 14 grain of nitrate of ammonia for every three grains of nitrate of
bismuth used.

Apologizing for trespassing on your valuable space,

I remain, yours obediently,

Charles E. C. Ticiiborne, F.C.S., F.R.G.S.I., etc.

Laboratory , Apothecaries’ Hall of Ireland ,

10 Hi May , 1865.

ON ME. MILLER’S METHOD FOE THE DETECTION OF

METIIYLIC ALCOHOL.

BY HARRY NAPIER DRAPER, F.C.S.

As the processes hitherto given for the detection of methylic alcohol have
proved so very unsatisfactory, it is not unlikely that the method given by Mr.
John T. Miller in the April number of this Journal may remain untried, and his

* As I have stated before, nitric acid is always present in the solution made from preci¬
pitated citrate of ammonia. There seems to be a limit to the solubility of chemically pure
citrate of bismuth : but this solubility is wonderfully increased by the presence of mineral
acids.

642

DETECTION OP METHYLIC ALCOHOL.

statements as to its accuracy received cum grano sails by many who have been
disappointed by the fair promises of success already held out.

For this reason I wish to place on record the results of a series of experi¬
ments in which the general applicability of Mr. Miller’s process was tested to
the utmost.

Nineteen specimens, the details of which are given below, were prepared for
me by a friend, I not having the slightest knowledge of their composition.
When my friend and I came to compare notes, we found that I had succeeded
in detecting the presence of methylic alcohol in each of the specimens in which
it was present, and in them only, except the two which are printed in italics.
The order of the specimens here given is that according to which they were ori¬
ginally numbered.

1. Spirit of nitre, with 8 per cent, methylated spirit of nitre.

2. Methylated spirit of nitre.

3. Compound spirit of juniper.

4. Spirit of nitre.

5. Compound spirit of juniper, with 10 per cent, methylated spirit.

6. Methylated ether.

7. Ether.

8. Ether, with 5 per cent, methylated ether.

9. Ether, with 10 per cent, methylated ether.

10. Spirit of nitre.

11. Spirit of nitre, with 5 per cent, methylated spirit of nitre.

12. Spirit of nitre, with 10 per cent, methylated spirit of nitre.

13. Spirit of nitre.

14. Spirit of nitre, with 5 per cent, methylated spirit of nitre.

15. Spirit of nitre.

16. Tincture of opium, with 5 per cent, methylated spirit.

17. Tincture of opium, with 5 per cent, methylated spirit.

18. Tincture of opium.

19. Tincture of opium, with 10 per cent, methylated spirit.

No. 1 I had reported as pure, and No. 13 as methylated. In both of these
cases it will be observed that the specimens were spirit of nitre, which Mr.
Miller particularly points out as requiring more care than is necessary with
tinctures. The reason of this is obvious, as, in pure spirit of nitre, aldehyd
and perhaps formic acid must be present to a greater or less extent, and mask
the result. I should mention that I have not found the preparatory treatment
with carbonate of potassium of any advantage in the case of spirit of nitre.

I make no comment upon the failures. In No. 1 it will be seen that methyl¬
ated spirit was present in the proportion of but 8 per cent., corresponding to
but 0-8 per cent, of wood spirit, and to, of course, a still less proportion of real
methyl alcohol. I am far, however, from thinking that the failures were due to
the method , and think that now, having greater experience, I should have still
better success. Mr. Miller himself does not claim for his process the degree of
sensibility which I have required from it. When I have next to examine spirit
of nitre, I shall distil the specimens from caustic soda or potash before oxidizing
them. Beyond this 1 would make no alteration in the modus operandi of Mr..
Miller, nor can I suggest any improvement upon it. A small glass Liebig’s
condenser, arranged vertically, will, howrever, be found convenient when a large
number of distillations have to be made.

I must not forget to say that I have found the dark colour of the supernatant
liquid, after the precipitate of reduced silver has completely subsided, the best
indication of the presence of methylic alcohol. This coloration is very marked
and permanent. I have twro specimens before me as I write, one from pure spirit
of nitre, and the other from spirit of nitre containing 10 per cent, of methylated

POISONING BY OXALIC ACID AND STRYCHNINE.

643

spirit of nitre. In the former the supernatant liquid is now (three weeks after
the experiment) quite colourless, and in the latter is of a pale wine-colour, but
of a slightly browner tint than sherry.

Finally, I hope that the name of Mr. Miller will not be forgotten in connection
with the first reliable process for the detection of this shameful form of adulte¬
ration, and that he himself will receive the thanks of all honest members of the
pharmaceutical community.

Dublin, May 10 th.

SPONTANEOUS OXIDATION OF AMORPHOUS (FED)

PHOSPHORUS.

BY TIIOS. B. GROVES, F.C.S.

Perhaps the spontaneous oxidation of amorphous (red) phosphorus is not so
well established a fact but that the following particulars may prove interesting,
more especially since one of our best class-books, the ninth edition of Fownes’s
4 Chemistry,’ states, without qualification, 44 that amorphous phosphorus has no
tendency to combine with the oxygen of the air.”

I have been accustomed for some years to use this variety for the preparation
of medicinal phosphoric acid ( vide Pliarm. Journ. vol. xvi. p. 509). Two years
ago, the bottle in which it was kept received a blow on its side, which produced
a starred fracture, with a central hole the size of a large shot. This was not
considered important, so the bottle remained in use, and continued to occupy
its old position on a shelf in the warehouse, exposed to diffuse daylight only.
For a year or more it presented its pristine appearance, but more recently I ob¬
served it to be getting damp, and on proceeding a fortnight since to take some
from the bottle I found it covered with a layer, a third of an inch thick, of dense
acid. The odour of oxidizing phosphorus, was very pronounced, but the con¬
tents of the bottle were not luminous in the dark. The acid was washed from
the unaltered phosphorus, and examined. It consisted of phosphoric and phos¬
phorous acids in the proportion of 5 eq. of the former to 2 eq. of the latter,
and the quantity was such as would result from the oxidation of more than
eleven drachms of phosphorus,- — about a sixth of the whole contents of the
bottle.

The relative proportions of the two oxides of phosphorus were ascertained by
comparing the results of two estimations by magnesia, one before, the other after
peroxidation by chlorine, from which it seems that the mixed and diffused
completely form the so-called phosphatic acid (4P05-fP03) of Pelletier and

Dulong.

I am quite at a loss to account for any sudden change from stability to insta •
bility, and am consequently disposed to believe that the change had been, from
the first admission of air, advancing with a regularly accelerated speed , and that
hence arose the apparent suddenness of it.

POISONING BY OXALIC ACID AND STRYCHNINE.

TO THE EDITOR OE THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Sir. — -If the following report will be worth a place in the pages of the 4 Phar¬
maceutical Journal,’ it may form a permanent record of a rather extraordinary
case of poisoning which occurred here a few days ago. A woman about thirty-
five years of age, of dissipated habits, applied at the shop of a chemist in this
town for oxalic acid, for the stated purpose of destroying mice. She was told

644

POISONING BY OXALIC ACID AND STRYCHNINE.

that oxalic acicl was not used for killing vermin, and recommended to have a
packet of Hunter's vermin-killer. This she accordingly purchased, but applied
immediately afterwards for oxalic acid at the shop of another chemist. Upon
being questioned as to the purpose for which it was wanted, and cautioned as to
its use, she was supplied with an ounce of it, properly described and labelled.
She adjourned to a neighbouring public-house, mixed the oxalic acid and vermin-
killer with half a pint of ale, and drank the greater part of the contents. She
went at once to her home and told her neighbours that she had taken an ounce
of “ oxalic acid” and a packet of “ mice powder.” Her statement was at first
hardly credited, but upon her assertion of its truth, another chemist was called
in, who administered whiting and water, advising that a medical man should be
sent for. Mr. Houghton, a surgeon of the town, immediately attended, and
found her nearly pulseless with cold clammy perspiration, extremities cold, and
every appearance of rapid dissolution. He left her with the intention of pro¬
curing his stomach-pump and antidotes, but upon his return, in the course of a
few minutes, she was dead. The oxalic acid and vermin -killer, as nearly as
could be ascertained, were purchased about eleven o’clock. The landlady of the
public-house stated in evidence that it would be from ten to fifteen minutes
after that time when she applied for the ale ; the chemist administered the
whiting and water in certainly not more than twelve or fifteen minutes after the
poisons were taken ; and death took place about 11.45, thus giving twenty-five
to thirty minutes for the operation of the poisons to destroy life. She vomited
slightly, and complained of soreness of the mouth, but did not appear to suffer
much pain. Upon the post-mortem examination, the other organs of the body,
excepting the stomach, were healthy. This contained from half to a pint of
dark, grumous, bloody liquid. The mucous membrane was highly congested,
and in one part a patch, of at least inches in diameter, had the appearance of
being charred, and was so softened and destroyed that it peeled away upon the
slightest touch. The evidence as to the cause of death appearing so clear, the
coroner and jury did not consider it necessary for any analysis of the contents
of the stomach itself to be made ; but feeling considerable interest in the case,
and having been present at the examination and inquest, by the kindness of the
■surgeon I obtained both for chemical examination as to the quantity of oxalic
acid which was taken. From the evidence of the servant at the public-house, it
would appear that something like a dessert-spoonful of “ salty stuff ” was left in
the cup, but which unfortunately was thrown away. I do not think, however,
it could have been less than half an ounce, probably much more, which was
swallowed. I was also anxious to ascertain as to whether any symptoms ob¬
servable before death could have reference to the operation of strychnine in the
vermin -killer. One witness only spoke as to a “ stretching sort of a fit,” but
nothing definite could be ascertained. The stomach, as I have before observed,
contained from half to a pint of dark fluid, together with a considerable quan¬
tity of a white chalky paste (oxalate of lime), all of which I handed to my son
for examination. The fluid gave but a slight acid reaction with blue litmus-
paper. The white chalky paste was washed and boiled in distilled water with
carbonate of potash. The liquid was filtered, neutralized with nitric acid, and
upon the application of the ordinary tests, gave abundant indication of the pre¬
sence of oxalic acid in very large quantity. From the extraordinary circum¬
stance of oxalic acid and vermin-killer having been taken at one and the same
time, and the rapid destruction of life being more especially referable to poison-
ing by oxalic acid alone , both my son and myself directed especial attention to
the examination of the liquid contents of the stomach as to strychnine. As
may be known to any one who has examined them, “ vermin -killers” are intensely
bitter to the taste, — of itself almost confirmative of this poison being the active
principle. The fluid p>art of the stomach was diluted with water, decolorized

CHEMISTS - PAINS AND PENALTIES.

G45

by animal charcoal, filtered, concentrated and tested with sulphuric acid and
chromate of potash, which produced the characteristic crimson and deep red
colour. Strong nitric acid also imparted a deep red colour to the liquid.
These tests appearing sufficiently indicative of the presence of strychnine, no
others were applied. I am, Mr. Editor, yours respectfully,

E. Hollier, Pharmaceutical Chemist.

Dudley , May 15, 1865.

CHEMISTS— PAINS AND PENALTIES.

TO THE EDITORS OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Gentlemen, — The proceedings of the Medical Council seem rather to indicate
a disposition on their part to lay chemists under severe and impracticable re¬
strictions in conducting their ordinary business as it has always been con¬
ducted from its earliest origin. I think there are very grave reasons why such
restrictions, pains, and penalties should be resisted to the very utmost by every
class and order of chemists. I believe the members of the Medical Council are
not actuated by that mean, jealous hostility to our fraternity which does un¬
doubtedly exist in some lower sections of the medical profession, under the
paltry idea that we are rivals in occupation, but that it arises in a great measure
from erroneous views of the real position in which we stand towards them and
the public. But from whatever cause arising, or from whatever quarter pro¬
ceeding, it is unquestionably the duty of all classes of chemists to resist such
restrictions, pains, and penalties to the last extremity, and for the following
obvious reasons : —

Firstly. Such legislation is quite foreign to the nature and objects of either of
the Bills now before the House of Commons ; so much so, in fact, that it was
the threat (many years ago) to lay us under these very degrading penalties that
originated the Pharmaceutical Society, one of its principal objects being to pro¬
tect ourselves from all such oppressive legislation.

Secondly. It is quite unnecessary for the object in view by the Medical Coun¬
cil, which, of course, is to prevent chemists practising as medical men. No
doubt many chemists do trench too far upon the duties of the medical profes¬
sion, but these cases, in comparison to the whole body, are but few, and the
numbers really acting as medical practitioners to any extent are exceedingly
few ; the responsibilities and difficulties are already so great in the way of this,
that further restrictions are quite uncalled-for, and to impose pains and penal¬
ties upon the whole body on account of the m a /practices of a few would be most
tyrannical, oppressive, and unjust.

Thirdly. It is quite impracticable, without utterly destroying the proper and
legitimate business of the chemist altogether. It may be that some few here
and there can exist without even suggesting a black draught, a chalk mixture,
an anodyne draught, an emetic, or a dose of Gregory’s mixture, but in the im¬
mense majority of cases chemists are absolutely obliged to answer a thousand
questions from all classes of customers, from the peer to the peasant, which re¬
sult in their obtaining such medicines as named, and many others, without the
interposition of a medical man ; nor would one of these cases in one hundred, if
all information was absolutely refused by the chemist, result in any application
to a medical man. Their own judgment would be used, medical books would
be consulted, or some one else, not being a chemist under pains and penalties,
would be applied to for advice and information. In my own case, which I
doubt not is the case of thousands, though living in a highly respectable popu¬
lation, and for my own interest avoiding all trenching upon the medical profes-

646

COUNTER PRACTICE.

sion, yet I am compelled by the patients themselves (often when medical men
are in actual attendance) to recommend simple medicines continually ; my re¬
fusal to do so would, I am convinced, involve me in a loss of caste and of their
respect that would be quite fatal to my business. And here I must call atten¬
tion to that very large class of patients who have spent scores and hundreds of
pounds with different medical men, and at last have been fully satisfied and
assured that their cases are absolutely incurable, and all that medicine will do
for them is simply to give some temporary relief. Now all chemists, I think,
must be aware how much wre are consulted by this class for some palliatives, or
some medicines affording a little mitigation of some particular suffering in such
cases. To send these again to medical men would not only be impossible, but in
many cases would be deemed deliberate insult ; they do not expect any cure, they
have paid more than their circumstances warranted in the vain hope, and what
they now want is some slight relief for the moment at as little further cost as
possible. Ninety out of every hundred chemists are obliged in such cases to act
to the best of their judgment without any medical man whatever.

Let it not for a moment be supposed that I am advocating medical practice
on the part of chemists ; on the contrary, I am convinced it would be to the ad¬
vantage of chemists generally if there could be some decisive line laid down, over
which the chemist was not allowed to pass ; but I am equally convinced, and I
am sure the immense majority of chemists who have paid any attention to the
subject must be also, that any restrictions, pains, and penalties interfering with
the sale and recommendation of simple remedies, or preventing patients apply¬
ing to us for ordinary information respecting them, will be not only oppressive,
but will absolutely destroy the possibility of safely conducting our ordinary
legitimate business. The proposed Pharmaceutical Bill in no way qualifies us
for acting as medical men ; its leading idea is to protect the public from incom¬
petent persons, and to raise us from the herd of common dealers into our own
proper status as preparers and dispensers of the means' of life- or death to the
public. To make it into a Bill of oppression and penalty will, I hope, ensure-
its determined opposition by every chemist in the kingdom.

I am. Sir, yours faithfully,

J. B., one of the Founders.

COUNTElt FEACTICE.

TO THE EDITORS OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Gentlemen, — If the following letter, taken from one of the medical journals,
represented the opinion of the general body, or even a majority of the medical
profession, who among the chemists and druggists would not hail the passing of
the Bill so corrected as a preliminary to the millennium? Not only those gentle¬
men whose names stand prominently before the public as the leaders of British
Pharmacy, but the greater number of Pharmaceutical Chemists throughout the
country are opposed to the principle of counter practice, and would gladly avail
themselves of a means of substituting a healthy legitimate business for the hybrid
system at present prevailing.

But what proportion of chemists, let me ask, pharmaceutical or otherwise,
would be able to maintain their ground and occupy their present position, were
counter practice honestly given up without any compensation ? What Pharma¬
ceutical Chemist would condescend to dabble in pomades and soaps, perfumery
and stationery and the like, if he could get a fair and honest living by the exer¬
cise of his proper calling ? When the eyes of the medical profession are open to
the evils which have arisen to themselves and us since prescriber and com-

DISTILLATION BY STEAM.

647

pounder were united in one man, and are willing to compensate us for tlie volun¬
tary and hearty relinquishment of counter practice, by allowing drugs to be
compounded by those legally qualified to do so, — in other words, to give up
dispensing, — then, and not till then, may we expect the higher and lower
branches of the medical profession, the doctor and the druggist, to work
together with respect and profit — to the benefits of doctor, druggist, and last,
not least, of the public. At present, the druggist gets from the doctor the
same reply practically as the doctor formerly got from Ben Jonson, who,
when it was remonstrated that the man must live, surlily replied, “lie didn’t
see much necessity for that.”

But until then, and unless a quid pro quo can be obtained, is it not the present
duty of the Council of the Pharmaceutical Society to see the saddle fits before it
is fastened ? I am, Gentlemen, yours obediently,

Henry Clayton.

'Eastbourne , May 20, 1865.

“ The Chemists and Druggists. — Sir, — One cannot but approve the motion to intro¬
duce the clause in the Chemists and Druggists Bill, to exclude all members of the Phar¬
maceutical Society from the practice of medicine ; but ought not the Medical Council to
be equally careful to prevent all medical practitioners from dispensing medicines over
their own counters, a practice alike prejudicial to the interests of doctor and druggist?
Might it not be made compulsory that no general practitioner dispense his own medi¬
cines when residing within three miles of a registered chemist and druggist, except in
cases of emergency? Contrary to the opinion of some, I maintain the possibility cf
enforcing both these regulations, provided a recognized fine be attached to a transgres¬
sion of the statute. Let every medical man communicate to the Central Council all
cases evidencing counter practice that may come to his knowledge, the fact being duly
substantiated by witness, and the report made within a month of the transaction. No
general practitioner would have to wait long before some deluded patient would come
confessing that he had had advice from Chemist So-and-so, had taken so much physic,
and was no better: this "would at once furnish a case in point. No druggist would hold
out long against fines rigorously enforced, even if disposed to ignore the requirements of
the Bill obtained for the protection of his own class. The case of a medical man con¬
tinuing his own dispensing, without the necessity arising from distance, would soon be¬
come known, and could at once receive due pressure from the executive of our Medical
Council. . “I am, etc., Percy Leslie, M.D.

“ Eastbourne , April 2 dth, 1865.”

DISTILLATION BY STEAM.

TO THE EDITORS OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Gentlemen,— I should be much obliged if you or any of your readers, having
practical experience in a similar case, would give me some advice in the follow¬
ing circumstances : —

I wish to apply a still used for distilling plain water, and having a capacity
of about twenty-five gallons, for working a smaller arrangement suitable for
distilling about two gallons of cinnamon or other sapid waters ; but before having
the secondary apparatus made, I should be glad to take the opinion of some one
who has already tried the experiment. My idea is to place the ingredients
upon perforated trays in a copper cylinder connected with a condensing ap¬
paratus, and to cause the steam from the still first mentioned to pass through.
The question is, whether the ingredients would be likely to cause condensation
to an inconvenient extent within the cylinder, and I should be glad to commu¬
nicate with any one whose experience would assist me. My places provide
sufficiently against condensation from the sides, etc., of the cylinder ; but

648

UXGUENTUM HYDRA RGYRI NITRATIS.

leave some doubt on the other head. Also, I should be glad to learn if this
mode effectually exhausts the volatile principles of the ingredients treated.

I am, Gentlemen, yours faithfully,

Clifton , May 24, 1865. Richard W. Giles.

TJNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI NITRATIS.

TO THE EDITORS OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.

Gentlemen, — I am surprised to see in the Pharmaceutical Journal for April
an article by Mr. Donovan, in -which he states that —

“There is no known formula for preparing citrine ointment, which will always pre¬
sent the same appearance and possess the same properties, and a very short time is ade¬
quate to induce changes to a certain amount. This ointment may he viewed as a metallic
soap, mixed with that compound which Fourcroy designates oxygenized pomatum.
Oxide of mercury, like other metallic oxides, forms a soap with the fatty acids. Berthollct
produced such a compound by decomposing corrosive sublimate by means of solution
of soap ; but it was not permanent, in process of time it became slate-coloured. A soap
may be formed of an analogous constitution by heatiug finely-levigated peroxide of
mercury with lard^; but the soap thus produced undergoes the same changes as that of
Berthollet, first becoming brown, and ultimately slate-coloured. Hence, the ointment
of red precipitate cannot be kept unchanged in the apothecary’s shop. Citrine oint¬
ment is similarly acted upon by time ; if its colour be ever so bright a yellow at first,
it soon becomes dull, and by degrees tends to the same alterations as those already
mentioned.”

As this statement is quite contrary to my opinion, based on the experience of
its manufacture for ten years, and as Mr. Donovan’s experience coincides with
that of several of my Pharmaceutic friends, my choice of formula and modus
opercindi may not be uninteresting to some of your readers. With regard to
the red precipitate ointment, Mr. Donovan, as also the compilers of the British
Pharmacopoeia, appears to have entirely overlooked a very excellent recipe pub¬
lished some few years ago in this Journal by Mr. Barber, in which he recom¬
mends the substitution of yellow for white wax. I have prepared the ointment
in the manner directed bv him, and have found no perceptible change in colour
during many months.

The formula for citrine ointment I prefer is that of the P. L., 1851, which
if strictly adhered to produces a capital ointment, which will retain its yellow
colour for a long time. I used a piece a few days ago, which I prepared in the
early part of last year, in which there was not a trace of reduced mercury per¬
ceptible to the naked eye. I have made the quantity ordered in the London
Pharmacopoeia, but I generally operate on half that quantity, and as I do not
recollect ever having failed in preparing the ointment, my attention was specially
called to my method the last time I made it. I tried to call to mind what I did
on former occasions, but felt sure I never bestowed very great care upon it.

I took a 6oz. green flint oval bottle, weighed one ounce of mercury accurately
(not a very easy matter to a novice), put it into the bottle, which I took into the
open air, measured two ounces of nitric acid, poured it on the quicksilver. I
then put some water on a gas furnace to form a -water bath, and having weighed
the lard and measured the oil, put them into a 2 lb. white pot, and placed the pot
in the hot water; directly the lard (common bladder lard, without salt) was melted
I went out to get my solution, and found the mercury had disappeared and the
liquid still warm. I removed the pot from the water bath, poured in the solution of
mercury, and stirred them together with a piece of firewood (deal) for a minute or

TJNGUENTUM HYDRA It GY It I NITRATIS.

G4P

so. (I did not stir it as if I was making an egg cordial, but more in the manner
one is apt to see in the drawing-room after dinner while enjoying those aromatic
tipples we so much admire.) I left it and returned in a few minutes, gave it an¬
other gentle stir ; the well-known effervescence took place, through which I could
soon detect the golden tinge. I left it, again returning at short intervals, gave
it one or two very slight stirs ; when the effervescence had subsided, the ointment
was poured into an 8 lb. dispensing- pot and two smaller ones ; that is now about
a month ago, and it looks beautiful, — it is rather hard, but not much harder, if
any, than Unguentum Simplex or Unguentum Zinci, P.B., the consistence of
which the compilers of the Pharmacopoeia had entirely under their control ; nor
have I ever noticed any change in colour or consistence during use unless
some of my juvenile coadjutors have distinguished themselves by digging a piece
out with a steel knife or soiled wooden one ; and I do not consider it is any more,
if so difficult, to preserve as crystals of nitrate of silver.

One drachm or so of a clear acid liquor I have noticed occasionally on the
bottom of the last pot cast, and I have had some fears lest my ointment should
be acid or irritating ; no complaint however has ever been made, and since the
appearance of the British Pharmacopoeia, and the use of my sense of taste, I have
been contented on that point, as a comparison of the two formulae will show.

Mercury
Nitric Acid
Lard . .

Olive Oil ,

London. British.

2 oz. troy ... 4 oz. avoirdupois

4 oz. fluid sp.g. 1-42 8oz. fluid sp.g. 1*5

12 oz . 15 oz.

8 oz. fluid ... 32 oz.

The British is very much like the form in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia.

I have never operated on large quantities of this ointment, but have been told
it is much better made on a small scale ; if so, there can be no feasible argument
against it ; it is so easily prepared, requires so little attention that it may safely
rank with decoction of senega or a belladonna plaster, with adhesive margin, as
one of the slight interruptions one has to submit to in the routine of dispensing
business.

With regard to the milder ointment often asked for by the public and pre¬
scribed by medical men, the form I like best and always use is one drachm of
nitrate of mercury ointment and seven drachms of lard, melted together in a small
porcelain dish and cast into a covered pot ; a pot has just been given to me by
a patient to be refilled, and I find the ointment remaining in it, although diluted
two months ago, is in a very fair state of preservation ; when a stronger and
softer ointment is required, almond oil is a very good substitute for the lard, but
my experience with the latter substance is very limited. I prepared a little this
morning in the proportions of one part ointment to three parts of almond oil ;
it is liquid at the present temperature, and although it has been mixed eight
hours is still of a nice yellow colour.

The proportions of mercury and nitric acid ordered in the London Pharma¬
copoeia are, I believe, the same as were originally used in the preparation of this
ointment, when its reputation as a remedial agent was established ; and we can¬
not be too careful, in endeavouring to improve the formulae for established
remedies, that we do not destroy or lessen their value as a medicine.

I am, Gentlemen, your obedient servant,

George Mee.

8, Torrington Place , Gordon Square , W. C.

650

ON MAGENTA

ON MAGENTA AND ITS DERIVATIVE COLOURS.

BY FREDERICK FIELD, F.R.S.

Three years ago, in this theatre, Dr. Hofmann delivered his celebrated lecture on
mauve and magenta ; and it might seem temerity in me to trespass upon the premises of
so great and distinguished a master, were it not remembered that during that interval
rapid strides had been made in organic chemistry, and especially, perhaps, in the direc¬
tion of the aniline colours.

Although I will endeavour to confine myself as much as possible to the immediate
subject of the lecture, it will be necessary to glance for a few moments at the history
of aniline, the progenitor of nearly all the beautiful compounds you see around the
table.

Aniline was discovered in the year 182G, by Unverdorben, who obtained it from the
destructive distillation of indigo. A short time afterwards, Runge and Fritsche observed
that by the action of strong hydrate of potash upon the dye, aniline was eliminated in
far greater quantity. Indigo in small fragments is heated in a retort with a strong solu¬
tion of caustic potash, and in the distillate, which consists of many products, there is
found a thin and nearly colourless fluid, having a specific gravity of T028, a peculiar
but not disagreeable odour, and a pungent, biting taste. When kept for some time, even
in the dark and in stoppered bottles, it assumes a darker tint, and becomes ultimately a
very dark brown. Unverdorben called it crystalline,” Runge Ci kyonal,” and Fritsche
“ aniline.”

This substance is a nitrogenized base, and is capable, when combined with acids, of
forming most beautiful crystallized salts, nearly all of which have been carefully exa¬
mined by Dr. Hofmann and other chemists.

There are many other sources besides indigo, from which aniline may be obtained.
For commercial purposes it is always prepared from nitro-benzol, a substance derived
from the action of nitric acid upon benzol, —

C6H6 + NHN03 = CcH.NO -f- II20.

Nitrobenzol, when agitated with water, acetic acid, and iron, yields aniline, —

CfiH,NO, + GII — CgH7N + 2H20.

Benzol, originally discovered by Mr. Faraday in 1825, in his investigations upon the
gaseous products from oils, was subsequently obtained by the decomposition of benzoic
acid by means of caustic lime. Mr. Mansfield, however, succeeded in producing it in
much larger quantities from coal-tar naphtha. When the lighter portions of this com¬
pound are distilled fractionally, until a constant boiling-point of 180° F. is arrived at,
the product consists of pure benzol, identical with the carbo- hydrogen obtained by Mr.
Faraday.

From the earliest discovery of aniline, it was noticed that certain oxidizing agents,
when mixed with a solution of its salts, produced a fine violet tint. Even in minute
quantities, a few drops of hypochlorate of lime render it purple. There is another
test for aniline, which I will show you, and which, as far as I am aware, has not been
observed previously. If the red gases obtained by the decomposition of nitric acid by
starch or sugar be passed into an aqueous solution of aniline, the liquid speedily
assumes a yellow colour, owing to the formation of a new base — azophenylamine — which
is gradually precipitated as a bright yellow powder. It was not, however, until the
year 185G that aniline was applied to any great practical purpose, although from the
beauty of its compounds and from its comparative accessibility, it had, from the time of
its discovery, become a great favourite with chemists.

Mr. Perkin was the first who produced colour on an extensive scale from this base. He
added a solution of bichromate of potash to a salt of aniline, and from the precipitate
thereby produced, he isolated a magnificent purple dye he termed “ mauve,” which at
once became popular, and, indeed, at the time, almost universal. It may truly be said
that this discovery has identified Mr. Perkin with the aniline colours, and that he will be
always associated with one of the most striking and brilliant passages in the history of
chemistry as applied to the industrial arts.

It cannot be supposed that such a discovery would be allowed to rest. A mine had
been opened which chemists began to explore, and in such numbers and with such
avidity and zeal as almost to lead us to anticipate that its riches will soon be exhausted.

AND ITS DERIVATIVE COLOURS.

G51

The action of numerous bodies upon aniline and its homologues was found to be pro¬
ductive of colour. Nitrate of silver, nitrate of mercury, chloride of mercury, chloride of
tin, arsenic acid, iodine, and many others, when heated with the base, gave a rich crim¬
son colour in more or less abundance ; and although it would be impossible for me to
enter into a disquisition on the comparative merits of these various methods for the
production of colour, I trust to be able to produce magenta, although in a somewhat
crude form, at this lecture table, and also to dye this tassel of silk from a solution of its
salt. The reagent I will employ is iodine. A few crystals of this element are placed
in a tube with about twice their weight of aniline. Heat is at once developed, and with
the assistance of a higher temperature from the spirit-lamp, you will observe that in a
few moments intense colour is developed. If a few drops are now poured into spirit,
and this solution added to wrater, a fine rose-coloured tint will appear.

3 It may seem strange to those who have read Dr. Hofmann’s beautiful researches upon
the aniline substitution products, his chloraniline, hromaniline, iodaniline, and a multi¬
tude of others, that he had not observed this curious reaction ; and this leads me to tell
you en passant, for time will not allow me to dwell upon this interesting topic to-night,
that aniline, when perfect^ pure, does not yield any amount of colour with most of the
reagents mentioned above, — a most important fact discovered by Mr. Nicholson and Dr.
Hofmann, and which has given rise to one of the most difficult questions which yet
remain to be answered. I will simply say that it appears there must be a homologue
of aniline present with that base to produce the colour you see before you, although that
homologue /;<?r se will give no colour whatever.

The tinctorial power of the salts of magenta is something marvellous. No dye that I
have examined, whether from the animal, vegetable, or mineral world, can bear com¬
parison for one moment with this crimson colour obtained from aniline. One grain in a
million times its weight of water gives a pure red ; in ten millions, a rose pink ; in
twenty millions, a decided blush ; and even in fifty millions, with a white screen behind
the vessel in which it is dissolved, an evident glow. Perhaps the most startling and
graphic incident of this wonderful power is found in an account, which I presume to be
authentic, of one of the passages of the 1 Great Eastern’ from Liverpool to New York,
some few years ago, when a hurricane swept over the Atlantic, rendering the mighty
vessel powerless amid the mightier sea. After one terrific night, it was observed that
far around the vessel the waves seemed tinged as though with blood, faint and diluted
in the distance, but deep, and crimson, and terrible in the immediate vicinity, while
after every roll of the giant ship gushed forth anew a deep ensanguined flood. YYhen
the storm had somewhat abated, and search was made for the origin of this startling
phenomenon, it was discovered that some tremendous billow had staved in part of the
hold, and at the same time shattered some vessels containing magenta in a most con¬
centrated form, which, sweeping over hatches and through port-holes, did more truly
than Banquo’s blood on Macbeth’s hand, “ the multitudinous sea incarnardine.”

Although the salts of magenta are possessed of such wonderful colouring power, the
base itself is colourless ; and it is remarkable that the union of base and acid for the
formation of a salt does not appear to take place, in dilute solutions, in the cold. We
have here two vessels, one of hot, the other of cold water; an equal quantity of magenta
base is added to each, and also an equal amount of dilute sulphuric acid. You will
observe that in the hot solution colour is instantaneously developed, while in the cold there
is no change ; but if hot water be added to the latter, so as to raise the temperature, the
colour at once becomes apparent. You may judge, therefore, that, having free acid in a
solution of base without production of colour, it is possible to have free alkali in a coloured
solution of a salt of the base without destroying its tint. Such is the case : to these two
solutions of acetate of magenta, one hot and the other cold, are added equal quantities of
caustic soda ; the hot liquid is rendered colourless, the cold retains its original hue.

Ethyl-rosaniline, a substitution product of rosauiline, discovered by Dr. Hofmann, and
which gives a most beautiful shade of violet when in solution, is capable of affording
most remarkable manifestations. This dark, violet liquid, on the addition of sulphuric
acid, becomes colourless; on adding ammonia the purple is restored. If hydrochloric acid
is employed in small quantities, the liquid changes to blue; if in larger quantities, to a
brilliant green ; but if this green liquid be thrown into water, you will observe that the
original violet x-eturns.

When aniline is heated with salts of rosaniline, purple and blue compounds are prc-

G52

CORK AND ITS USES.

duced. The blue is perfectly insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, and its solution
thrown in water imparts a brilliant tint, although probably the dye is only in a most
minute state of division. If a tassel of wool or of silk be plunged into this liquid, you
will observe that the colour disappears from the bath, and the fabric becomes dyed ; it has
acted like a sponge, or perhaps, more properly speaking, like a filter, arresting in its
passage through the water, the finely disseminated particles. Mr. Nicholson patented a
method for obtaining a beautiful blue dye soluble in water, which consisted in heating
the phenyl blue with strong sulphuric acid. This compound, however, though most
advantageous for silks, refuses to impart its colour to wool, and we have before us the
curious phenomena of wool and silk in the same vessel, the one of a bright azure tint,
the other perfectly untouched. The effect is still more striking upon cotton. We have
here the letters “ R. I.,” in honour of the Royal Institution, worked in silk upon a cotton
ground ; after dipping it for a few moments in this bath, you will see that the letters
are blue and the cotton is unchanged.

There is another colour I must mention, aniline green, produced by the action of alde¬
hyde upon acid solutions of rosaniline. This is one of the most charming colours yet
discovered ; the green is perfect, and you have only to compare the artificial greens
made by the mixtures of blues and yellows with this extraordinary dye, to sec the
wonderful difference they present.

I have prepared a little conceit here, which may be called puerile by some, yet which
I cannot help feeling is full of instruction. You are aware that the base magenta or
rosaniline is colourless. Such is the case with the majority of the aniline colours. We
were taught in the catechisms of childhood that there are seven primitive colors — violet,
indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red.

Aniline consists of seven letters, and up to the present time we have from this won¬
derful base obtained seven colours. On this white board the letters of aniline are written
in the colourless bases, and if our experiment succeed, you will find that upon sprinkling
the board with acetic acid and spirit, the A will be violet, the N indigo, the I blue, the
L green, the I yellow, the N orange, and the E red, making aniline speak to us in the
language of its gorgeous offspring.

I am indebted to my kind friends Messrs. Simpson, Maule, and Nicholson, for the
beautiful specimens of dye, many of a most costly and magnificent description, which
you see before you ; and to Messrs. Hands, Son, and Co., of Coventry, for the splendid
array of silks so kindly furnished me to illustrate my lecture. — Chemical Times.

CORK AND ITS USES.

EY JOHN 11. JACKSON.

Amongst the many materials or productions in use in everyday life, cork may certainly
take a position in the foremost rank. We all know something of cork ; from our earliest
childhood we have been familiar with it. It is a substance that has retained all its
ancient uses, as wrell as its importance and value, from its earliest history down to our
own day. Unlike most other things, it has not, even in this age of application and in¬
vention, found a rival. True it is we have “corky” substances in abundance, produced
in almost every country ; but neither the productions of nature nor the productions of
mechanical skill have produced an efficient substitute for cork, one that could take the
place of this valuable bark, or even go side by side with it.

Considering the great quantity of cork that is consumed even in this country alone,
as well as the great amount that is wasted, the quantity of bark annually stripped in
the cork-forests is an operation of no little importance. The slight value many indi¬
viduals place upon cork, on the whole, does not lead us in the least degree to estimate
its real importance, which, in a commercial point of view, is of no trifling nature.

There must needs be a large quantity imported ; for amongst wine merchants, bottled-
beer merchants, or soda-vTater makers, a cork is never used a second time : but then
what an immense bulk would go to make up a ton of cork, and yet it is by weight that
the imports are estimated. There is an immense consumption, and the demand of late
years has almost exceeded the supply. The annual quantity imported into this country
averages about 5000 tons.

CORK AND ITS USES.

C53

Of the early history of cork, it is very clear that it was well known and in use amongst
the Greeks and Romans. Theophrastus distinctly alludes to the fact, now so well known,
that the continual barking of the trees tends to improve the quality of the cork. With
the Greeks it was called “Rhenos,” while the Romans knew it by its present specific
name of “ Suber.” Though cork was probably used in very remote times for similar
purposes to those of the present day — that of stoppers for bottles, amongst the rest — this,
however, does not seem to have been its common or general use, inasmuch as we find
that vessels of that period were frequently closed by earth, clay, and other similar sub¬
stances. Stoppers of cork, or “corks,” as we now call them, appear not to have been
generally introduced till some time in the latter part of the sixteenth century ; from
that period, however, its use has been getting more and more universal in all parts of
the world.

Before the introduction of cork, or its general adoption for bottle-stoppers, various
articles were resorted to for this purpose. We are told that apothecaries secured the
contents of their phials with stoppers made of wax, which must have been a somewhat
tedious process. But even in our own day, a similar custom prevails in many parts of
Europe; for with many of the Italians, and Neapolitans for instance, the practice of
■securing their wines, by pouring oil into the mouth of the bottle before tying it down
with skin, is still very prevalent.

Before entering into the uses of cork, however, let us pay a short visit to the forests
from whence it is obtained, and trace its progress from its natural position to that of its
ultimate application.

Cork, as we all know, is the bark of a tree, though commercially miscalled “ cork¬
wood.” It is produced by two species of oak, Quercus Suber, L., and Quercus occiden¬
tals, hence called the “ cork-oaks.” These trees grow abundantly in large forests in
Spain, Italy, the South of France, and Northern Africa, the latter species being found
alone on the Atlantic side. This species is also peculiar, from the fact that it ripens its
acorns in the second year.

In general appearance, the cork-oaks differ little from the common oak, except, per¬
haps, that they do not attain to so large a size. There is also a slight difference in the
form of their leaves — those of Quercus suber, L., being more lanceolate, and the margins
not so deeply sinuate ; the acorns are also somewhat longer and more tapering in form
than those of the common oak.

The cork-oak does not require a rich soil ; but, on the contrary, it seems to thrive best
in poor and uncultivated ground. To collect the cork, incisions are made longitudinally
and transversely in the bark of the living tree, the instrument used being a kind of axe,
the handle of which terminates in a wedge-shaped form. After the bark is cut through,
it is beaten to loosen it from the liber or inner bark, the wedge-shaped axe-handle being
inserted to lift the bark from the trunk. The cork thus removed usually varies from
three-quarters of an inch to three inches in thickness. The next operation is to divide
it into pieces of a uniform or convenient size, and to flatten it, each piece having, of
course, a similar curve, corresponding with the trunk of the tree from whence it was
taken. For this purpose, the pieces are placed in pits and covered with water, and then
pressed flat with heavy stones. The well-known charred surface upon these cork slabs
is caused by the application cf heat at an open fire, after the steeping, for the purpose
of contracting the pores. The pieces are afterwards bound up in bales, in which form
they appear in the market. In removing the cork from its paternal trunk, care has to
be taken not to injure the inner bark next the wood, else it would affect the second
crop. of bark, and perhaps injure the tree. This operation of stripping the bark, if dex¬
terously and carefully performed, has, as we have already said, no detrimental effect,
either upon the growth of the tree or the rapid formation of the new bark ; but, on the
contrary, the tree is said to grow more hardy and vigorously. The first crop of bark is
usually taken when the tree is about twenty-five or thirty years old, but the crop is of
less value than that of any succeeding gathering, as it is harder, very uneven, and more
full of holes. The second gathering, however, which is in about eight or ten years after
the first, is still of an inferior quality. The third crop, collected in about eight years
after the second, is usually the first marketable cork— that is, the first crop that is fit for
cutting into bottle-corks/ When the trees have attained to this age, so that three crops
have been taken off, they usually yield a supply of good cork about every seven or eight
years ; and its quality improves, 'as well as the quantity enlarging, at each successive
VOL. vi. ' 2 Y

654

CORK AND ITS USES.

gathering. The season chosen for the cork harvest is usually the month of July or
August.

It will he seen by the foregoing that the quality, and consequently the commercial
value of cork is materially affected by soil, length of time allowed in growing, and
also of care in collecting. There is as much difference existing in the quality of cork
as in most other articles of daily use. The finest kind should be compact and firm, but
at the same time not hard, of an even texture or grain, and of a slightly pinkish tint.
This kind of cork is generally selected by wine merchants for bottle-corks ; while the
coarser kind, which is always more porous, full of small holes, and perhaps punctured by
insects, serves for bungs for casks and for the various other applications to which cork is
put in a cheap form. When cork is required to be thick, it is usually found coarse, as
it must be allowed a longer period of growth to promote its thickness. The charring or
singeing process to which this kind of bark is frequently subjected, for the purpose of
filling up the pores and making it impervious to fluids, has also a detrimental effect, as
it secretes an empyreumatic oil, which is given off and frequently taken up by the
liquids it confines ; but there is no doubt that care is taken in the selection of these
corks, and methods adopted for the prevention of this chemical contamination, as much
as possible. This operation of charring, to which all cork was formerly subjected for
the purposes we have just mentioned, has been partially succeeded of late by that of
boiling the cork and afterwards scraping the surface. This is said to improve rather
than to deteriorate the cork, in being more effectual in filling up the pores.

The uses of cork are so numerous, and its applications so continually increasing, that
the supply of late, as we have said before, has not been sufficient to meet the demand.
It is not om- intention to enumerate all the uses to which this most useful article is put
— indeed, it would be unnecessary to do so, so well known as they are to all ; but there
are a few modern uses or applications to which cork has been found suited in recent in¬
ventions, and which are perhaps among the “ things not generally known but these
uses chiefly consume waste or refuse cork, such cuttings as were formerly considered of
no value.

The new elastic floor-cloth, now so well known as “ Kamptulicon,” is a combination
of caoutchouc and cork ; and this is but one instance showing that cork, treated with
other substances, can be made into a really useful article. Cork-dust has been used
successfully with india-rubber in the process of vulcanizing, and to so fine a powder is it
reduced for this purpose, that india-rubber so treated is capable of being moulded into
the most delicate forms. Another recent application of cork is for stuffing beds, and we
believe this is now done to a large extent.

A large Cork Company, lately established in London, and owning large forests in
Portugal, have recently imported the virgin cork into this country, with the impression
of its becoming useful for rustic garden-work. It is brought in very large pieces, and,
from its rugged, uneven surface, which is frequently covered with lichens, together with
its portability and its porous nature, which makes it capable of retaining moisture, will
no doubt cause it to be used for such purposes.

Though the bark of the cork-tree contains a considerable amount of tannin, it is not
in general favour among tanners, on account of its not imparting the required “ bloom
and for this reason it is seldom used alone, but is mixed with English oak bark. The
inner bark is that which is used for tanning purposes, the outer bark being quite devoid
of any of the required properties. The removal of the inner bark causes the death of
the tree ; and it is chiefly from Sardinia and some parts of Spain, where the trees are
very abundant, that it is imported for this purpose. The quantity of tannin, as well as
the colour of the bark, varies much, according to the district from whence it is obtained.
The Sardinian bark is thicker and of a deeper red colour than any other.

To return to cork itself and its more common applications, we find that there are two
sorts or qualities known in commerce, called respectively white and black cork. The
■white, which is chiefly produced in the south of France, is the best, as it is smoother, of
a more even and finer grain, and freer from holes and knots.

The operation of cork-cutting is one requiring great dexterity and neatness, and is
carried on to a great extent both in France and England, though, as might be supposed,
the French surpass the English in this art. Machinery has been tried for the purpose of
cork-cutting, but all is now cut by hand. Considering the difficulty, with which we are
all acquainted, of cutting a clean surface to cork, it is surprising to see the rapidity with

THE PHARMACEUTIST AS A MERCHANT.

655

which the workman turns out a perfect cork stopper from the little square pieces fur¬
nished to him. The knife used for this purpose has necessarily to he very sharp, as well
as being very thin ; the blade is broad, and when the edge has become dull, it is quickly
sharpened on a very fine-grained stone. The bench or tube at which the workman sits
has a ledge round it to prevent the corks falling off. On the Continent, 'a notch is made
in the edge of the bench to place the back of the knife in, to prevent it from slipping.
Thus the edge is uppermost, and the knife has to be guided slightly while the cork is
pressed against the edge, and so dexterously turned and rounded to the required form.
All the corks thus cut are thrown into a basket to be sorted, which is usually done by
women and boys.

The great importance of cork as a commercial article has been the cause of experi¬
ments being tried for its introduction into the Southern States of North America. It
is, however, some years since the American Government tried this plan of naturalization,
for which purpose large quantities of the acorns were imported from the South of Europe.
More recently, we learn, from Sir J. W. Hooker’s last Report on the Royal Gardens,
Kew, that steps are now being taken by the Colonial Government of South Australia
to introduce the cork-tree, and a number of young plants have been raised at Kew ex¬
pressly for transmission to that colony.

We sincerely hope that these efforts to establish a tree furnishing so useful a product
as cork, in a colony where it would become a valuable addition to its commerce, — as well
as adding to the supply, which, at the present increasing rate of consumption, is much
to be desired, — may be crowned with success. — The Technologist .

THE PHARMACEUTIST AS A MERCHANT.

BY FEEDEEICK STEARNS.

That which constitutes “ commercial education ” in relation to the pursuit of all usual
forms of business, is capable of being applied to the Pharmaceutist, there being, how¬
ever, special points relating to each, and those, whatever they may be, it is presumed
are the ones to be touched upon in any essay upoii commercial education in relation to
the successful pursuit of the pharmaceutic art.

Taking it for granted that the novice has acquired during his minority a fair share
of the “ King’s English,” has even graduated at a school of pharmacy during his appren¬
ticeship, then the following remarks may be usefully applied : —

Commercial education, or the knowledge of those methods of conducting business by
means of which pecuniary success and an honourable position in community are obtained,
is, of course, the fruit of experience only in the vast majority of instances.

The social position of the Pharmaceutist, in our country at least, is fully equal to that
of those following successfully other channels of trade. Its pursuit implies a cultivated
mind and scientific tastes, and as we acknowledge no aristocracy but that of mind, the
necessary qualification of professional skill in our art ennobles it.

It is of primary importance that the beginner should enter upon the pursuit of
pharmacy enthusiastic, earnest, and with unbounded ambition to succeed and excel ; to
be in love with it, and with a firm determination to let no trivial disappointments turn
him from his course.

I believe it true that the discouragements are greater to the beginner in pharmacy as
a business, than in many other pursuits, because the demand for the products of our
skill is limited in comparison with that for most great staples of trade which busy the
business talents of the mass of our fellow-men ; moreover, a community take to a new
Pharmaceutist shyly and slowly, confiding in him only as they come to know him.

Choose, then, pharmacy as a business in the profound conviction that you were born
for it, and not take it up on trial to be thrown aside for some other. Are you hopeful ?
So much the happier will you be, for anticipation of success is about equal to its reality.

Don’t try and stand alone until you have reaped the benefit of an apprenticeship
with some experienced and successful preceptor, during which you have enriched your
mind by reading, study, and schooling in pharmacy, and acquired those business ways
and habits which have led him, whose example you study, to success. This preliminary
education is of such vital importance that the want of it can never be compensated by

2 y 2

656

THE PHARMACEUTIST AS A MERCHANT.

the slowly accumulated experience of an active life of years. I know of many young
men who, after a stay of one or two years in a subordinate position in a drug store, have
started in business full fledged, in their own belief, as capable and experienced Pharma¬
ceutists ; such gravitate naturally to the position in which they properly belong among
merchants, remain incapable and become obscure.

We all know this hasty tendency is peculiar to American youth ; ambitious to reach
the goal of future hopes, it leaves the formation of correct business habits to the chance
of coming years ; this it is that crowds our cities and towns with so many ignorant
druggists — men who pick up the business of pharmacy as they would that of selling
Yankee notions, live and succeed in a small way, or fail ingloriously ; in either event,
blissfully ignorant of the capabilities of the art in whose borders they have to tread.

After a varied experience of twenty years in pharmacy, I am possessed of the strongest
conviction that a rigid adherence to principles of integrity, to honour, and to truth, in
conducting our business, is most surely conducive to its success ; therefore, business
policy should dictate such conduct, aside from moral conviction.

We all know a thousand triclcs in trade, the prevarication, the exaggeration, and other
nameless ways of making things appear as they are not, and which so often overshoot
the mark, till it is a common thing for the community to allow an ample margin on
almost everything that comes from a drug store, between semblance and reality, utter¬
ance and truth. This is not as it should be ; for truthfulness, in all our ways, is the
best business policy, as it is most satisfactory to the conscience.

Mow, supposing our beginner to be possessed with a fair education, moral, ethical, and
scientific, but no experience as a business man, what points are there to be observed in
trade that will be most likely to lead to pecuniary success ?

There are many, of small importance singly, but in the aggregate help to swell the
tide that leads on to fortune.

The Pharmaceutist as a merchant must be industrious; the details of the business are
•so numerous as to tax, almost to its utmost, his endurance and patience.

When the aggregate yearly business is any considerable sum from the retail sales of
medicines and accessories, the details to accomplish that require a vast number of steps
and much labour of hand and brain ; so it becomes a fixed fact that there is no moment,
in a well-organized business, that there is not something to do ; there are no leisure hours.

This industry must be personal , too, in a proprietor, to be seconded by his assistants ;
this industry also implies a personal eye to all the details of a business, consequently
there can be little leisure for outside occupations ; better do one business well than trust
to the chances of success in two or three at once, none properly conducted.

What is termed business tact , as it may be applied to our art, consists in knowing, as
it were intuitively, how to win friends and draw customers around you.

It is shown in a proper selection of a business stand. Had I the choice between a
good stand with little means to expend in fixtures, and an indifferent one with rich fix¬
tures, I should choose the former, trusting to the future to make up the last want.

It is shown in the fittings of a store ; rich without extravagance, or plain writh neat¬
ness, either may be elegant. Convenience and appliances which favour the rapid dis¬
patch of business, should not be overlooked as a saving of help and labour, and conse¬
quently a means of profit.

Tact is particularly shown in a courteous bearing towards customers, implying an ap¬
preciative sense of their patronage, with a self-possession and manly self-respect that is
above fawning or flattering. Here it is that an intelligent understanding, or knowledge
of the goods in which we deal — their history, their merits, their qualities, their pecu¬
liarities — is of such great assistance in our business in making sales. If you possess the
ability (and you should possess the will) to explain to the customer, with curiosity ex¬
cited, that which he seeks to know, or to impart that which you have led him to desire
to know, and you do it in a self-confident yet truthful way, it is always a great point
gained ; that customer will always respect your intelligence ; his opinions in all that
relate to the art will be moulded by your own, and he will be sure to be your regular
patron.

I believe in stating the merits of an article decidedly and truthfully ; good goods tell
no after-tales of deceit ; poor ones, well puffed, most surely will.

Business tact is shown in treating your clerks as if they were friends, and so making
hem such. Kind words and even temper are consistent with a sufficiently rigid disci-

THE PHARMACEUTIST AS A MERCHANT.

657

pline ; remember, that the example by word and deed of a proprietor will produce lasting
effects on the impressible characters of your young apprentices, bearing fruit in future
habits and business ways.

Business tact is shown again in keeping pace with the age in which you live — to be
ready with all the innovations, novelties, and sensations in the medical world — experi¬
mentally, of course, at first ; and, while you do not endorse such necessarily by your own
approval, you should be ready to supply them.

It is shown in the careful selection of the stock of goods, particularly where means
are limited, watching the demand so as to apportion it correctly, so that no overplus of
some items may lessen your ability to keep a full assortment of goods.

It is shown in guiding the market yourself, not letting it guide you ; strive to lead
the tastes of your customers towards those kinds or qualities of goods which you know
to be best for them, better than they themselves do. I hold this to be a duty which
none of us should be indifferent to.

Business tact is shown in so individualizing your business that everywhere possible
the articles sold by you should represent you , not some one else ; make everything your¬
self that it is at all practicable for you to make, and if your skill is such that whatever
you make represents the best of like articles, then each item of such sold is a standing
advertisement for you to win additional trade. I am a firm advocate of the practice of
each pharmacy being a producing one ; it is no credit to a man, who has been well edu¬
cated in this art, to be contented to live long and sell only the products of others’ indus¬
try, when he might better make his own, increasing his business and reaping the ad¬
ditional portion of profit thereby.

Business tact so displays goods as to make the most of them, so in a measure to help
them sell themselves ; therein neatness and taste go hand in hand with industry.

While business tact will lead the merchant, desiring success, to deal in all the articles
of his line that the public calls for, there are in ours very many things that, which to
do, is more or less to compromise with the right and wink at the wrong, — the alcoholic
stimulants under the guise of medicated bitters ; the regulating remedies, so advertised
as to furnish a ready means for criminal purposes ; add to these almost the whole list of
the so-called patent medicines : all these the intelligent pharmaceutist knows are per¬
nicious in their effects upon the public health, and yet how feeble are his efforts to retard
their sale, how weak his protest against their use. If you do deal in such, be indepen¬
dent enough to make the sales of them depend upon the natural law of demand, and not
on your efforts ; do not, above all things, ever endorse them with breath of praise.

About advertising, that is also a legitimate means of making yourself known, but how
best to do it to reap the largest returns for the smallest proportionate outlay is an art in
itself, and one that each must learn by himself.

After all said about business tact, business success wrill be dependent upon keeping
and selling those qualities of goods, in every department of your trade, that are intrin¬
sically good, and he who takes, in that respect, the highest stand will reap the greatest
reward.

The greatest reward lies not only in money gains, but in reaching that honourable
position in community wherein you are looked upon as a public benefactor, — in seeking
honest profits and not being a Shylock. It gladdens me to remember professional friends
who are poor, perhaps, in pocket, but rich in possessing the respect and affection of their
neighbours, while my mind’s eye rests on an occasional one who is poor in everything
that can make a man poor.

The economical administration of business affairs will commend itself to all who mean
to win success ; and, while a commendable share of enterprise is to be advised, a proper
mixture of caution is quite as valuable.

Men of scientific tastes are not apt to be good financiers ; such tastes render them
careless of money ; they rarely understand economy in business, and in business they
trust their finances to others not vitally interested. The pharmaceutist should know at
all times how he stands in credit and purse; “ cutting your coat according to your cloth,”
and the host of similar commercial maxims, commend themselves forcibly to his atten¬
tion.

Great is the field for the inventive faculties to play in pursuit of pharmacy — devising
improvements in formulae, shortening methods, improving apparatus, introducing new,
unique and original designs in labels, bottles, and various similar things. Don’t be a

658

NEW PROCESS TOR MAKING FLUID EXTRACTS.

mere copyist of others, but add something, during a lifetime, to the sum total of taste
and improvement.

It is surprising how the little elegances, and nice nothings, aid the business of the
prosperous and enterprising pharmaceutist.

Professional men are not given to business-promptness ; don’t let the title of profes¬
sional. , which is attached to our art, lead to any such careless habit as a want of prompt¬
ness in fulfilling any and every promise to do or promise to pay.

So varying and peculiar are the auspices under which each young man enters busi¬
ness, that it is not likely that the foregoing covers all the ground designed for a reply to
the query I accepted ; these several points, however, may, if acted upon, be conducive
to a proper estimate in the minds of some of the right paths to follow in acquiring a
commercial education. — Proceedings of the American Pharmaceutical Association , 1865.

NOTE ON CARAMANIA GUM.

ET WILLIAM PROCTER, JUN.

Whilst engaged in the revision of the U. S. Dispensatory, Dr. Wood was presented by
Mr. Benjamin R. Smith, of Philadelphia, with a sample of gum from a large invoice
under the name of “ Caramania Gum.” No account of its origin could be given by Mr.
Smith ; but there can be little doubt that it is the same gum described by Mr. S. H.
Maltass (Pharm. Journ., vol. xv. p. 20), as one of the gums used habitually to adul¬
terate tragacantli. Mr. Maltass states that this gum is employed, to the extent of 50
per cent., to adulterate the commoner varieties of tragacanth ; and to render the cheat
less perceptible, is sometimes whitened by the addition of white-lead. Mr. Hanbury
(ibid. p. 21), in a note, states that the Caramania gum appears identical with the
“ Gomme pseudo-adragante” of M. Guibourt, regarded by that author as the product of
Astragalus gummifer , Labill. ; but it is referred by report, says Mr. Maltass, to the wild
almond, a plum of Caramania.

The “ Caramania gum” occurs in pieces, varying in size from a pea to a large chestnut,
with a greater tendency to the spherical than tragacanth, though sometimes with a
tendency to the contorted vermicular form, so common in tragacanth. Its colour varies
from light to reddish-brown, more or less translucent, nearly tasteless, and slowly
absorbing moisture when placed in water, swelling up to bulky, hydrated, jelly-like
masses ; whilst the intermediate spaces are filled with a mucilaginous solution of the
more soluble part of the gum, but the soluble portion is evidently less abundant than in
tragacanth. The mucilage is precipitated by subacetate of lead, but less decidedly than
is arabin ; oxalate of ammonia causes a white precipitate, not very abundant ; alcohol
does not instantaneously precipitate it in flakes like arabin, apparently because of a
greater resistance of the mucilage to be penetrated by that liquid. It is not coagulated
by borax, or sesquichloride of iron. The gelatinous insoluble part has but little cohe¬
sive power at first, but by standing, it softens and becomes more paste-like. When
boiled with dilute sulphuric acid, it loses its jelly form and assumes a syrupy condition,
being converted partially into soluble gum and partially into glucose, as indicated by
Trommer’s test. A solution of oxide of copper in potassa instantly precipitates both
this and the soluble gum as a bulky bluisli hydrate. Dr. Wood considers Caramania
gum to have the same origin as the gum of Bassora, and that probably both are pro¬
duced in the province of Caramania, in Asia Minor — the latter entering commerce by
the Persian Gulf, whilst the former comes to Smyrna, to be used as an adulterating
agent. — American Journal of Pharmacy.

NEW PROCESS FOR MAKING FLUID EXTRACTS.

This invention relates to an improved process for producing that class of extracts
which are made so that a certain amount of liquid shall represent, pound for pound, medi¬
cally, the same quantity of crude drug, and which are generally obtained by extracting
with a large excess of liquid and evaporating down to the desired strength. The men¬
strua used for making extracts are usually of an ethereal or volatile nature, such as alcohol

659

X

THE FATAL EXPLOSION IN MAKING OXYGEN GAS.

of various strengths, and their strength changes by evaporation, as they are exposed
for a longer or shorter period to the open atmosphere. If such menstruum is poured over
a certain drug, it dissolves and extracts more or less of the soluble parts of the same, ac¬
cording to its strength ; but if the same liquid has to be poured repeatedly over the
§ame drug it loses its strength alcoholically, and some of those portions first dissolved are
precipitated, and an imperfect extract is the result. The value of the extract being de¬
termined by its alcoholic strength when finished, the same or similar reasons render it
objectionable to subject the extract when first obtained to the evaporating process, for by
this process the volatile or spirituous part of the menstruum is first evaporated, and the
weaker liquid is not capable of keeping in solution many of those parts of the drug
which had originally been dissolved in the extract.

These objections are obviated by rny process, which is carried out in the following
manner : — I first weigh off a quantity of drug, and the same quantity or more by weight
of the menstruum or liquid by means of which the extract is to be made, a little more of
the menstruum being required as a little moisture is left in at the last pressing. The
drug being ground to a proper fineness, is then dampened with a small portion of the
liquid and subjected to heavy pressure (say from 800 to 1009 tons) ; already all the
liquid, or nearly so, together with such parts of the drug which have dissolved in the
same, is expressed. A fresh portion of the liquid is then sprinkled over the drug, a little
time being allowed for the liquid to dissolve the soluble parts of the drug, and the
same process of pressing repeated until the whole quantity of the liquid is used up, and
the drug is completely exhausted and the required measure obtained. By this process
an extract is obtained which represents, pound by pound, the crude drug. The drug is
perfectly extracted, and the menstruum preserves its original strength throughout, so
that the same is capable of retaining in solution all those parts which are dissolved
during the various stages of the process. Furthermore, by my process the tedious and
expensive process by evaporation is dispensed with, and concentrated fluid extracts of any
description can be produced cheaper and better than by any process heretofore applied
and as the application of heat is entirely avoided, the preparation does not receive the
injury by heat that all such preparations are liable to if heat is applied to them, no matter
how carefully done or moderate the degree of temperature, and furthermore, the changes
thereby of strength of solvent are avoided. (From United States Patent, taken out by
Mr. Spencer Thomas.) — Medical Press.

GULLIBILITY OF THE PUBLIC.

A Pliarmacien of Paris has lately introduced a speciality which under the name of
Oleo-morrhuine, and a label ambiguously worded, purports to supply the public with Cod
Liver Oil in the form of a colourless , saccharine powder , declared to be.more efficacious
than all the Cod Liver Oil of commerce, as already proved by long experience ! Not¬
withstanding its manifest absurdity, this powder (which is entirely devoid of the taste
and smell of Cod Liver Oil) finds eager purchasers, and is even prescribed by medical
men. It is sold in little boxes at the modest price of 3| and 6 francs each !

THE FATAL EXPLOSION IN MAKING OXYGEN GAS.

Evan Griffiths Hughes, chemist and druggist, Cateaton Street, Manchester, surren¬
dered bail, on an indictment of manslaughter. Mr. Holker and Mr. Pope were for the
prosecution; Mr. Serjeant Simon and Mr. Kay for the defence. According to Mr.
Holker’s opening, the charge against the prisoner was that he sold an adulterated
mixture of manganese and carbon, which produced a fatal explosion. The prosecution
aimed to bring home to Mr. Hughes, either that he himself adulterated the manganese,
or that he sold it knowing it to have been adulterated. Manganese, mixed with
chlorate of potash, was used by chemists and others in the manufacture of oxygen gas.
These substances had to be mixed in certain proportions, in a retort. If the manganese
was not pure, or was adulterated writh carbon, the whole mixture became a chemical
substance almost as explosive as gunpowder. On the 17th of December, Mr. Morgan,

/

660

THE FATAL EXPLOSION IN WAKING OXYGEN GAS.

an optician in Market Place, wishing to prepare a quantity of oxygen gas for some
exhibition in the evening, and having exhausted his own materials, sent his boy to Mr.
Hughes’s shop for 3 lb. of manganese, and 7 lb. of chlorate of potash, that being the
usual proportion. The lad went to Mr. Hughes’s shop, and was told to come again ; he
did so, and was then given two parcels, one containing the 3 lb. of manganese, the#
other 6 lb. of chlorate of potash, there being no more in stock. Mr. Morgan, in pre¬
paring to make the gas, used some of the manganese, and laid the rest aside. He put
this mixture into the retort, and put it upon the fire, and in a very short time there was
a loud and heavy explosion, which knocked him down. Thinking the fault was in the
retort, Mr. Morgan sent his boy with some of the manganese to Samuel Crowther’s (who
was in the habit of making oxygen gas for the theatres), to ask him to make him some
gas ; and on the way the boy, by his master’s directions, got an additional pound of
manganese at Mr. Mottershead’s. While Mr. Crowther was heating the retort in which
was the mixture Mr. Morgan had got from Mr. Hughes’s, an explosion took place, which
partly blew the house down, and caused Crowther’s death under circumstances with
which the public are no doubt familiar. The jury would now have to inquire whether
this man’s death was caused by the explosion of manganese purchased at Mr. Hughes’s ;
and whether Mr. Hughes adulterated it, or sold it knowing it was so. On the Monday
(the explosion occurring on a Saturday), a policeman went to Mr. Hughes’s shop, and
asked for a portion of the same material as had been supplied to Mr. Morgan. A parcel
was given to the policeman from the partly-filled drawer out of which Mr. Morgan had
been supplied on the Saturday. This was subsequently analysed by Professor Eoscoe,
of Owens College, and found to be quite pure. That procured from Mr. Mottershead
he also found pure. After the inquest, the scrapings of the drawer at Mr. Hughes’s
were analysed, and found to be nearly as adulterated and therefore explosive as that
found on Crowther’s premises after the accident, and which contained 30-| per cent, of
pure manganese, and about 26 per cent, of carbon ; but the portion kept by Mr. Morgan
from the same parcel contained 30 per cent, of manganese and about 19 per cent, of
carbon, the carbon being the cause of adulteration and explosion. A portion of the
manganese kept in Mr. Hughes’s reserve canister in another part of his shop, and from
which the drawer was filled when empty, consisted of 51 per cent, of manganese and
about 5 per cent, of carbon. The suggestion offered by the prosecution upon these facts
was that Mr. Hughes adulterated the manganese with carbon, and that, hearing of the
explosion, he replaced the contents of the drawer with pure manganese before the police
visited him. There was a little additional evidence to that given before the coroner from
whose court Mr. Hughes was committed, and the material points it contained were, first,
that the Kev. Mr. Lumsden, congregational minister at Cheadle, on the 2nd December,
purchased some manganese (proved by analysis to be slightly adulterated) at Mr.
Hughes’s, and that it slightly exploded when placed over the fire ; secondly, that adul¬
terated articles were found adhering to the bottom of Mr. Hughes’s drawer, as referred
to by the learned counsel in his statement ; and, thirdly, that the explosions at both
Mr. Morgan’s and the deceased's brought down quantities of soot, which covered the floor
and furniture, and might possibly have got into the bags containing the manganese, soot
being possibly the form of carbon in which consisted the adulteration. Some of these,
facts were brought out by Serjeant Simon in his cross-examination. The learned
serjeant, in fact, founded a brief speech in defence upon them, and ridiculed the idea that
a respectable tradesman like Mr. Hughes should, for the paltry gain of a few pence,
deceive his customers, cause .lives to be risked, and endanger his own reputation. The
jury said they would not trouble the learned judge to sum up the evidence, but his
lordship thought it would be more satisfactory to do so. He therefore pointed out the
main features of the case, but did not read through the whole of the evidence, that
being in his opinion quite unnecessary. The jury immediately acquitted the prisoner,
and the foreman’s “Not guilty” was followed by loud applause, which penetrated to
the other parts of the building, and communicated the news of Mr. Hughes’s acquittal to
his many friends who were “ waiting for the verdict.” The learned judge lectured the
spectators upon the impropriety of their demonstration, which he said he strongly con¬
demned, because, although the friends of the prisoner had a right to rejoice out of
court, there ought never to be any cheering in a court of justice before the judge and
jury. Mr. Hughes left the court escorted by a large number of his acquaintances.

661

PHARMACY IN AUSTRALIA.

Mr. Whitfield, of Scarborough, sends the following letter taken from the 1 Melbourne
Medical and Surgical Review/ as showing the condition of pharmacy in that colony : —

Sir, — The curious rodomontade by “ Chemist ” in your last issue, requires an answer,
and perhaps he will take it with a better grace from a “ brother chip ” than from one of
the faculty, for which he professes such deep “ disgust.”

The burden of his complaint is as follows : — “ The profession make a point of sending
their prescriptions to a particular chemist.” It certainly is the case to a limited extent ;
but if we consider the present state of pharmacy in the colony, the wonder is that the
custom is not more general. I will here give two or three cases in point.

Within the last fortnight, a gentleman who had a mixture repeatedly prepared by us,
had occasion to have it made elsewhere ; he brought it to the writer next morning, and
asked what was wrong with it, as it differed in taste and colour from what he had be¬
fore taken ; on examination, the principal ingredient (Tr. Cubebse) was found absent :
the name on the bottle was that of a “ respectable chemist.” The next case occurred
four or five weeks ago, and is as follows : — A chemist (“ a respectable one ”) inquired
the price of Liq. Bismuthi, and observed in a cool, off-hand manner that it had been
ordered in several prescriptions which he had dispensed, but he had omitted it, not
having the preparation in stock. I had been conversing with a medical gentleman a
short time before this occurrence, when he told me he had prescribed Liq. Bismuthi,
but without effect. This is precisely what might have been expected, if the prescription
had been prepared by the last-mentioned individual. Another case occurred, which is
perhaps more to the point than either of the preceding. This time, a “respectable che¬
mist ” substituted Pulv. Antim. Tart, for Pulv. Antimonialis. I am satisfied that it arose
from ignorance, and not carelessness, as he was not brought up to the trade.

After the above remarks, it will be obvious that the profession is fully justified if it
inquires of its patients where they obtain their medicine, and advising accordingly.

Your strictures on “ Chemist’s ” next paragraph render it unnecessary for me to notice
it. The rest of the letter is, however, very funny ; he threatens medical men, if they
continue to “disgust” him (which means if they do not send their prescriptions to his
shop) with the united vengeance of the trade. It is to be regretted that he did not
inform his intended victims how it would take effect. Next come some allusions to
American M.D.’s, with whom he ranks Drake, Brandreth, and others : I presume he will
do the same for Mr. L. L. S., who is the proprietor of certain pills of vegetable origin
and of wondrous efficacy. Lastly, I am at a loss to perceive the connection between
“ hyperbolic(«/) language and dog-Latin” with the “skilful operating surgeon or clever
ohstetric(ian).”

Having proved that pharmacy in this colony is not in a satisfactory condition, it is
my duty to propose a remedy, and I commend it to the earnest consideration of the
profession and trade. The remedy consists of an Act of Parliament to the following-
effect : —

1st. That all chemists in business do'register themselves before some fixed date.

2nd. After that date, all chemists not registered, and all chemists’ assistants that wish
to register, do pass an examination, which shall be (to commence with) plain and prac¬
tical.

3rd. 'The Board of Examiners to be appointed, say, by the Governor in Council, and
to consist of equal numbers of medical men and registered chemists.

4th. All registered chemists to pay an annual subscription, say, of 20s. The funds
thus raised to be devoted to the prosecution of any infringing the rights of registered
chemists, and to the general advancement of the interests of the trade.

The word chemist as used above only refers to dispensing chemists.

These suggestions I am aware are very crude and incomplete, yet I believe that if
some similar regulations were in force, medical men would not “disgust” “Chemist by
sending their “prescriptions to a particular shop,” for they would then have a guarantee
that all in the trade were at least tolerably proficient. I would also strongly advise
him to lend a hand thus to reform our own body, instead of so coarsely abusing the
profession, whose only fault is that of protecting the public from the effect of cheap
and therefore adulterated drugs, and from garrulous and therefore untrustworthy che¬
mists.

662

MAGNESIUM.

Mr. J. N. Hearder, of Plymouth, in experimenting with the new metal magnesium,
has discovered some explosive compounds of tremendous power and striking peculiarities.

Pie ignited a small portion (about twenty grains) of one of these compounds during a
lecture which he gave at the Plymouth Mechanics’ Institute on the 5th inst., the
instantaneous and dazzling effect of which upon the audience was like that of a flash of
lightning, causing the room to appear for some seconds afterwards to be enveloped in
darkness, though it was at the time brilliantly lighted with gas.

On causing two bars of magnesium to form the terminals of a powerful voltaic battery,
which was prepared to exhibit the electric light, a most intense combustion ensued.
One of the bars speedily became red-hot, entered into ebullition, and then burned
spontaneously so furiously that it became necessary to plunge it into water to prevent
its falling on the platform.

In this process portions of the burning metal detached themselves, and^floated blazing
on the surface of the water, decomposing it after the manner of potassium, and liberating
hydrogen, which also burned.

The experiment had never been tried before, and the result possesses much scientific
interest.

MYSTERIOUS CASE OF POISONING AT DAWLISH.

A recent number of the ‘Western Times’ informs us that the Dawlish people have
lately been much excited by a rather remarkable case of suicide committed at the York
Hotel. The main features of it, so far as popular interest is concerned, are as follows : —
Late in the evening a middle-aged female, well dressed and of lady-like appearance,
alighted at the station from one of the down trains, and proceeded to the above-men¬
tioned hotel. Here she represented to the landlady that she had just arrived from
America, and intended to stay at Hawlish a short time for the benefit of her health.
She retired to rest, and on the following day was found dead in her bed, apparently
having poisoned herself with “Battle’s Vermin-Killer,” packet labels of which were
found by her bedside. It transpired, however, that the deceased was the wife of a
stationer at Devonport; and on the inquest “several of the jury expressed surprise that
the lady’s husband had evinced so little concern in the disappearance of his wife from
home. It appeared probable that he would have been still in ignorance as to what had
become of her, had he not seen the report of the suicide in the newspapers.” There
was, for certain reasons, an adjournment of the inquest. It was finally agreed, however,
that it was an instance of suicide from the effects of arsenic ; that the deceased was
subject to alternations of great excitement and depression of spirits ; and that her
husband had shown her great kindness and forbearance. We have been interested in
this case, on account of certain physiological and forensic circumstances connected with
it, — a trustworthy account of which we have received from a correspondent, and with the
main points of which we shall now make our readers acquainted. The lady who com¬
mitted suicide had several parcels of “ rat poison ” in her reticule or about the room,
some of which had been opened, others kept as in reserve. Two papers of “ Simpson’s
Vermin-Killer ” had, it would seem, been disposed of, and one parcel of “ Battle’s ” had
apparently been used. Some blue stains were found in the mouth and at the angles of
the jaw, the pocket-handkerchief being also stained in like manner. The rigidity and
contortions of the dead body led Dr. Baker, of Dawlish (who was called in to see the
deceased when she had been dead two or three hours), to infer that strychnia had been
the cause of death. He sent the viscera to Dr. Herapath, of Bristol, who, from analysis,
proved that arsenic was present in abundance in the gastric mucus and in the coats of
the stomach, but that strychnia was not in either of these materials. Dr. Herapath
found, likewise, traces of arsenic in the liver. What is the explanation of this discre¬
pancy of analysis and condition of the body and mode of death ? As Dr. Herapath
observes, if strychnia were taken, it never got into the stomach at all ! It is probable,
however, as this gentleman explains it, that the first two packets did not kill her as
quickly as she intended, and she then took the third packet, but that the contents
never went further than the mouth. Some portion was ejected in consequence of the

MISCELLANEA.

663

bitter taste, and to get rid of what remained of the latter an almond had been taken.
Enough, however, of the powder (starch, Prussian blue, and strychnia, similar to what
was employed in the Yyse case) remained behind to kill by absorption through the
mucous membrane of the tongue, etc. The coroner, at the adjourned inquest, declined
Dr. Herapath’s evidence, as he had not given any order for a chemical analysis, and
now objected to the county being put to the expense. “ He said there was no doubt
the case was one of suicide, therefore an analysis was unnecessary. The magistrates
were very particular, and would not allow the expenses. Dr. Baker said the coroner
had left the case with him. A country practitioner was not supposed to make an
analysis, and he (Dr. Baker) was not prepared to state the cause of death unless the
evidence of Dr. Herapath was taken. Dr. Herapath said that the law was at fault, as a
medical gentleman was allowed only two guineas for making a post-mortem examination,
and no man of education could be expected to do it for that sum. The coroner replied
that he could not and would not let medical gentlemen act as Dr. Baker had done with¬
out the coroner’s instructions.” Dr. Herapath then made a voluntary statement, fore¬
going the usual fee. “ He stated that death had been caused by arsenic, a quantity of
which, found in the stomach, he then produced. The jury heartily thanked him for his kind¬
ness, and returned a verdict in accordance with his testimony, and that the deed was
done during temporary insanity.” It would be well if coroners and juries would
remember that scientific men cannot live upon thanks, however hearty, any more than
can the ordinary run of mortals.

The following letter on the above case has been received from Dr. Herapath : —

Sir, — I have only just succeeded in obtaining samples of Simpson’s rat-poison from
Messrs. Balkwell and Son, of Plymouth, who appear to be the only agents for the article
in the West of England, as I have failed in getting i-t in most of the chief towns, even
Exeter and Bristol, most of the druggists of whom I have inquired informing me that it
is very seldom found in the trade. I have also analysed it, and find that the packets con¬
tain a very varied, irregular quantity of material, from 7^ to 13g- grains ; four packets,
containing 41f grains, giving an average of a little more than 10 grains for each powder,
if all equally mixed and properly weighed and divided. The mixture consists of arse-
nious acid, potato-starch, coloured by smaltz, and flavoured or scented with some essential
oil, probably oil of rhodium. I found 10 grains to contain 4 grains of arsenious acid.
It is, therefore, certain that Mrs. Williams had arsenious acid in her possession, and that
she must have taken from 0 to 8 grains, as two empty packets were found by the police
in her bedroom. This is a quantity sufficient to kill, but requiring more time probably
than she liked, — thus accounting for the opening of the third packet.

I greatly regret that there was no opportunity given me of examining the saliva for
strychnia, as that would have determined the question whether that poison had also
been taken into the mouth. Mrs. Williams had been buried in the interval of the ad¬
journment of the inquest, and I never saw the handkerchief.

It is probable, therefore, that Mrs. Williams purchased all these rat and vermin
poisons at Plymouth, on her way up to Dawlish from Devonport ; and the tracing of the
arsenic into her own possession is satisfactory to all parties, as the matter is now fully
explained, and all other theories must for ever be set at rest.

I am, Sir, yours most obediently,

W. Bird Herapath.

MISCELLANEA.

Deaths by Poison. — Dr. Lankester, in his report, observes that the methods of self-
destruction employed in the last two years have differed very considerably. Thus, in
the year 1862-63, there were nineteen cases of poisoning, while in 1863-64 there were but
nine. There was but one instance of poisoning by opium in the latter year, against four
in the previous year, and two cases of poisoning by oxalic acid in the second year
against five in the first year. The only poison employed in the second year, which was
not used in the first, is corrosive sublimate ; while strychnine, sulphuric acid, prussic
acid, and potash, which were answerable for six deaths in the first year, do not appear
in the list of the second.

H1SCELLANEA.

664

Poisoning by the Endermic use of Atropine. — The following case is re¬
lated by Dr. H. Ploss, of Leipsic : — A man, aged 33, who had an affection of the larynx,
which was supposed to be a case of simple laryngitis by the physician who had been
consulted, and a blister was ordered to be applied round the neck, to be dressed on the
following day with an ointment composed of 15 parts of sulphate of atropine to 706
parts of lard. Some minutes after the application of the ointment, the patient suddenly
sprang from his seat, in ajstate of indescribable anguish ; he ran about the room, crying
out that he was suffocated, that everything appeared black before his eyes, and that he
felt as if he were being strangled. He violently tore off the dressing ; and threw him¬
self on his couch, his eyes fixed and his face fiery red. Dysphagia and dyspnoea in¬
creased more and more; convulsions of the limbs set in, resembling those of chorea;
the breathing became very frequent ; the pulse rose to 140 or 150 ; the patient could
not utter a word. An attempt was made to bleed him ; but this could not be done on
account of the constant convulsive movements. It was equally impossible to introduce
anything by the mouth or by the rectum. The breathing soon became interrupted,
the pulse thready, and the patipnt died, scarcely two hours after the application of the
ointment. — Zeitschr. fur Med. Chir. und Geburtsch. and Brit. Med. Journ.

Poisoning from Drinking Hamburg Spirits. — An inquest was held by Mr.
Payne, deputy-coroner, relative to the death of John West, one of three men who were
poisoned by drinking Hamburg, or, as it is familiarly called, “ amber spirits,” atFenning’s
Wharf. The evidence showed that the deceased had been employed on No. 14 floor of the
warehouse at London Bridge, when he was sent to another floor, where he was told by a man
that he could “ get a drop.” He and two others drank from a cask of Hamburg spirits,
and they wrere all dreadfully injured. The deceased was found dead in No. 13 floor soon
afterwards. William Ramton, the delivery foreman, said that it was the regular custom of
the workmen to drink from the spirit casks whenever they had a chance. Mr. A. Artier,
Custom-House gauger, stated that the spirit of which the men partook was G6‘8 degrees
above proof, and was in fact liquid fire. Mr. Lacey, surgeon, who was called to the
deceased, said he died from collapse after poisoning by the spirit, which acted as an
acrid poison on the coats of the stomach. The spirit contained so little water that it
shrivelled up any surface containing water. The jury returned a verdict of death by
poisoning from drinking spirits.

Robbery of Indigo.— At the Thames Police Court, Alfred Turnbull, Edward Good¬
ing, Peter Connor, and Samuel Arnett, a chemist, were brought up on remand, charged,
the first three with stealing three chests of indigo, valued at £180, from the London
Docks, and the other with feloniously receiving the property', he well knowing it to be
stolen.

On Friday, the 1st of the present month, 13 chests of indigo were delivered from the
ship Wallasey, in the London Docks, and deposited in a "warehouse. Four days after¬
wards three chests were missing. The Thames police were employed to detect the thieves
and .trace the property', — a dutyr which has been successfully performed. A greengrocer
and coaldealer named William Woolridge, who was allowed to give evidence for the
Crown, said that at half-past 12 o’clock in the afternoon of the 5th of the present month
Turnbull called upon him and asked for the loan of six coal- sacks. He complied with
his request, and Turnbull took away six sacks. On the following day Turnbull again
called upon him, and he accompanied him in a cart to the waterside at Cubitt Town,
Poplar, where he backed down to a barge. Six sacks, containing something bulky', were
brought out of a barge by Turnbull, Gooding, and Connor, and put into the cart,
which was driven to Rosemary Lane. He met the three prisoners again near Arnett’s
shop, and they assisted him in unloading the cart and taking the six sacks into Arnett’s
shop. Arnett wTas there to receive them. Woolridge identified the sacks, which were
black when he lent them to Turnbull.

Mr. Joseph Crawley, indigo dealer, No. 91, Great Tower Street, said that Arnett called
upon him with a sample of indigo, which he said represented 90 lb., and asked 4s. per lb.
for it. He told Arnett it was not worth half the money. Arnett then asked him to
advance some money upon the indigo, and he advanced him £3 upon it by a cheque pro¬
duced by Mr. Evans. Next day he received 95 lb. of indigo from the prisoner, and ad¬
vanced him £5 more by another cheque.

Mr. Partridge said a clear primd facie case was made out, and committed the prisoners
for trial at the next Middlesex Sessions. He refused to take bail for Arnett, or to allow'
Woolridge any certificate for his expenses for attendance.

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

GG5

Alleged Poisoning by Opium.— A woman, named Bibby, has been convicted
of the manslaughter of her child at the Manchester Assizes, and sentenced to fifteen
months’ imprisonment. The dead body of the child was found secreted in a corded box
at the Euston Station. It was supposed that the child’s death was caused by an over¬
dose of laudanum, carelessly administered by the prisoner, who was in the habit of
giving it six, eight, or ten drops at a time, under the name of “ quietness.” The post¬
mortem examination showed congestion of the lungs, and fluid blood in the right
cavities of the heart. No opium was discovered in the stomach.

^ Alleged iDeath from drinking Paraffin Oil. — An inquest has been held at
Castleford on the body of a glass-founder, named George Leach, who is supposed to
have been poisoned by imbibing paraffin oil. Leach was found stretched on the ground,
stiff and livid, and died in about twenty hours after he was found, without ever having
given any tokens of sensibility. The testimony of Mr. Kemp, who had made a post¬
mortem examination of the bod}r, showed that it was completely imbued with a sub¬
stance smelling strongly of paraffin ; but neither he nor Mr. Fairley, analytical chemist,
were aware that paraffin or any similar substance had ever caused death. He had tried
four ounces of paraffin, in two doses, upon a dog, and found after sixteen hours that the
animal was little the worse for what it had taken, and seemed likely to recover. The
jury were unable to arrive at any definite conclusion, and returned an open verdict.

^ Poisoning by Essence of Almonds. — An inquest has been held at Bexley,
Kent, on the body of a boy named Clements, thirteen years of age. Deceased had been
a page in a gentleman’s family, and while some pomade was being prepared with
essence of almonds in the kitchen of his master’s house he tasted the liquid, and in a
few hours afterwards suddenly became ill, then insensible, and died in a short time. A
fellow-servant, who had also tasted the liquid, was with difficulty saved from a similar
fate. — The jury returned a verdict of “Accidental death,” with a suggestion that it
would be conducive to the public safety if such articles were labelled “ Poison.” This
addition to the verdict was caused by the remark of one of the jurors, who said he had
been told that it was not customary to label Essence of Almonds “Poison,” but this, it
appears, referred to that only which had been deprived of prussic acid.

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

The annual meeting of the members of the British Pharmaceutical Conference will
be held at Birmingham, in September this year, at the time of the visit of the British
Association to that town. Of the subjects suggested for investigation the following have
been accepted, either by the gentlemen who proposed them or by other members, and a
paper on each question will be read at the meeting : —

1. Extract of Fucus vesiculosus is occasionally prescribed for use in medicine. When
made by the action . of proof-spirit, a green product is obtained ; when by water, a red
extract results. What is the most eligible form in which to exhibit any medicinal prin¬
ciples that may be present in the plant ? Accepted by J. Whitfield.

2. Valerianate of Zinc. Describe an easy method of determining the purity of this salt
as found in commerce. Accepted by F. Sutton.

3. Valerianate of Iron. What is the best process for the preparation of this salt ?
What are its characters, and how may its purity be most readily ascertained ? Accepted
by F. Sutton.

9. Ergot. What is its active principle, and what the best preparation for its adminis¬
tration ? Accepted by R. V. Tuson.

10. On some of the rarer essential oils. By C. Umney.

28. Euphorbine. Professor Tuson will add to some experiments he has already made
■on this substance, and report the result to the Conference.

33. Pereiriue. Dr. C. A. Martius will communicate a paper on this body.

36. Some of the pill-masses of the Pharmacopoeia are of inconvenient consistence, or
acquire that condition by keeping ; can this be obviated ? Accepted by E. Wood.

43. On microscopic analysis applied to pharmacy. Continued by H. Deane and H.
B. Brady.

44. Distilled waters. Should these be prepared from the raw material, or from the
■essential oil ? Can any be advantageously prepared without distillation? What are the

GG6

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

advantages and disadvantages of the addition of spirit to and of the retention of excess
of oil in contact with them ? Accepted by J. C. Pooley.

45. To what does Senna owe its active properties, and what is the best solvent of the
same ? Is the Syrup of Senna P. B. a satisfactory preparation ? What is the compara¬
tive medicinal value of senna leaflets and senna-pods ? Accepted by J. A. Knights.

47. What is the quantity of Tannin in English Galls ( Cynips quercus-petioli) at dif¬
ferent stages of their growth? Can they at any period be employed economically as a
substitute for the Nutgalls of commerce ? Accepted by W. Judd.

101. Further researches on Hyoscyamine. Accepted by W. A. Tilden.

102. On the effects of soil and cultivation on the development of the active principles
of plants. Accepted by T. T. P. B. Warren.

103. On the electrical resistances of the fixed and volatile oils. Accepted by T. T. P.

B. Warren.

105. Emulsions. What are the best methods of forming emulsions from fixed and
volatile oils, balsams, spermaceti, camphor, myrrh, ammoniac, guaiacum, etc. ? Experi¬
mental investigation and compilation of existing knowledge of this subject is undertaken
by Mr. Proctor, who will be glad to receive communications pointing out cases of diffi¬
culty or offering suggestions.

106. Aconite. Does aconite owe any of its activity to the volatile acrid body said to
exist in it ? Give a process for the preparation of Aconitine. Accepted by T. B.
Groves.

107. Nitrite of Soda. By what modification of the process given in the British Phar¬
macopoeia, or by what other process can this salt be successfully and economically pre¬
pared ? Accepted by W. D. Howard.

109. Ammonia. What are the source, annual yield, and characteristics of the so-called
Volcanic Ammonia ? Accepted by W. D. Howard.

112. What is the nature of the precipitate formed in Ipecacuanha Wine ; how is it
affected by the nature of the wine used ? Accepted by G. Johnson.

113. Researches on Calabar Bean. Continued by J. B. Edwards.

114. The Iodo-hydrargvride of Potassium is a test for Methylic Alcohol in presence of
Ethylic Alcohol. Is its action in any way interfered with by the presence of organic
bodies usually existing in the tinctures of the Pharmacopoeia ? If so, under what cir¬
cumstances and precautions can it be applied ? Accepted by J. Tuck.

116. Phosphoric Acid. Required, — a correct table of the strength of solutions of phos¬
phoric acid of various densities. Accepted by J. Watts.

117. Liquor Ferri Perchloridi. A critical examination of the method of preparation
adopted in the British Pharmacopoeia, including suggestions for obtaining it, and the
tincture, of definite composition. Accepted by J. Attfield.

118. Chemical research on the Podophyllin of the British Pharmacopoeia. Accepted by
J. B. Barnes.

119. Report on the processes for the preparation of Glacial Acetic Acid, with sugges¬
tions. (See Pharm. Journ. 2nd ser. vol. v. p. 561.) Accepted by W. E. IJeathfield.

120. Report on the advantages or disadvantages of the employment, in pharmacy, of
Nitric Acid of sp. gr. 1-5. Accepted by J. Spearing.

123. Report on the strength of Emplastrum Cantharidis, P. B., with suggestions.
(See Pharm. Journ. 2nd ser. vol. v. p. 567.) Accepted by A. Allchin.

124. Resins of Jalap and Scammony. What are the best excipients to use in form¬
ing these resins into pills. (See Pharm. Journ. 2nd ser. vol. v. p. 569.) Accepted by T.
J. Hasselby.

126. Cinchona. Can a process for Extractmn Cinchonse Flavse Liquidum be devised
which shall effect the entire exhaustion of the bark of its alkaloids ? (See Pharm. Journ.
2nd ser. vol. v. p. 569.) Accepted by C. Umney.

127. Mistura Creasoti. Report on the formula given in the British Pharmacopoeia,
with suggestions. (See Pharm. Journ. 2nd ser. vol. v. p. 629.) Accepted by J.
Tuck.

128. On some of the Tinctures of the British Pharmacopoeia. By J. Adams.

129. Report on the medicinal use of Artificial Organic Acids and Bases. Accepted y

C. W. Quin.

130. Report on the use of butter of Theobroma Cacao in Pharmacy. Accepted by

. A. Peele and J. Spearing.

BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.

G67

131. On the flavour of Castor Oil. Why is Italian castor-oil less unpalatable than
other commercial varieties ? Accepted by H. Groves.

132. On the processes for estimating Nitrite of Soda. By C. R. C. Ticiiborne.

Subjects relating to Adulterations , Impurities , and Faults of Manufacture.

A Committee of five gentlemen — Dr. Attfield, of London ; Mr. T. B. Groves, of Wey¬
mouth ; Mr. B. S. Proctor, of Grey Street, Newcastle ; Mr. F. M. Rimmington, of Brad¬
ford ; and Mr. F. Sutton, of Bank Plain, Norwich — has the general charge of these sub¬
jects relating to the purity of medicines. Either member of the Committee will be glad
to receive directly, or through the General Secretaries, authentic specimens of substances
whose examination would tend to throw light on the questions. The analysis of such
specimens will be free of cost.

54. Large quantities of cotton-seed oil are expressed in this country, and used for ad¬
mixture with other oils. What are the properties of cotton-seed oil, and can it be used
in pharmacy ? Accepted by R. Reynolds.

55. Essential oils, their adulterations by turpentine, and tests of purity. Accepted by
H. S. Evans.

58. Report on the strength and purity of diluted and undiluted officinal acids. Ac¬
cepted by I). H. Jay.

50. Report on the strength and purity of the alkaline solutions (Potash, Ammonia,
etc.), met with in pharmacy. Accepted by D. H. Jay.

GO. Report on the various James’s Powders. Accepted by W. T. Fewtrell.

61. The composition of the bottled Mineral Waters of Commerce. Accepted by II.
Matthews.

62. On the Calamine and Oxide of Zinc of Pharmacy. Accepted by R. H. Davis.

63. Report on the purity of commercial Iodides and Bromides, other than the Iodide
of Potassium. Accepted byH. Matthews.

67. Report on the strength and condition of commercial specimens of such mercurial
preparations as Mercury with Chalk, Mercurial Ointment, etc. Accepted by J. Coup¬
land.

70. On commercial Pepsine. Accepted by J. C. Brough and J. C. Braitiiwaite.

75. Examination of various specimens of Citrate of Iron and Quinine. Continued by
J. C. Braitiiwaite.

76. Chloroform, Ether, Sweet Spirits of Nitre, and Sal Volatile are often prepared
from Methylated Spirit. Required, tests or reliable methods whereby they may be
proved to have been so prepared. Accepted by J. Tuck.

77. Report on the purity of commercial Tartar Emetic. Accepted by J. C. Brough.

81. Report on the purity of commercial powders of ginger and cinchona. By F. M.

Rimmington.

Several other papers are promised.

It is hoped that each member of the British Pharmaceutical Conference will suggest
subjects for investigation, work upon subjects suggested by himself or by others,
contribute information tending to throw light on questions relating to adulterations and
impurities, collect and forward specimens whose examination would afford similar in¬
formation, or in some other ivay to aid in the advancement of pharmacy. Any new facts
that are discovered during an investigation may be at once published by an author at any
meeting of a scientific society, in any scientific journal, or in any other way he may
desire ; in that case he is expected to send a short report on the subject to the annual
meeting.

The current list of subjects requiring investigation is sent to members immediately
after their election, and a new list immediately after every annual meeting. The list for
1864-1865, containing several questions at present unaccepted, can be obtained of either
of the Honorary General Secretaries— Dr. Attfield, 17, Bloomsbury Square, London,
W.C., and Mr. R. Reynolds, F.C.S., 13, Briggate, Leeds ; or of the Local Secretary, Mr.
W. Southall, junv 17, Bull Street, Birmingham.

The future annual meetings will probably be held at the time and place of the visit
of the British Association.

Gentlemen desiring to join the Conference must be nominated by two Members. The
yearly subscription is five shillings, due in advance, on the 1st of July.

6G8

BOOKS RECEIVED.

The Dispensatory of the United States of America. By George B. Wood, M.D.,
etc., and Franklin Bache, M.D., etc. Twelfth Edition, carefully revised. Phila¬
delphia : J. B. Lippincott and Co. 18G5. pp. 1704. (Presented by Dr. G. B. Wood.)
Notes for Students in Chemistry, being a Syllabus of Chemistry and Practical
Chemistry. By Albert J. Bernays. Fourth Edition, revised and corrected. London:
John Churchill and Sons, New Burlington Street. 18G5.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

An Apprentice. — You will be expected to be acquainted with all articles of the Materia
Medica in common use, and with the preparations in like manner.

Tyro (Brixton). — Professor Bentley commenced his course of lectures at the Gardens
on Friday, the 19th of May.

Assistant (Bristol). — Bentley’s ‘ Manual of Botany,’ price 12s. Gel. It is published by
Churchill and Sons.

Waiting (Staplehurst), and Apprentice (Retford). — On the 1st of October. The work
has been delayed, in consequence of the illness of the Editor.

Retort. — (1) “ Fraugipanne Bouquet.” Ess. Yiti vert ^iij ; 01. Neroli m xv ; 01.
Santal. yss ; Otto Ge Rose m xl ; Ess. Moschi 5iij ; Esprit de Violette ^ij ; Ess. Ambre-
gris ~vj ; Sp. Vini Rect. ad gxx. M. (2) We believe the so-called “ Fly Papers ” are
prepared with a solution of strychnia. (8) Piesse’s ‘ Art of Perfumery ’ would probably
afford the best information on the subject. (4) No: apply by letter to the Secretary,
17, Bloomsbury Square.

Johannes. — Obtain Fownes’s £ Chemistry ’ and Bentley’s ‘ Manual of Botany.’

C. B. II. (Guildford). — By “ Digredium ” we presume Diacrydiim is intended. This
is a term applied to Scammony, prepared with either decoction of Liquorice or decoction
of Quince, in the proportion of one part of Scammony to two parts of the decoction, and
the mixture evaporated to dryness.

A Student (Paisley) should consult a medical man.

J. S. (Manchester). — The article sold as “Liebig’s Food for Infants” consists, we be¬
lieve, of malt flour, with the addition of a small quantity of alkali, either bicarbonate
of potash or bicarbonate of soda. A “ New Soup for Children,” recommended by Lie-
bia-, is made as follows : — “Half an ounce of wheaten meal, half an ounce of malt flour,
unci 1\ grains of bicarbonate of potash, are weighed, mixed first with one another, and
afterwards with an ounce of water, and lastly with five ounces of milk ; the mixture is
then heated, with constant stirring, over a very gentle fire, until it begins to thicken ;
the vessel is now removed from the fire, and its contents are stirred for five minutes, these
are then heated once more and again removed, when a new thickening occurs ; lastly, the
whole is made to boil. After the separation of the bran from the milk, through a fine
sieve, the soup is ready for use.”

An Apprentice (Sittingbourne). — (1) Lime-juice and glycerine is sometimes used in
the proportion of three parts of the former to one part of the latter. (2) See answer to
J. S. (Manchester).

II. T. (Bishop Auckland). — (1.) The specimen sent for examination is Sulphate of
Magnesia. (2.) Babington’s ‘ Manual of Botany.’

Epsilon (Bristol). — Apply by letter to the Secretary, 17, Bloomsbury Square.

J. B. (Leeds). — The cost is only a few shillings. Apply at Stationers’ Hall.

Erratum. — Cochineal Colouring, page G15, for “wine quart” read “Winchester
quart.”

Instructions from Members and Associates respecting the transmission of the
Journal before the 25th of the month, to Elias Bremridge, Secretary, 17,
Bloomsbury Square, VAC.

Advertisements (not later than the 23rd) to Messrs. Churchill, New Bur¬
lington Street. Other communications to the Editors, 17, Bloomsbury Square.

INDEX.

PAGE I

Abel, Prof., Chemical History and
Application of Gun-cotton .' . .71

Absorption, Poisoning by ... . 4-91

Accidental and Chemical Poisoning,
Report of the Medical Officer of
the Privy Council . . 184

* - Poisoning (H. Barnaby) . 437

- - - - - - in connection

with the Responsibilities of the
Dispensing Chemist (H. B. Brady) 53

* - , the Case of, at

Liverpool .... 129, 133, 137

- , Prevention of,

(II. Long) ........ 436

- , by Digitalis . . 441

- , Report relative

to the Prevention of . . . * .158

- - - , Suggestions con¬
cerning . ... 167

Acid, Quinovic, Use of, in Medicine,

(Dr. J. E. de Try) . 18

- , Silicic, Properties of (T. Gra¬
ham) . 63

Aconite, Suicide by . 38

Aconitia and its Physiological Ef¬
fects (M. E. Hottot) ..... 59

Act, the New, as affecting Assistants 28

- , Metric Weights and Measures,

1864 . 36

- , Pharmacy, the Extended . . 380

- 9 - ^ the Proposed (F.

Tibbs) . 27

- , - - , - (E.

B. Yizer) . 26

- , Poisoned Flesh Prohibition . 138

Adams, J.,Potentilla Tormentilla, 158, 260

Alcohol, Methylic, Detection of, in
Presence of Ethylic Alcohol and
Yolatile Oil (J. T. Miller) . . . .534

• as a Test for the Purity of
Croton Oil (R. Warington) . . 382

• Test, Methylic (E. J. Rey¬
nolds) ......... 389

Aldridge, J., Tyson s Process for Blue
Pill . 21, 56

Alkaloid, Amount of, in Commercial
VOL. VI.

PAGE

Citrate of Iron and Quinine (J. C.

Braith waite) . 170, 280

- Obtained from the Seeds

of Ricinus communis (Prof.

Tuson) . 35

Alkaloids in Chinchona Bark (J. E.

Howard) . 584

- , Deter¬
mination of the Amount of (J. E.
de Yry) . 50

- in the Chinchona Trees of

Java (J. E. de Yry) . 15

- - in Pharmaceutical Ex¬
tracts, Assay of (T. B. Groves) 169, 268
Allbutt, Dr. C., Yitality, or the Cor¬
relation of Physical and Yital

Phenomena . 468

Almonds, Essential Oil of, Purifica¬
tion of (W. A. Tilden) .... 407

Aloes, Tincture nf, as an Application
to Wounds ........ 38

American Pharmaceutical Associa¬
tion, and British Pharmaceutical

Conference . 339

- Society,

Minutes of the Twelfth Annual

Meeting of . . 440

Amorphous Phosphorus, sponta¬
neous Oxidation of (T. B. Groves) 643
Analysis, Microscopic, applied to
Pharmacy (H. Deane and H. B.

Brady) . 154

Anniversary Meeting of the Pharma¬
ceutical Society :■ —

Address of the President . . . 627

Financial Statement . 630

Answers to Correspondents. See
Correspondents, Answers to.
Apprentices, Registered, List of . 6, 47,
196, 300, 348, 396, 505, 623
Archer, Prof., Cape Saffron . . . 462

- - , New Product called

Cubebs, from Southern Africa . . 463

- , - , New Species of Gall

from China . 462

- , - , Notes on Brazilian

2 Z

670

INDEX.

PAGE

Pharmacy . 371

Arnica Liniment, Accidental Poison¬
ing by . 555

Aromata, Extraction and Preserva¬
tion of (C. R. C. Ticliborne) 150, 206
Arsenic Eaters of Styria (C. Mac-

lagan) . 615

Atkins, S. R., Meeting of Chemists
of Salisbury to consider the Phar¬
macy Bill . 439

Atropine, Poisoning by . 664

Attfield, J., Application of Dialysis
in Determining the Nature of the
Crystalline Constituents of Plants, 152,

212

- , Contribution to the

History of Balsam of Peru . . . 204

- , Food Value of the

Kola-nut — a New Source of Theine 457

- , Lecture on the British

Pharmacopoeia . 7

- , Notes on the Chlorides

of Iron, etc . 396

Balfour, J. H., Literary and Scientific
Studies in connection with Medi¬

cine . 119

- , Botanical Science and

the Bible . 121

Balsam of Peru, Contribution to the
History of (J. Attfield) .... 204

- Tree, Growth of . 441

- of Tolu, Mode of Procuring

(J. Weir) . 60

Bark, Chinchona, Determination of
the Amount of Alkaloid in (J. E.

de Vry) . 50

- , Pitayo, Red Variety of (J. E.

Howard) . 48

Barling, T., The New Pharmacy

Bill . 390

Barnaby, H., Accidental Poisoning . 437
Barnett, E. W., Poison Preventives 389
Barry, the Late Mr., Memoir of . . 29

Bartlett, S. G., Bismuthi et Am-
moniae Citras . 545

Bath Chemists’ Association, Meeting
of — Address of the President . . 422

Bees, Why they Work in the Dark . 489
Bell Scholarships, Award of . . . 203
Benevolent, A Case for the . . . 343
Benevolent Fund of the Pharma¬
ceutical Society, Donations and
Subscriptions to, 6, 47, 97, 300, 357,

449, 561

- , Grants from, 97, 561

- - - , Remarks on . . 346 j

PAGE

Benevolent Fund, Regulations of . 360

- and Proposed

Legislation, Letter on .... 437
Benger, B., Pharmaceutical Applica¬
tions of Glycerine . . . .151, 209

Bentley, Prof., Note on Mr. Waring-
ton’s Paper on the Use of Alcohol
as a Test for the Purity of Cro¬
ton Oil . 387

Benzine, Explosion of . 489

Bergamot, Oil of, in the Treatment

of Itch . 442

Berry, C., Case of Attempted Cri¬
minal Abortion at Brighton . . 291

Bevan,C. F., Preservation of Leeches 479
Biggs, W., Cochineal Colouring . . 553

Bill, New Pharmacy (T. Barling) . 390
- , Pharmacy, Report of the Com¬
mittee of the Medical Council on 601

- , Proposed New Pharmacy . . 298

- , Weights and Measures ... 36

Bills, Chemists and Druggists, Se¬
lect Committee of . 601

- - for Regulating the Qualifica¬
tions of Chemists and Druggists . 516
Bills for Regulating the Qualifica¬
tions of Chemists and Druggists,
the Two Societies from which they

have emanated . 499

• - , The Two, public Opinion of . 603

- for Regulating the

Qualifications of Chemists and

Druggists . . 495

Bismuth, Carbonate of (C. Umney) 151,

208

Bismuthi et Ammonia; Citi’as (S.

Gray Bartlett) . 545

Bitter Almonds, Oil of, Purified

(Preston and Sons) . 435

- Cassava Root, Poisonous Prin¬
ciple of (G. Mee) . 332

Blades, C. M., Use of Litmus Tinc¬
ture for Indicating the Point of
Neutralization of Acids and Alka¬
lies by Gaslight . 4-79

Blue Pill, Tyson’s Process for (J. Al¬
dridge) . 21, 56

Blunt, T., Emplastrum Hydrargyri . 56

- Preparation of Liquor Bis¬
muthi . 613

Boiling Water, Lecture on (W. R.

Grove) . 106

Books Received, 44, 92, 140, 192, 295,
343, 392, 444, 492, 556, 620, 668
Botanical Origin of* Gamboge (D.

Hanbury) . 349

- of Savanilla Rha-

tany (D. Hanbury) . 460

INDEX.

671

PAGE

Botanical Science and the Bible

(Prof. Balfour) . ,121

- Prize for 1866 .... 507

Botanic Society’s Gardens, Pupils
having Free Admission to . . . 507

Bottles, Poison (T. H. Holloway) . 435
Brady, H. B., Accidental Poisoning
in connection with the Responsi¬
bilities of Dispensing Chemists . 53

Braithwaite, J., Alkaloid in Com¬
mercial Citrate of Iron and Qui¬
nine, Amount of ... . 170, 280

Brazilian Pharmacy, Notes on (Prof.

Archer) . 371

British Pharmaceutical Conference, 96,

143

British Pharmaceutical Conference
and the American Association . . 339

British Pharmaceutical Conference —
Notice of Meeting at Bath ... 99
Meeting of, at Bath : — -
Address of the President . . . 144

Alkaloid in Citrate of Iron and
Quinine (J. C. Braithwaite) . 170
Application of Dialysis in Deter¬
mining the Nature of the Crys¬

talline Constituents of Plants

(J. Attfield) . 152

- Microscopic Analy¬
sis to Pharmacy (H. Deane and

H. B. Brady) . 154

Assay of the Alkaloids in Medici¬
nal Extracts (T. B. Groves) . 169
A Chemist’s Holiday (D. Ilan-

bury) . 156

Commercial Carbonate of Bismuth

(C. Urnney) . 151

- Phosphoric Acid (R.

Parkinson) . 168

- Podopliyllin (J. Spea¬
ring) . 155

- Wine of Iron (F. Sut¬
ton) . 170

Cutivation of Medicinal Plants at
Mitcham (J.T. P. B. Warren) . 157
Election of Officers for 1864-5 . 171

Extraction and Preservation of
Aromata (C. R. C. Tichborne) . 150
Morphia Salts of Commerce (W.

E. Heathfield) . 167

On the Calabar Bean (J. B. Ed¬
wards) . 167

Pharmaceutical Applications of
Glycerine (F. Baden Benger) . 151
Potentilla Tormentilla (J. Adams) 158
Preparation of an Improved Wine
of Iron (H. N. Draper and J.
Wliitla) . 169

PAGE

British Pharmaceutical Conference —
Preparation of Small Quantities of
Concentrated Infusions (T.

Grundy) . 158

Processes for Preparing some of
the Tinctures of the Pharmaco¬
poeia (W. D. Savage) .... 157
Purity of Foreign Iodide of Potas¬
sium (F. C. Clayton) . . . .152

- Sulphate of Quinine of

Commerce (W. W. Stoddart) . 155
Questions for Investigation » . . 665

Rancidity of Fats (T. B. Groves) . 156
Report of Committee on Acciden-

dental Poisoning . 158

Discussion on above . 164

Report of Executive Committee . 149
- as to the Purity of Com¬
mercial Powders of Ipecacuanha
and Opium (F. M. Rimmington) 169
Reports on the Weights and Mea¬
sures used in Pharmacy (B. S.

Proctor) . 153

Suggestions concerning Accidental

Poisoning . 167

Test for Methylic Alcohol (J. Tuck) 153
British Pharmacopoeia, Lecture on

(Dr. Attfield) . 7

Bromide of Potassium, Commercial
(C. Urnney) . 324

- , Iodide in,

Application of the Starch Test for
Detecting (W. Huskisson) . . . 322

Bromine, Iodine and Chlorine, Ac¬
tion of, upon Sugar . 90

Brown, D. R., Chloroform and the
Tests for its Purity in the British

Pharmacopoeia . 575

- Notes 'on the Ques¬
tion of Poisoning . 463

Buott, C., Letter from . 611

Burmeister, H., Cantharides of the
Argentine Provinces . 548

Calabar Beans (J. B. Edwards) 167, 261

- , Cases of Poisoning by,

Notes on (J. B. Edwards) ... 99

- - , Poisoning by . . .134

- , Effects of, as an Anti¬
dote to Poisoning by Atropia . . 541

Cantharides of the Argentine Pro¬
vinces (H. Burmeister) .... 548
Cape Saffron, new Article of Com¬
merce (Prof. Archer) . 462

Caramania Gum (W. Proctor, jun.) 658
Carbolic Acid (E. Davies) .... 320
Carbonate of Bismuth, Commercial

(C. Unmey) . 151, 208

2 z 2

672

INDEX.

PAGE

Carteighe, M., Fire Insurance . . 533

Case for the Benevolent .... 343
- of Attempted Criminal Abor¬
tion at Brighton (C. Berry) . . 291

Cassava Root, Bitter, Poisonous
Principle of (G. Mee) .... 332
Castor-Oil Plant, Alkaloid obtained

from (Prof. Tuson) . 35

Chapman, H., Poison Closets . . .190

Chemical Discussion Association of
the Pharmaceutical Society : —

Anniversary Meeting . 425

List of Communications during

the Year . 428

Chemist’s Holiday, A (D. Hanbury)

156, 245

Chemists already in Business on their
own Account, Separate Examina¬
tion for . 45, 297

Chemists — Pains and Penalties . . 645

Chemists and Druggists Bills, Select

Committee of . 601

Chemists and Druggists : —

Bills for Regulating the Qualifica¬
tions of . 516

At Glasgow, Festival of . . . . 516

- , Meeting of, to Consi¬
der the Pharmacy Bills . . .376

Meeting of, at Leicester, to Consi¬
der the Pharmacy Bill . . . 379

and the Pharmaceutical Society . 493
Qualifications of, the Two Bills for

Regulating * . 495

Chinchona Bark, Alkaloids in (J. E.

Howard) . 584

Chinchonse, Root Bark of (J. E. How¬
ard) . 19

Chinese Sal-Ammoniac (D. Han¬
bury) . 514

Chlorides of Iron, etc., Notes on (J.
Attfield) . 396

Chlorine, Iodine, and Bromine, Ac¬
tion of, upon Sugar . 90

Chlorodyne, Alleged Death from . 39
Chloroform, Deaths from .... 92

- - , Preservation of ... 39

• - , Report of the Commit¬

tees of the Medical and Chirurgi-

cal Society . 100

- - and the Tests for its Pu¬
rity in the British Pharmacopoeia

(D. R. Brown) . 575

Church, W. R., Cochineal Colouring 552
Cinchona Bark, Determination of
the Amount of Alkaloid in (Dr. J.

E. de Try) . 50

* - , Culture of, in the Hima¬
laya . 442

PAGE

Cinchona, Growth of, in Jamaica . 442

- Trees of Java, Amount of

Alkaloids in (Dr. J. E. de Yry) . 15

Citrate of Iron and Quinine, Com¬
mercial, Amount of Alkaloid in
(J. C. Braithwaite) . . . 170, 280

- - - , Phar¬
macopoeia Process for (E. Fleurot) 21
Citrine Ointment of the British

Pharmacopoeia (M. Donovan) . 541
Clayton, F. C., Purity of Foreign
Iodide of Potassium . . . 152, 214

Clayton, H., Counter Practice . . 646

Cochineal Colouring . 434

- (W.R. Church) 552

- (R. Palmer) . 615

Cod Liver Oil, Supply of (R.Howden) 191

Collodion, Negative . 296

Colourless Yarnisli . 338

Concentrated Infusions, Preparation
of small Quantities of (T. Grundy)

158, 259

Conditions of Membership ... 1

Conessine, alias Wrightine, Note

on (R. Haines) . 432

Construction of a Pharmacopoeia

(Professor Redwood) . 565

Conversazione . 624

Cork and its Uses (J. R. Jackson) . 652

Correspondents, Answers to, 44, 92, 140,
192, 296, 344, 392, 444, 492, 556, 620, 668
Corrosive Sublimate, Accidental Poi¬
soning by . 140

- , Substitution of,

for. Steedman’s Powder .... 539
Council of the Pharmaceutical So¬
ciety, Election of, for 1865-66 . . 639

Council of the Pharmaceutical So¬
ciety, Meetings of : —

Award of Prizes . 143

Death of Thomas Herring, An¬
nouncement of . 196

Diploma from the Pharmaceutical
Society, Victoria ..... 6

Election of Council . . . 447, 639

- Members, 6, 47, 97, 143,

] 96, 300, 395, 447, 505, 560, 623

- Officers . 5

General Annual Meeting, Arrange¬
ment of Business for . . . .623

Order for Investment of £500 to
the General Fund Account . . 448

Resolutions respecting Separate
Examinations for Chemists and

Druggists . 47, 396

Restoration to Membership . . 47

Reports of Professors .... 97
Counter Practice (H. Clayton) . . 646

INDEX.

673

PAGE

Crookes, W., Recent Application of
intense Chemical Action to the
Production of Heat and Light . 466
Croton Oil, Alcohol as a Test for the
Purity of (R. Warington) . . . 382

' ” > j

Note on Mr. Warington’ s Paper

on (R. Bentley) . 387

Cubebs, a New Product from South¬
ern Africa (Professor Archer) . . 463

Cyanide of Potassium, Poisoning by, 342,

490

Dangerous Materials, Sending, by

Railway . 340

Danieli, W. F., Kola Nut of Tropical

West Africa . 450

- , Production of Hy¬
drocyanic Acid from Bitter Cassava

Root . 302

Davies, E., Carbolic Acid .... 320
Deane, H., and H. B. Brady, Micro¬
scopic Analysis applied to Phar¬
macy . 154, 232

- , Pharmaceutical Respon¬
sibility . 328

Death from Ergot of Rye .... 284
Death by Poisoning (R. Gf. Mumbray) 322
Deaths from Chloroform .... 92

Decoction of Tobacco, Poisoning by 91
Deer Poisoned by Browsing on Yew 489
Dialysis, Practical Application of . 39

• - , Application of, in Deter¬

mining the Nature of the Crystal¬
line Constituents of Plants (J.

Attfield) . 152, 212

Digitaline, Poisoning by .... 38

Digitalis, Accidental Poisoning by . 441
Dispensing Department (J. Leay) . 290
Distillation by Steam (R. W. Giles) 647
Donations and Subscriptions to the
Benevolent Fund, 6, 47, 97, 300, 357,

449, 561

- to the Library and Mu¬
seum . 197, 349, 508, 562

Donovan, M., Citrine Ointment of
the British Pharmacopoeia . . . 541

- , Process for Preparing Lini-

mentuui Aconiti . 57

Draper, H. N., Miller’s Test for Me-

thyli'c Alcohol . 641

Draper, H. N., and J. Whitla, Pre¬
paration of an Improved Wine of
Iron . 169,277

Edwards, J. B., Calabar Bean 167, 261

- , Cases of Poisoning

by Calabar Beans .

PAGE

Edwards, J. B., New Oxyhydrogen

Lantern . 465

- , Properties of Light 3^

Ekin, C., State of Pharmacy in

France . 324

- , Tinct. Ferri Perchloridi . 473

Emplastrum Ilydrargyri (T. Blunt) 56
Epsom Salts, Poisoning by . . 341

Ergot of Rye, Deatli from .... 284
Errata . . . . 92, 192, 392, 505, 620

Essence of Almonds, Poisoning by . 665
Essential Oil of Almonds, Purifica¬
tion of (W. A. Tilden) .... 407
Examination, Classical, Candidates

who have Passed . 560

- , Major, Candidates who

have Passed, 6, 48, 196, 300, 348, 396,

448, 505, 560, 623

- , Minor, Candidates

who have Passed, 6, 48, 196, 300, 348,

448, 505, 560, 623

- , Major, Edinburgh,

Candidates who have Passed . 48, 348,

448, 623

- , Minor, - ,

Candidates who have Passed . . 348

- , New System of . . 532

- , The Minor .... 4

Examinations, Separate, forChemists
already in business on their own
Account ....... 45, 297

Explosion at a Match Manufactory 340
Extracts of the British Pharmaco¬
poeia Prepared from the Dry Ma¬
terial (A. F. Haselden) . . 304, 351

- , Medicinal, Assay of the

Alkaloids in (T. B. Groves) . . 169

Fats, Rancidity of (T. B. Groves, 156, 249

Ferri et Quiniae Citras . 21

Field, F., Magenta audits Derivative

Colours . 650

Financial Statement, 1864 .... 506
Fire Insurance, Letter on (M. Car-

teighe) . 533

Fleurot, E., Pharmacopoeia Process
for Citrate of Iron and Quinine . 21

Fluid Extracts, New Process for

Making . 658

Fraud and Death (W. Wliysall) . . 334

Free Admissions to the Royal Bo¬
tanic Gardens, Pupils having . . 507

Gall, New Species of, from China

(Professor Archer) . 462

Gamboge, Botanical Origin of (D.

Hanbury) . 349

Gas, Oxygen, Fatal Explosion of . 391

99

674

INDEX.

PAGE

Gas, Oxygen, Fatal Explosion in

Making . 659

Giles, It. W., Distillation by Steam . 647
Gladstone, J. H., Lighthouse Illu¬
mination by Magneto-Electricity 67
Glasgow Chemists and Druggists
Festival . 516

Meeting of, to consider the Phar¬
macy Bill . 376

Glycerine, Action of Permanganate
of Potash on (G. Mee) .... 613
- , Pharmaceutical Applica¬
tions of (B. Benger) . . . 151, 209

Graham, T., Properties of Silicic

Acid . 63

Grove, W. B., Lecture on Boiling

Water . 106

Groves, T. B., Assay of the Alkaloids
in Medicinal Extracts . . 169, 268

- , Bancidity of Fats, 156,

249

- Spontaneous Oxida¬
tion of Amorphous Phosphorus . 643
Grundy, T., Preparation of Small
Quantities of Concentrated Infu¬
sions . . . 158, 259

Gullibility of the Public .... 659
Gum, Caramania (W. Proctor, jun.) 658
Gun Cotton (J. S. Bussell) . . . Ill

- , Chemical History and

Application of (Professor Abel) . 71

Gutta Perclia, Substitutes for . . 490

Haines, B., Notes on Conessine

alias Wrightine . 432

Hamburg Spirits, Poisoning from

drinking . 664

Hanbury, D., A Chemist’s Holiday, 156,

245

- , Botanical Origin of

Gamboge . 349

r" ) 1 "

Savanilla Bhatany . 460

- , Chinese Sal Ammoniac, 514

Haselden, A. F., Extracts of the
British Pharmacopoeia Prepared

from Dry Material . . . 304, 351

- - - , Besina Jalapge

(P. B.) . 563

Ileathfield, W. E., Morphia Salts of

Commerce . 167, 262

— - Water .... 583

Hemlock, Poisoning by .... 139
Ilerapath, W. B., Poisoning at Daw-

lish . 662

Herring, Thos., Death of ... . 294

Hofmann, A. W., Beport on the In-

PAGE

dustry of Manures . . . 83, 123

Hollier, E., Poisoning by Oxalic Acid

and Strychnine . 643

Holloway, T. II., Poison Bottles . 435
Horse Chestnut, Uses of . ... 4S6

Ilottot, M. E., Aconitia and its Phy¬
siological Effects . 59

Howard, J. E., Alkaloids in Chin-

chona Bark . 584

- Bed variety of Pitayo

Bark . 48

- Boot Bark of the

Chinchona . 19

Ilowark, Luke, Memoir of ... 34

Howden, B., Supply of Cod Liver Oil 191

Huskisson, W., Application of the
Starch Test for Detecting Iodide
in Bromide of Potassium . . . 322

Hydrocyanic Acid, Production of,
from Bitter Cassava Boot (W. F.

Daniell) . 302

Illumination, Lighthouse, by Mag¬
neto-Electricity (J. H. Gladstone) 67
Ince, J., Pharmaceutical Legislation 24
Indigo, Bobbery of . 664

Infusions, Concentrated, Preparation
of small quantities of (T. Grundy)

158, 259

Iodide of Potassium, Foreign, Purity
of (F. C. Clayton) . . . 152, 214

Iodine, Bromine, and Chlorine, Ac¬
tion of, upon Sugar . 90

Iron, Wine of, Commercial, (F. Sut¬
ton) . 170, 278

- Preparation of an Im¬
proved (H. N. Draper and J.
Wliitla) . 169, 277

Jackson, B. E. Scoresby, present po¬
sition of Pharmacy in the United
Kingdom, and on the Teaching of
Pharmacy in Edinburgh . . . 409

- (J. B.), Cork and its Uses . 652

Progress of Legislation respecting

Pharmacy . 621

Jardine, W., Preparation of Liq.

Ferri Perchlor., P.B . 549

Jatropha Nuts, Poisoning by . . . 91

Kinninmont, A., Meeting of Che¬
mists at Glasgow on the Pharmacy

Bill . 438

Kola-Nut, Discovery of Theine in . 407

- Food Value of, a New

Source of Theine (J. Attfleld) . 457

- of Tropical West Africa

(W. F. Daniell) . 450

INDEX.

675

PAGE

Laudanum, Poisoning by . . 139, 140

- Suicide by . 91

Leaders : —

The Benevolent F and .... 346
British Pharmaceutical Conference 143
Conditions of Membership ... 1

Duties and Responsibilities of the
Chemist in Dispensing Medi¬

cines . 193

Legislation affecting Trade ... 5

The Minor Examination ... 4

Pharmaceutical Responsibility . 93

The Pharmaceutical Society and
Chemists and Druggists . . . 493

Progress of Legislation respecting

Pharmacy . 621

Progress made with reference to
Pharmaceutical Legislation . . 393

The Proposed Legislation affecting

Pharmacy . 345, 557

The Proposed New Pharmacy Bill 298
Questions relating to the Phar¬
macy Bill . 445

Separate Examinations for Che¬
mists already in Business on
their own Account . . 45, 297

The Two Bills for Regulating the
Qualifications of Chemists and

Druggists . 495

The Two Societies from which the
Bills for Regulating the Quali¬
fications of Chemists and Drug¬
gists have Emanated .... 499
The Sixth Report of the Medical
Officer of the Privy Council,

with Appendix . 141

Leay, J., Dispensing Department . 280
Lecture on the British Pharmacopoeia

(Dr. Attfield) . 7

Leech-Destroyer (R. G-. Mumbray) . 23

Leeches, Preservation of (C.F.Bevan) 479

• - - - * — Curious

Facts Relative to . 480

Leeds Chemists’ Association, Meet¬
ings of : —

Address from the President . . 373

Annual Report, etc . 320

Donations to the Library . . . 417

Election of Members . 417

- Officers . 322

Liquor Ferri Perchloridi, P. B. (E.

Yewdall) . 375

Pharmacopoeia of tlieUnited States

(E. Thompson) . 469

Second Annual Meeting . . . 320

Vitality, or the Correlation of
Physical and Vital Phenomena
(Dr. C. Allbutt) . 468

PAGE

Leeds Chemists’ Association, Meet¬
ings of : —

Volumetric Analysis (R. Parkinson) 417
Water (W. E. Heatlifield) . . .583

Leeds Pharmaceutical Chemists,

Meeting of . 583

Legislation affecting Pharmacy, 5, 345, 557

— - - - The

Poisoned Flesh Prohibition Act . 138

- , Pharmaceutical (J. Ince) 24

- - - , Letter

on (Opifex) . 525

(J. S. F. Richardson) .... 528
- , Proceed¬
ings in the House of Commons,

relative to . 588

- , Proposed, and Benevo¬
lent Fund, Letters on . . 437, 479

Letter from Mr. Buott . 61

Library and Museum of the Phar¬
maceutical Society, Donations to,

197, 349, 508, 562
Light, The New (W. Willmott) . . 536
Lighthouse Illumination by Magneto-
Electricity (Dr. J. IT. Gladstone). 67
Liniment, Arnica, Accidental Poison¬

ing by . 555

Linimentum Aconiti, Process for
Preparing (M. Donovan) ... 57

Liquor Bismuthi (C. R. C. Tich-

borne) . 641

- - - . Preparation of (T.

P. Blunt) . 613

Liquor Ferri Perchloridi .... 331

- (A. Utley) 24

- P. B. (E.

Yewdall) . 375

- P. B., Pre¬
paration of (W. Jardine) . . . 549

List of Members, etc. See Members,
etc., List of.

Literary and Scientific Studies in
connection with Medicine (J. H.

Balfour) . 119

Litmus Tincture, Use of, for Indica¬
ting the Point of Neutralization of
Acids and Alkalies by Gaslight

(C. M. Blades) . 479

Liverpool Chemists’ Association,
Meetings of : —

Annual Meeting . 310

- - Report, e>tc . 310

Applications of' Photography to
Microscopic Illustrations (Dr.

Edwards) . 567

Carbolic Acid (E. Davis) . . . 320

Conversazione . 465

G76

INDEX.

PAGE

Liverpool Chemists’ Association,
Meetings of

Discourse on Light (Dr. Edwards) 319
Donations to the Library and Mu¬
seum .... 311, 319, 320, 416
Election of Members . . . 312, 319

Excursion of the Members ... 97

New Oxyliydrogen Lantern (Dr.

Edwards) . 465

President’s Address . 312

Recent Application of Intense Che¬
mical Action to the Production
of Heat and Light (W. Crookes) 466
Tinct. Campliorae Prepared with

Methylated Spirit . 416

Local Secretary of the Pharmaceu¬
tical Society, False Accusation

against . . 527

Local Secretaries, Importance of the
Appointment of ...... 531

Long, II., Prevention of Mistakes
and Accidental Poisoning . . . 436

Macadam, Dr., Pharmaceutical Che¬
mistry . 365

Maceration and Percolation (J. C.

Pooley) . 23

Maclagan, C., Arsenic Eaters of

Styria . . * . 615

Magenta and its Derivative Colours

(E. Field) . 650

Magnesium . . 662

- - its Preparation and

Properties (E. J. Reynolds) . . 543

Magneto -Electricity, Lighthouse Il¬
lumination by (J. II. Gladstone) . 67

Major Examination, Candidates who
have passed, 6, 48, 196, 300, 348, 396,

448, 505, 560, 623
■ — - , Edinburgh, Can¬

didates who have passed 48, 348, 448,

623

Manures, Report on the Industry of

83, 123

Match Manufactory, Fatal Explosion at 340
Medical Officer of the Privy Council,
Report of, on Accidental and Cri¬

minal Poisoning . 184

Sixth Report of . 141

Medical and Pharmaceutical Respon¬
sibility, Letter on ..... . 289

Letter on (B. B. Orridge) . . . 287

Letter on (R. Newman) .... 290

Letter on (S. Thornton)- . . . . 290

PAGE

Medical Titles . 293

Medicinal Extracts, Assay of the Al¬
kaloids in (T. B. Groves) . . . 169

- Plants, Cultivation of, at

Mitcham (J. T. P. B. Warren) 157,

256

Medicine, Literary and Scientific
Studies in Connection with (J. H.

Balfour) . 119

Medicines, Duties and Responsibi¬
lities of the Chemist in Dispensing 193
Mee, G., Action of Permanganate of

Potash on Glycerine . 613

- Poisonous Principle of Bit¬
ter Cassava Root . . . . . . 332

- Unguent um Hydrargyri

Nitratis . .

Meeting, Adjourned, of the Pharma
ceutical Society : — *

618

Election of Council . -639

- of Chemists and Druggists : —

At Glasgow, to Consider the Phar¬

macy Bills . 376

At Leicester . 379

At Liverpool . 426

At Nottingham . 430

At Southampton . 431

At York . 470

Meeting at Glasgow, Letter on

(A. Kinninmont) . 439

- of Pharmaceutists at Leeds 583

— - - Salisbury, Letter on

(S. R. Atkins) . 439

Meetings of the Bath Chemists’ As¬
sociation . . 422

See also Bath Chemists’ Associa¬
tion, Meeting of.

Meetings of the Council of the Phar¬
maceutical Society, 5, 47, 97, 143, 196,
300, 348, 395, 447, 505, 560, 623
See also Council Meetings.

Meetings of the Leeds Chemists’ As¬
sociation, 320, 373, 417, 583.

See also Leeds Chemists’ Associa¬
tion.

Meetings of the Liverpool Chemists’
Association, 310, 416, 465.

See also Liverpool Chemists’ As¬
sociation.

Meetings of the Pharmaceutical So¬
ciety, Edinburgh . . 362, 409, 462,

515, 575

See also Pharmaceutical Society,
Edinburgh.

Membership, Conditions of . . . 1

Members, List of, 6, 47, 97, 143, 196,
300, 348, 395, 447, 505, 560, 623
Memoir of the late Mr. Barry . . 29

INDEX.

677

PAGE

Memoir of the late Luke Howard . 34

Methylated Spirit, Remarks on (J.

Tuck) . 215

Methylic Alcohol, Detection of, in
presence of Ethylic Alcohol and
Volatile Oil (T. Miller) .... 534

- - , Miller’s Test for

H. N. Draper . 641

- Test (J. Tuck) . 333

- (E. J. Rey¬
nolds) . 292, 389

- , in presence of

Ethylic Alcohol, Test for (J. Tuck) 153,

215

Metric "Weights .and Measures Act,

1864 . 36

Metal Indium and Recent Discove¬
ries on Spectrum Analysis (H. E.

Roscoe) . * . . 334

Microscopic Analysis, Application
of, to Pharmacy (H. Deane and

H. B. Brady) . 154

- - Research in relation to

Pharmacy (H. Deane and H. B.

Brady) . 232

Miller, J. T., Detection of Methylic
Alcohol in presence of Ethylic
Alcohol and Volatile Oil . . . 534

- -, Liquor Ferri Perchlo-

ridi . 331

Miller’s Method for the Detection of
Methylic Alcohol (H. IN’. Draper) 641
Minor Examination, The .... 4

- , Candidates who

have passed, 6, 48, 196, 300, 348, 448,

505, 560, 623

- , Edinburgh,

Candidates who have passed . . 348

Miscellanea : —

Accidental Poisoning by Arnica

Liniment . 555

- Digita-

line . 411

- Phos¬
phorus . 489

Alleged Death from Chlorodyne . 39

• - - — Drinking

Paraffin Oil . 665

- - Poisoning by Cyanide of

Potassium . 490

- - Opium . .665

- Morphia . 492

- — Strychnia 391,

491

Cinchona Culture in the Himalaya 442
Deaths from Chloroform ... 92

- by Poison . 663

Death from Drinking Naphtha . 341

PAGE

Miscellanea : —

Deer Poisoned by Browsing on

Yew . 489

Explosion of Benzine .... 489
Fatal Explosion at a Match Manu¬
factory . * . 340

- of Oxygen Gras . 391

G-rowth of the Balsam of Peru

Tree . 441

* - - Cinchona in Ja¬
maica . 442

A Large Dose of Quinine . . . 490

Oil of Bergamot in the Treatment

of Itch . 442

Poisoning by Absorption . . .491

- Corrosive Sublimate . 140

- Decoction of Tobacco 91

- - Epsom Salts . . . 341

- - Essence of Almonds . 665

— - Hemlock .... 139

- Digitaline .... 38

- Laudanum . 139, 140

- Ranunculus acris . 38

- the Seeds of the Cur-

cas purgans . 91

- Strychnia .... 340

- Tobacco . 341

- Yew-tree Berries . . 489

- . . . the Endermic Use

of Atropine . 664

- from Drinking Hamburg

Spirits . 664

Poisoning Ordeal of the Africans . 138
Poisonous Sheep Dressings ... 92

Practical Application of Dialysis . 39

Preservation of Chloroform . . 39

Robbery of Indigo . 661

Sending Dangerous Materials by

Railway ........ 340

Silkworms . 490

Substitutes for Gutta-Percha . . 490

Suicide by Aconite . 38

- - Cyanide of Potassium 490

- Laudanum .... 91

Suicides by Prussic Acid . . . 342

Tincture of Aloes as an Applica¬
tion to Wounds . 38

Unalterable Nitrate of Silver Pills 489
Why Bees Work in the Dark . . 489

Morphia, alleged Poisoning by . . 492

■ - Salts of Commerce (W. E.

Heathfield) . 167, 262

Mumbray, R. G., Death from Poison¬

ing . 329

- the Leech De¬
stroyer . 23

Myroxylon Toluiferum (J. Weir) . 60

678

INDEX.

PAGE

Naphtha, Death from Drinking . . 341

Negative Collodion . 296

New System of Examinations . . 532

Newman, R., Medical and Pharma¬
ceutical Responsibility .... 290
Nitrate of Silver Pills, Unalterable . 489
Nitrite of Soda (A. J. Roberts) . . 354

Obituary:—

Thomas Herring . 294

W. Maddoek . . . . . . 444

Oil of Almonds, Essential, Purifica¬
tion of (W. A. Tilden) .... 407

- Ritter Almonds, Purified

(Preston and Sons) . 435

• - Bergamot in the Treatment of

Itch . 442

Oil, Paraffin, Death from .... 665
Oils, "Vegetable, Manufacture of . . 127

Ointment, Citrine, of the British
Pharmacopoeia (M. Donovan) . . 541

- , Red Oxide of Mercury

(A. B. Squire) . 512

- of Stavesacre (B. Squire) . 405

Opium, Poisoning by . 665

Opposition to Free Trade (W. Ray-

ner) . 610

Organic Bodies, Discrimination of,
by their Optical Properties (Prof.

G. G. Stokes) . 481

Orridge, B. B., Medical and Phar¬
maceutical Responsibility . . . 287

Oxalic Acid and Strychnine, Poison¬
ing by (E. Hollier) . 643

Oxygen Gras, Fatal Explosion of . . 391

- in

Making . 659

Oxyhydrogen Lantern, New (Dr.
Edwards) . 465

Palmer, R., Cochineal Colouring . . 615

Paraffin Oil, Death from Drinking . 665
Parkinson, R., Commercial Phos¬
phoric Acid . 168, 264

- , Volumetric Analysis 417

Pepsin e Wine . 192

Percolation and Maceration (J. C.

Pooley) . 23

Permanganate of Potash, Action of,
on Glycerine (G. Mee) .... 613
Pharmaceutical Association, Ame¬
rica, Minutes of the Twelfth An¬

nual Meeting of . 440

- Chemistry (Dr. Mac¬
adam) . 365

- Conference, British.

See British Pharmaceutical Con¬
ference.

PAGE

Pharmaceutical Legislation (J. Ince) 24

- , Letter

on Opifex . . 525

(J. T. F. Richardson) .... 528
- - — , Proceed¬
ings in the House of Commons re¬

lative to . . 588

- , Progress

made with reference to . . . .393

- and Medical Respon¬
sibility . 289

(R. Newman) . 290

(B. B. Orridge) . . . . . . 287

(S. Thornton) . 290

Pharmaceutical Responsibility . 93, 189

- - (H.

Deane) . . 328

(Messrs. Clay and Abraham) . . 188

- Society, Benevolent

Fund of, Donations to. See Dona¬
tions to Benevolent Fund.

- , Benevolent

Fund of, Regulations of. . . . 360

- and Che¬
mists and Druggists . 493

Pharmaceutical Society, Edinburgh,
Meetings of : —

Annual Report . 580

- Supper . 582

Chloroform, and the Tests for its
Purity in the British Pharma¬
copoeia . 575

Gift of a Bust of Jacob Bell . . 371
New Species of Gall from China

(Prof. Archer) . 462

New Artiole of Commerce, Cape
Saffron (Prof. Archer) . . .462

New Product called Cubebs, from
Southern Africa (Professor

Archer) . 463

Notes on Brazilian Pharmacy

(Prof. Archer) . 371

Pharmaceutical Chemistry (Dr.

Macadam) . 365

President’s Address . 362

Present Position of Pharmacy in
the United Kingdom (R. E.

Scorcsby Jackson) . 409

Remarks on the Question of Poi¬
soning (D. R. Brown) . . . 463

Report of the Prize Committee . 578
Specific Gravity (D. R. Brown) . 515
Valedictory Address . 578

INDEX.

679

PAGE

Pharmaceutical Society, Anniversary
Meeting : —

Address of the President . . . 627

Financial Statement . 630

- Adjourned

Meeting of : —

Election of Council . 639

■ - London,

Evening Meetings of: —

Donations to the Library and
Museum . 197, 301, 349, 508, 562
Award of Prizes in Chemistry and

Pharmacy . 199

- Botany and

Materia Medica . 200

- Practical Che¬
mistry . 201

- Pereira Medal . . . 201

- - Minor Prize in Chemis¬
try and Pharmacy . 202

- Prizes for Herbaria . . 202

- the Jacob Bell Scholar¬
ship . 202

Questions for Examination for the
Senior Bell Scholarship . . . 203

Junior Bell Scholarship . . . 203

Contribution to the History of
Balsam of Peru (J. Attfield) . 204
Poison Bottle ( with cut) . . . 302

Production of Hydrocyanic Acid
from Bitter Cassava Boot (W.

F. Daniell) . 302

Bemarks on the above .... 302
Some of the Extracts of the British
Pharmacopoeia prepared from
the Dry Material (A. F. Hasel-

den) . 304, 351

Discussions on the above . . 309, 353

Botanical Origin of Gamboge (D.

Hanbury) . 349

Nitrite of Soda (A. J. Boberts) . 354
Bemarks on the above .... 356
Notes on the Chlorides of Iron, etc.

(J. Attfield) . 396

New Form of Ointment of Staves-

acre (Bs Squire) . 405

Discovery of Theine in Kola-Nuts 407

Purification of Essential Oil of Al¬
monds (W. A. Tilden) . . . 407

Discussion on the above . . . 409

Kola-Nut of Tropical West Africa

(W. F. Daniell) . 450

Bemarks on the above .... 457
Food- Value of the Kola-Nut, a
new source of Theine (J. Att¬
field) . 457

PAGE

Pharmaceutical Society, London,
Evenings Meetings of : —

Botanical Origin of Savanilla Blia-
tany (D. Hanbury) .... 460
Stopper Protector (Mr. Shillcock) 508
Phosphate of Ammonia of the Bri¬
tish Pharmacopoeia (J. Watts) . 508
Bed Oxide of Mercury Ointment

(A. B. Squire) . 512

Note on Chinese Sal Ammoniac

(D. Hanbury) . 514

Besina Jalapae P.B (A. F. Hasel-
den) . 563

On the Construction of a Pharma¬
copoeia (Prof. Bed wood) . . . 565

Discussion on the above . . .573

Pharmaceutical Society, Local Secre¬
tary of, false accusation against . 527

- - Transactions

of : see Transactions of the Phar¬
maceutical Society.

Pharmaceutist as a Merchant (F.

Stearns) . 655

Pharmaceutists at Leeds, Meeting of 583

Pharmacopoeia, British, Lecture on

(Dr. Attfield) . 7

- Construction of a

(Prof. Bedwood) . 565

- of India . 553

- Process for Citrate of

Iron and Quinine (E. Fleurot) . 21

- of the United States

(E. Thompson) . 469

Pharmacy Act, the Extended . . . 380

- tlieProposed(F.Tibbs) 27

■ - (E.B.Vizei*) 26

Pharmacy in America (W. Willmott) 328
Pharmacy Bill, Letter on (B. S.

Proctor) . 474

- (W. Wil¬
kinson) . 476

- Meeting of Chemists

at Glasgow on (A. Kinninmont) . 439

of Salisbury on (S. B. Atkins) . 439
- Meetings of, at : —

Edinburgh . 425

Glasgow . 376

Leicester . 379

Liverpool . 426

Nottingham . 430

Southampton . 431

York . . 470

Pharmacy Bill, Proposed New . . 298

- Questions relating to 445

- Beport of the Com¬
mittee of the Medical Council

on

601

680

INDEX.

PAGE

Pharmacy, Brazilian, Notes on (Prof.

Archer) . 371

- in Australia . 661

- in France, State of (C.

Ekin) . 324

- (S.

J. Weston) . 326

- - Legislation affecting . 5, 345

- Present Position of in the

United Kingdom (R. E.Scoresbv-

Jackson) . 409

• - Progress of Legislation re¬
specting . ... 621

Phosphate of Ammonia of the British
Pharmacopoeia (J. Watts) . . . 508

Phosphoric Acid, Commercial (R.

Parkinson) . 168, 264

Phosphorus, Accidental Poisoning by 489
Pills, Nitrate ‘of Silver, unalterable . 489
Pitayo-Bark, Red Variety of (J. E.

11 oward) . 48

Plants, Crystalline Constituents of,
Application of Dialysis in Deter¬
mining the Nature of (J. Att-

field) . 152, 212

- - Medicinal, Cultivation of, at

Mitcham (J. T. P. B. Warren) 157, 256
Podophyllin, Commercial (J. Spear¬
ing) . . • . 155, 244

Poison-Bottles (T. H. Holloway) . 435

- (Mr. Howell) . . . 202

- Closets (H. Chapman) . . 190

- Deaths by . 663

- Preventives (E. W. Barnett) 389

Poisons, Sale of, Letter on (W. Wil¬
kinson) . 530

Poisoned Flesh Prohibition Act . .138

Poisoning, Accidental, in connection
with the Responsibilities, of Dis¬
pensing Chemists (H. B. Brady) . 53

- and Criminal,

Report of the Medical Officer of

the Privy Council . 184

- by Digitaline . 441

- - at Liverpool . 129,

137

- Prevention of,

(H. Long) . . . 436

- Report rela¬
tive to the Prevention of . . .158

- - - Suggestions

concerning . . 167

- — : - by Strychnine 340

PAGE

Poisoning by Calabar Beans, Case of,
Notes on (J. B. Edwards) ... 99

- Corrosive Sublimate 140, 539

- Cyanide of Potassium 342,

490

- at Dawlish (W. B. Hera-

path) . 662

- - , Death from (R. G. Mum-

bray) . 329

- by Decoction of Tobacco . 91

- Digitaline . . . . . 38

- Epsom Salts .... 341

- - - Hemlock . 139

- Laudanum . . . 139, 140

- - Morphia . 492

- Ordeal of the Africans . 138

- - — by Oxalic Acid and Strych¬
nine (E. Hollier) . 643

- by Phosphorus .... 489

- , Remarks on the Question

of (D. R. Brown) . 463

- by the Seeds of the C ureas

purgans . , . 91

- Ranunculus acris . . 38

- Strychnine . . . 391, 491

- , etc., Professor Taylor’s

Report on . 172

- by Tobacco . 341

- Yew-Tree Berries . . 489

Poisonous Principle of the Bitter

Cassava Root . 332

- Sheep Dressings ... 92

Pooley, J. C. Percolation and Mace¬
ration . 23

Potentilla Tormentilla (J. Adams) 158,260
Powders of Ipecacuanha, Jalap, and
Opium, Commercial Report on the
Purity of (F. M. Rimmington) 169, 275
Preservation of Leeches (C.F.Bevan) 479
Preston and Sons, Purified Oil of

Bitter Almonds . 435

Prizes, Distribution of at the Phar¬
maceutical Society . 199

Proctor, B. S., Letter on Pharmacy

Bill . 474

- , Report on theW eights

and Measures used in Pharmacy 153,

218

Proctor, W., jun., Caramania Gum . 658
Provincial Transactions; see Meet¬
ings, Provincial.

Prussic Acid, Suicides . 342

Public Opinion of the Two Bills . . 603

Action for Damages . 133

- by Absorption . . . .491

- Arnica Liniment . . 555

- Calabar Beans . . . 134

Questions for Examination in Che-

misty and Pharmacy . 199

- Botany

and Materia Medica . 200

INDEX.

681

PAGE

Questions for Examination in Practi¬

cal Chemistry . 201

- - the Junior Bell Scho¬
larship . 203

- Minor Examination

in Pharmacy and Chemistry . . 202

- the Senior Bell Scho¬

larship . 203

Quinine, a Large Dose of ... . 490

- Sulphate of, of Commerce,

Purity of (W. Stoddart) . . 155, 241

Quinovic Acid, Use of, in Medicine
(Dr. J. E. De Try) . 18

Rancidity of Fats (T. B. Groves) 156, 249

Ranunculus acris, Poisoning by . . 38

Rayner, W., Opposition to Free

Trade . 610

Red Oxide of Mercury Ointment

(A. B. Squire) . 512

Redwood, Professor, Construction of
a Pharmacopoeia . 565

Regulations of the Benevolent Fund
of the Pharmaceutical Society . . 360

Report on the Industry of Manures 83,

123

■ - of the Committee of the

Medical and Chirurgical Society

on Chloroform . 100

- , Sixth, of the Medical Officer

of the Privy Council . 141

Resina Jalapse P. B. (A. F. Haselden) 563
Reviews : —

A Companion to the Pharmaco¬
poeia (by Peter Squire) ... 40

The Essentials of Materia Medica
and Therapeutics (by A. B.

Garrod) . . . .39

A Manual of Practical Therapeu¬
tics (by E. J* Waring) . . . 554

The Philosophy of Health (by
Southwood Smith) .... 443
The Prescriber’s Analysis of the
British Pharmacopoeia (by J.

B. Nevins) . 43

Skin Diseases, their Description,
etc. (by Tilbury Fox, M.D.) . 442

Treatment of Diseases of the Skin
(by Dr. W. Frazer) .... 442
Reynolds, E. J., Magnesium, its Pre¬
paration and Properties .... 543
- , Metliylic Alcohol

Test . 389

- , Test for Methylic

Alcohol . 292

Rice Paper of Formosa (R. Swinhoe) 52
Richardson, J. S. F., Pharmaceutical
Legislation . 528

PAGE

Ricinus communis, Seeds of, Alka¬
loid obtained from (Prof. Tuson) 35
Rimmington, F. M., Report on the
Purity of Commercial Powders of
Ipecacuanha, Jalap, and Opium 169,

275

Roberts, A. J., Nitrite of Soda . . 354
Roscoe, IL E., Metal Indium and
Recent Discoveries in Spectrum

Analysis . 324

Russell, J. S., Gun-Cotton . . . Ill

Sal Ammoniac, Chinese (D. Han-

bury) . 514

Sale of Poisons (W. Wilkinson) . . 530

Savage, W. D., Process for Preparing
some of the Tinctures of the Phar¬
macopoeias . 157, 254

Sa vanilla Rhatany, Botanical Origin

of (D. II anbury) . 460

Seaweed Wine (R. W. Tamplin) . 435
Secretary, Local, of the Pharmaceu¬
tical Society, False Accusation

against . 527

Secretaries, Local, Importance of the

Appointment of . 531

Seed-Oils, Causes of Change in (C.

Tomlinson . 22

Sheep-Dressings, Poisonous ... 92

Silicic Acid, Properties of (T. Gra¬
ham) . 63

Silkworms . . 490

Soda, Nitrite of (A. J. Roberts) . . 354

Spearing, J., Commercial Podophyl-
l’in 1 ... . 155, 244

Spectrum Analysis, Metal Indium,
and Recent Discoveries on (Prof.

Roscoe) . 334

Spontaneous Oxidation of Amor¬
phous Phosphorus (T. B. Groves) 643
Squire, A. B.} Ointment of Stavcs-

acre . 405

- - Red Oxide of Mer¬
cury Ointment . 512

Starch Test, Application of, for De¬
tecting Iodide in Bromide of Po¬
tassium (W. Huskisson) . . . 322

Stavesacre, Ointment of (A. B. Squire) 405
Stearns, F., Pharmaceutist as a Mer¬
chant . 655

Stoddart, W., Purity of Sulphate of
Quinine of Commerce . . . 155, 241

Stokes, Prof. G. G., Discrimination
of Organic Bodies by their Optical

Properties . 481

Strychnine, Poisoning by . 340, 391, 491

- , Action against

the Chemist for Damages . . .133

682

INDEX.

PAGE

Strychnine and Oxalic Acid, Poison¬
ing by (E. Hollier) . 643

Suicide by Cyanide of Potassium . 490

- Laudanum . 91

Suicides by Prussic Acid .... 342
Sulphate of Quinine of Commerce,
Purity of (W. Stoddart) . 155, 241

Sutton, F., Commercial Wine of

Iron . 170, 278

Swinhoe, R., Rice Paper of Formosa 52

Tamplin, R. W., Seaweed Wine . . 435

Taylor, A. S., Report on Poisoning,

etc . 172

Theine, Discovery of in Kola-Nuts . 407
Thompson, E., Pharmacopoeia of the

United States . 469

Thornton, S., Medical and Pharma¬
ceutical Responsibility .... 290
Tibbs, F., the Proposed Pharmacy

Act . 27

Tichborne, C. R. C., Extraction and
Preservation of Aromata . 150, 206

- Liquor Bismuthi 640

Tilden, W. A., Purification of Es¬
sential Oil of Almonds .... 407
Tinct. Ferri Perchloridi (C. Ekin) . 473
Tincture of Aloes as an Application

to Wounds . 38

Tinctures of the Pharmacopoeias,
Process for Preparing (W. D. Sa¬
vage) . 157, 254

Tobacco, Poisoning by . . . . . 341

Tomlinson, C., Causes of Changes in
Seed-Oils ........ 22

Transactions of the Pharmaceutical
Society 5, 47, 97, 143, 196, 300, 348,
395, 447, 505, 560, 623
Tuck, J., Metliylic Alcohol Test . . 334

- , Test for Metliylic Alcohol

in Presence of Ethylic Alcohol 153, 215
Tuson, Prof., Alkaloid obtained from
the Seeds of Ricinus communis . 35
Two Bills, The Public Opinion on . 603

- Measures, The (E. B. Vizer) . 532

- Societies, The, from which the

Bills for Regulating the Qualifica¬
tions of Chemists and Druggists

have emanated . 499

Tyson’s Process for Blue Pill (J. Al¬
dridge) . 21

Umney, C., Commercial Bromide of

Potassium . 324

- Carbonate of

Bismuth . 151, 208

Unalterable ISitrate of Silver Pills . 489
Unguentum Hydrargyri Nitratis (Gr.

Mee) . 648

PAGE

Utley, A., Liquor Ferri Perchloridi 24

Tarnish, Colourless . 338

Vegetable Oils, Manufacture of . . 127

Vermifuge, a New Indian .... 192

- The Two Measures . 532

Vitality, or the Correlation of Phy¬
sical and Vital Phenomena (Dr. C.

Allbutt) . 468

Vizer, E. B., The Proposed Phar¬
macy Act . 26

- The Two Measures . 532

Volumetric Analysis (R. Parkinson) 417
Vry, Dr. J. E. de, Amount of Alka¬
loids in the Cinchona Trees of

Java . 15

- , Determination of

the Amount of Alkaloid in Cin¬
chona Bark . 50

- ? ITse of Quinovic

Acid in Medicine ...... 18

Warington, R., Alcohol as a Test
for the Purity of Croton Oil . .382

Warren, J. T. P. B., Cultivation of
Medicinal Plants at Mitcham 157, 256
Water (W. E. Heatlifield) . . .583

- , Boiling, Lecture on (W. R.

G-roves) . . 106

Watts, J., Phosphate of Ammonia of
the British Pharmacopoeia . . . 508

Weights and Measures, Metric, Act 36

- Used in

Pharmacy, Report on (B. S. Proc¬
tor) . 153, 218

Weir, J., Myroxylon Toluiferum,
and the Mode of Procuring the

Balsam of Tolu . 60

Weston, S. J., State of Pharmacy in
France .......... 326

Whitla, J., & H. N. Draper, Prepa¬
ration of an Improved Wine of

Iron . 169, 277

Whysall, W., Fraud and Death . . 334

Wilkinson, W., Letter on Pharmacy

Bill . 476

— - , Sale of Poisons . . 530

Willmott, W., the New Light . . 536
Wine of Iron, Commercial (F. Sut¬
ton) . 170, 278

- , Preparation of an

Improved (H. N. Draper and J.

Whitla) . 169

- , Seaweed (R. W. Tamplin) . 435

Yew, Deer Poisoned by Browsing on 489

- Tree Berries, Poisoning by . . 489

Yewdall, E., Liquor Ferri Perchloridi 375

PRINTED BY

JOHN EDWARD TAYLOR, LITTLE QUEEN STREET

LINCOLN S INN FIELDS.

k •
■

LIST

OF THE

MEMBERS, ASSOCIATES, AND APPRENTICES

OF

INCLUDING THE NAMES OF THE LOCAL SECRETARIES.

1865.

MEMBERS OE THE COUNCIL.

PRESIDENT.

George Webb Sandeord, 47, Piccadilly.

VICE-PRESIDENT.

Thomas Hyde Hills, 338, Oxford Street.

TREASURER.

Daniel Bell Hanbury, Plough Court, Lombard Street.

Bird, William Lionel
Bottle, Alexander ..

Brady, Henry B .

Davenport, John Thistlewood

Deane, Henry .

Edwards, George .

Edwards, John Baker .

Evans, Henry Sugden .

Haselden, Adolphus E .

Mac kay, John .

Morson, Thomas N. R .

Orrtdge, Benjamin B .

Randall, William Brodribb...

Savage, William Dawson .

Squire, Peter .

Standring, Thomas .

Watts, William Manning .

Waugh, George . . .

42, Castle Street, Oxford Street.

37, Townwall Street, Dover.

40, Mosley St., Newcastle-on-Tyne.
33, Great Russell Street, Bloomsbury.
Clapham.

Dartford.

Royal Institution, Liverpool.

56, Hanover Street, Liverpool.

18, Conduit Street.

121, George Street, Edinburgh.

38, Queen’s Square, Bloomsbury.

30, Bucklersbury.

146, High Street, Southampton.

65, Edward Street, Brighton.

277, Oxford Street.

. 1, Piccadilly, Manchester.

32, Whitecross Street.

177, Regent Street.

SECRETARY AND REGISTRAR.

Elias Bremridge, 17, Bloomsbury Square.

a

11

HONORARY MEMBERS.

Archer, Thomas Croxen, Industrial Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh.
Balard, Antoine Jerome, Professor, College of France, and Faculty of Science,
Paris.

Boudet, Felix, Memhre de l’Academie cle Medecine, Paris.

Brande, William Thomas, F.R.S., Royal Mint, London.

Cap, Paul Antoine, Correspondant de l’Academie de Medecine, Paris.
Christison, Robert, M.D., F.R.S.E., Edinburgh.

Clark, Thomas, M.D., Aberdeen.

Cleghorn, Hugh F. C., M.D., Madras.

Coindet, — , M.D., Geneva.

Daniell, William Freeman, M.D., F.R.C.S., F.L.S.

He Vry, John Elishee, M.D., The Hague.

Helviniotti, Giovanni Battista B., Professor of Physics and Chemistry, Corfu.
Dey, Baboo Kanny Loll, Calcutta.

Horvault, Francois Laurent Marie, Directeur de la Pharmacie Centrale des
Pharmaciens, Paris.

Farre, Frederic John, M.H., High Road, Lee.

Fayk Pasha (Francis Delia Sudda), Constantinople.

Eehling, Hermann von, Professor of Chemistry, Stuttgard.

Frankland, Edward, Ph.D., F.R.S., Royal Institution, London.

Garrod, Alfred Baring, M.D., F.R.S., 84, Harley Street, Cavendish Square.
Graham, Thomas, F.R.S., Master of the Mint, London.

Guibourt, Nicolas Jean Baptiste Gaston, Membre de l’Academie de Medecine,
Professeur a l’Ecole de Pharmacie, Paris.

Hamberg, Nils Peter, M.D., Inspector of the Pharmaceutical Institution,
Stockholm.

Herapath, William, F.C.S., Bristol.

Hofmann, Augustus William, LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., Berlin.

Holst, Frederik, Christiania.

Landerer, Xavier, M.D., Athens.

Liebig, Baron Justus von, M.D., F.R.S., Munich.

Bindley, John, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Acton Green, near London.

Macadam, Stephenson, Ph.D., F.RS.E., Edinburgh.

Maclagan, Douglas, M.D., F.R.S.E., Edinburgh.

Martiny, Eduard, M.D., Fulda, Hesse Cassel.

Martiny, Julius, M.D., Gaualgesheim, Hesse Darmstadt.

Martius, Carl Friedrich Philipp von, M.D., F.R.S., Munich.

Mialhe, Louis, M.D., Professeur agrege a la Faculte de Medecine, Paris.
Miller, William Allen, M.D., F.R.S., King’s College, London.

Mohr, Friedrich, M.D., Coblentz.

Odling, William, M.B., F.R.S., Sydenham Road, Croydon.

O’Shaughnessy, Sir William Brooke, M.D.

Parlatore, Filippo, Professor of Botany, Royal Museum Nat. Hist., Florence.
Pelouze, Theopliile Jules, Membre de l’Acaclemie des Sciences, Paris.
Procter, William, jun., Philadelphia.

Rees, George Owen, M.D., F.R.S., 26, Albemarle Street, Piccadilly.
Schrotter, Anton, Ph.D., Imperial Academy, Vienna.

Schweitzer, Edward Gustavus, F.C.S., Brighton.

Stas, Jean Servais, Member of the Department of Science, Royal Academy,
Bruxelles.

Stenhouse, John, LL.D., F.R.S., 17, Rodney Street, Pentonville, near London.
Taylor, Alfred Swaine, M.D., F.R.S., 15, St. James’s Terrace, Regent’s Park.
Thwaites, G. H. K., F.R.S., F.L.S., Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradenia,
Ceylon.

Ure, Alexander, A.M., F.R.C.S., 18, Upper Seymour Street, Portman Square.

HONORARY MEMBERS.

Ill

Victoria, the President of the Pharmaceutical Society.
Warington, Robert, F.C.S., Apothecaries’ Hall, London.
Weddell, H. A., M.D., F.L.S., Poitiers, France.

Wood, George B., M.D., Philadelphia.

Aviirtz, Charles Adolphe, M.D., Ecole de Medecine, Paris.

FOREIGN AND COLONIAL LIFE MEMBERS.

Year of
Member¬
ship.

No. of
Certificate.

NAME.

RESIDENCE.

1851

Alexander, James Lyon .

. Sydney

1858

486

Avice, Charles Ernest .

Mauritius

1848

34

Baeer, Gustave E . .

Strasbourg

1855

401

Baissac, Pierre Joseph .

. Mauritius

1859

Baker, George S .

. Geneva

1852

167

Baschet, George Constant...

. Mauritius

1858

505

Baschet, Pierre Edmond ...

. Mauritius

1849

Baylis, William .

. Launceston, Tasmania

1852

Bishop, William .

. Wellington, N. Zealand

1858

506

Boulle, Janvier Alfred .

. Mauritius

1862

Bowen, William .

. Melbourne

1852

Carpenter, Henry .

. Demerara

1854

347

l)ru, Casimir Theodore A. . . .

1864

726

Ferreira, Antonio Alves .

. Rio de Janeiro

1849

74

Fleurot, Emile .

. Mauritius

1855

389

Francis, Henry .

. Melbourne

1859

3

French, Joseph B .

. Castlemaine, Australia

1863

701

Gras, Marcel Amedee .

. Mauritius

1864

438

Groves, Henry .

_ Florence

1853

Guiot, Jean Felix E .

. Mauritius

1863

702

Guiot, Louis Edouard .

. Mauritius

1861

418

Kemp, David Skinner .

. Bombay

1847

Lediard, Charles .

. St. Vincent

1847

28

Mailloux, Joseph .

. Mauritius

1859

558

Mathew, John Alfred .

. Cape Town

1858

508

Minet, Alphonse Edouard....

. Mauritius

1863

704

Merle, Etienne Nemours ....

. Mauritius

.1847

19

Nobrega, Gerardo Jose da .

. ...Madeira

1855

407

Noel, Ferdinand .

. Mauritius

1860

526

Parker, Charles .

. Melbourne

1859

549

Perrot, Pierre Benoni .

. Mauritius

1852

118

Begnaud, Charles .

. Mauritius

1860

588

Renaud, Desire Monchery .

. Mauritius

1850

Roberts, Henry .

. . . .Florence

1852

Roberts, Thomas H .

. Gibraltar

1852

72

Sinimberghi, Nicholas .

. Rome

1858

467

Skinner, Henry .

. Kingston, Canada West

1857

468

De Valance, Charles P .

. Mauritius

1859

White, Robert .

. California

The figures in the second column correspond with the number of the Cer¬
tificate of Examination.

a 2

fear of

Mem-

ership.

1864

1850

1841

1864

1842

1857

1862

1842

1841

1853

1841

1853

1864

1841

1841

1859

1865

1861

1845

1841

1842

1841

1856

1848

1853

1865

1853

1841

1864

1844

1841

1851

1863

1853

1853

1864

1841

1842

1850

1841

1865

1859

1843

1842

1841

1863

1853

1842

1865

1853

1 Q A Q

IV

LONDON MEMBERS.

NAME.

ADDRESS.

Alexander, William . 91, Blackman Street, Borough

Allchin, Alfred . Richmond Road, Barnsbury Park

Allen, William . 2, Morgan’s Place, Islington

Allen, Henry . 20, Charterhouse Square

A.nderson, Charles . 23, Lower Belgrave Street

Andrews, Frederick . 23, Leinster Terrace, Upper Hyde

Applegate, Edwin . Upper Holloway [Pk. Gardens

Appleton, Thomas Cass ...45, Curzon Street

Ashton, William . 154, Sloane Street

Attwood, Alfred . 61, Cannon Street

Austin, Henry . 161, Bermondsey Street

Bailey, Delamore J . .30, Conduit Street

Baily, John . Clapham Road

Baiss, James . 102, Leadenhall Street

Baiss, William A . 102, Leadenhall Street

Baker, Alfred Philip . 374, Old Kent Road

Balch, Edwin . 14, Claremont Place, North Brixton

Baldock, John Henry . 14, Claremont Place, North Brixton

Ball, Thomas M . 77, St. George’s Road, Southwark

Balmer, John . 94, St. John Street Road

Barber, Joseph . ...'7, Orange Street, Red Lion Square

Barber, Thomas A . 2, Scott’s Place, Islington

Barkley, William . 3, Langham Place

Barnard, John . 31, Upper Gower Street

Barnes, James B . 1, Trevor Terrace, Knightsbridge

Barret, Edward Louis . 22, Thrawl Street, Spitalfields

Barron, Frederick . 2, Bush Lane

Bartlett, William . 1, Brettin Terrace, Chelsea

^Bass, James . 81, Hatton Garden

Bastick, William . 2, Brook Street

Bayley, Edmund . 17, St. Mary’s Terr., Walworth Rd.

Beaton, John . Kilburn

Beaton, William John . 132, Edgware Road

Becket, William E . 6, Giltspur Street

^Bell, William Henderson. . .48, Albany Street, Regent’s Park

Berdoe, Edward . 511, Hackney Road

Bigg, Thomas . . Great Dover Street

Binge, Thomas . 23, Stockbridge Terrace, Pimlico

Bird, Augustus . 22, High Street, Kensington

Bird, William L . ...42, Castle Street East

Bird, Robert . Clapham

Bishop, Alfred . Mile End New Town

Blake, Charles T . 47, Piccadilly

Bland, John . 57, Penton Street, Pentonville

Blandford, John F . 9, Bruton Street

Bolton, Horatio Nelson ...High Street, Stoke Newington

Bolton, William . 146, Holborn Bars

Bond, Henry . . . 11, Cross Street, Hoxton New Town

Booth, Samuel . 33, Cardington Street

Boothby, Henry Neal . 72, Crawford Street

Boully, Peter . Queen’s Road, Bayswater

Bourdas, Isaiah . 10, Pont Street, Belgrave Square

* Life Members.

LONDON MEMBERS OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

V

Year of
Mem¬
bership.

1862

1842

1852
1842
1847

1853
1845
1842
1864
1842
1842

1845

1846
1853
1857
1855
1853
1853
1864
1853

1847
1853
1845

1853
1849

1852

1854
1842
1845

1853
1841
1848-
1841
1853
1864
1853

1848
1862

1864
1853
1845

1859
1853

1841
1853

1852

1853

1842
1848
1845

1865

1860
1841
1841

No. of

Certi¬

ficate.

NAME.

ADDRESS.

604

190

52

333

708

191

728

466

769

377

#Bourdas, Isaiah, jun . 21, Upper Eccleston-pl.,Belgraverd.

Bowden, Edward . 13, Charles Street, St. James’s

Bower, William . 96, Tottenham Court Hoad

Bradley, John . 4, Grove Road, St. John’s Wood.

Brewer, Eli . 43, Duke Street, Manchester Sq.

Bromley, Richard Martin.. Denmark Hill

Brooks, Charles . South ville, Wandsworth Road

Brown, James . 27, Aldgate

Brown, Robert Thomas ...40, Essex Road

Buck, Thomas . Kingsland Green

Buckle, Christopher Fran. 77, Gray’s Inn Road

#Burden, Edward . 38, Duke Street, Grosvenor Square

Burden, Thomas . 6, Store Street, Bedford Square

Burgoyne, James . 16, Coleman Street

*Butt, Edward North way... 235, Oxford Street

Carr, John . 171, High Holborn

Carrick, James . 46, Churton Street, Belgrave Road

Carteighe, John . 172, New Bond Street

Carteighe, Michael . 172, New Bond Street

#Chard, Frederick J . 13, Eccleston Street South

Charsley, Nathaniel . 4, Manor Rise, Brixton

Chubb, James C . . 59, St. John Street, Clerkenwell

Clarke, Benjamin . Mare Street, Hackney

#Cockrill, James . 2, Wellington St., Waterloo Town

Cocksedge, Henry B . 20, Bucklersbury

Colchester, William M. ...2, Crown Street, Hoxton

Coles, Charles . 1, King’s College Road.

Coles, John . New Road, Camberwell

Collins, John R . Haverstock Hill

Collins, Robert N . Oxford Court, Cannon Street

Compton, Charles . 14, Brewer Street, Golden Square

Constance, Edward . 37, Leadenhall Street

Constance, William . 5, Hanover Place, Regent’s Park

Cooke, John . 171, Hoxton Old Town

Cooper, Albert . 10, Abingdon Terrace, Kensington

Cooper, Robert H . 20, Royal Exchange

Cooper, William T . 26, Oxford Street

Cooper, William Henry ...Andover Terrace, Hornsey Road

^Cornelius, James . Camden Road

Cornelius, Joseph . Clapham

Cracknell, Charles . 107, Edgware Road

Crispe, James . 4, Cheapside

Cross, Henry . 309, New North Road

Croucher, John T . 223, High Street, Shad well

Croyden, Charles . 37, Wigmore Street

Curtis, Frederick . 48, Baker Street

*Darby, Stephen . 140, Leadenhall Street

Davenport, John T . 33, Great Russell St., Bloomsbury

Davids, George Ware . South Hackney

Davies, Henry E . 43, Wood Street, City

Davies, William . 292, Gray’s Inn Road

Davies, William G . 28, Sidney Place, Commercial Road

#Davy, Charles . 100, Upper Thames Street

Deane, Henry . Clapham

VI

LONDON MEMBERS OF

Year of
Mem¬
bership.

No. of
Certi¬
ficate.

NAME.

.1850

Dickinson, William .

1842

Doughty, Ed. Davidson ..

1852

Dowthwaitc, William .

1864

729

Dver, Abraham J .

1859

352

Dyson, William B .

1845

Eade, George .

1847

Eardley, John .

1853

Edwards, William S .

1853

Elam, Benjamin .

1853

Elkington, Edward .

1849

Ellis, George H .

1853

Elvey, Thomas .

1841

Evans, John .

1851

Evans, John II .

1841

Eaulconer, .Robert S .

1864

762

Faulkner, James .

1853

Fells, John .

1853

Fenn, John T .

1856

88

#Field, James John .

1841

Field, William .

1842

Fincham, Robert .

1864

Foott, Richard Rogers ..

1857

160

Forrest, Richard .

1842

Foulger, Samuel .

1841

Fowler, Richard .

1863

623

#Fowler, Stanley .

1841

Fox, William .

1856

Francis, George B .

1853

Freeman, Richard .

1843

#Freeman, Robert .

1853

Gadd, Charles .

1842

Gale, Henry .

1854

78

Gale, Samuel .

1841

Garden, Alexander .

1843

Garden, Felix R .

1858

Gedge, William Stedman. .

1850

^Gerard, Philip Augustus...

1848

Gigner, John .

1843

Gill George W .

1842

Glover, George .

1841

#Gloyne, Charles Glynne ..

1853

Golding, William .

1842

Goodbarne, Thomas .

1842

Goodbarne, Thomas R .

1853

Goode, Thomas .

1847

Goodger, David .

1853

Goosey, William .

1853

Gorton, John G .

1854

^Gosden, Henry .

1856

Gould, John .

1853

Gould, John Granger .

1847

Greenish, Thomas .

1853

Groves, Edward .

1842

Griffiths, John . .

ADDRESS.

John’s Wd.

Baker Street

St.

George’s Street East

THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

Vll

Year of
Mem¬
bership.

1853

1853

1863

1851
1857

1841
1857

1863

1852

1855
1843

1842

1853

1841

1843

1842

1864

1852

1865
1842

1853
1848

1864
1852

1848

1852
1841

1841

1842

1853

1849
1851
1853
1853
1841

1841

1859

1856
1856

1842

1841

1843
1853

1842
1862
1853
1853
1842
1841
1848

1865

1860
1863
1841

703

38

772

571

561

175

412

435

494

198

803

497

685

Grisdale, John M . 216, Tottenham Court Road

Gristock, Thomas . 42, South St., Manchester Square

Grundy, Thomas . 27, Chalk Farm Road

Gulliver, William . 33, Lower Belgrave Street

Hall, Robert . 48, Wigmore Street

^Hanbury, Daniel Bell . Plough Court, Lombard Street

*Hanbury, Daniel . Plough Court, Lombard Street

Harrison, Robert Hooper.. Pownall Road, Dalston

Harvey, Edward . 6, Giltspur Street

Haselden, Adolphus F . 18, Conduit Street

Hemingway, Alexander. ...20, Portman Street

Henly, John C . 213, Upper Thames Street

Henty, Henry M . 87, High Street, St. John’s Wood

Herring, Edward . 40, Alclersgate Street

Hewitt, John . 1, Wellclose Street, Wellclose Sq.

Hewlett, Charles J . Cree Church Lane

Hickey, Evan Lewis . 199, King’s Road, Chelsea

Hickley, Thomas P . ‘...15, St. Alban’s Place, Edgware Road

^Hickman, William . Archer Street, Hotting Hill

Hill, Arthur S . 11, Little Britain

Hill, Arthur B . 11, Little Britain

Hills, Thomas Hyde . 338, Oxford Street

#Hinton, Henry A . 35, Bedford Street, Covent Garden

Hockin, John B . 38, Duke Street, Manchester Square

Hodgkinson, Henry . 3, Newland Terrace, Kensington

Hogg, Robert . 9, Albion Place, Hyde Park Square

Hooper, Bartlett . 43, King William Street, City

Hooper, William . 24, Gt. Russell St., Covent Garden

Hooper, William . 7, Pall Mall East*

Hopkin, William K . 5, New Cavendish Street

Hopkins, Thomas . 34, Montague Square

Hopkins, Thomas B . Tulse Hill, Brixton

Hora, Henry W . 58, Minories

Horncastle, John . 12, Stanhope Terrace

Horner, Edward . 20, Bucklersbury

Horner, James T . 20, Bucklersbury

Howden, Robert . 78, Gracechurch Street

Howell, Maurice . Peckham

#Howell. Thomas . 168, High Street, Camden Town

Hucklebridge, James M...103, Upper Ebury Street

Hudson, William B . 27, Haymarket

Hughes, William P . 171, Hoxton Old Town

Hugill, John . 61, Cannon Street

Humpage, Benjamin . 51, Judd Street

Humphreys, Richard . 9, Upper Belsize Ter., Belsize Park

*Hunt, William . Camberwell Green

Huskisson, Henry O . 12, Constitution Row, Gray’s InnRd.

Huskisson, John . 12, Swinton Street

^Huskisson, William . 12, Swinton Street

Huxtable, John . 104, St. John’s Street Road

Hyslop, John Cahill . 54, New Church St., Lisson Grove

Hcke, Henry Scott . 11, Old Fish Street

Ince, Joseph . 26, St. George’s PL, Kniglitsbridge

Jackson, John . 47, Southampton Row

LONDON MEMBERS OE

Vlll

Year of
Mem¬
bership.

No. of
Certi¬
ficate.

NAME.

ADDRESS.

1845

Jeynes, George W .

42, Princess Street, Edgware Koad

1853

592

Jobson, Thomas C. W. ...87, Lever Street, Goswell Street

1861

Johnson, Benjamin M. ...

70, Tottenham Court Koad

1853

Jolley, George .

13, Curzon Street, Mayfair

1849

Jones, Henry S .

139, Fulham Koad

1842

Jones, Peter .

11 , Norton Folgate

1864

774

Jones, William .

Allason Terrace, Kensington

1845

Jones, William John ......

3, New! and Terrace, Kensington

1841

Keating, Thomas .

79, St. Paul’s Churchyard

1842

Kemp, Kichard .

208, Upper Street, Islington

1842

Kemp, Kobert .

205, Holloway Koad

1859

325

Kendall, Charles Fisher ...

14, Old Dorset Place, Clapham Koad

1841

Kent, Thomas .

226, Blackfriars Koad

1848

#Kernot, George .

3, Chrisp Street, Poplar

1852

81

Kershaw, George .

113, Park Street, Camden Town

1853

Kettle, Joseph .

42, Castle Street East

1862

307

Kiddle, William Lambert .34, Tavistock Place

1853

King, Charles T . .

86, Snow Hill

1853

King, Kobert .

7, Cran bourne Street

1855

309

Kingdon, William Y .

6, Devonshire Terrace, NottingHill

1853

Lacy, Benjamin W .

13, Westbourne Grove

1842

^Langton, Frederick C. K...

226, Upper Thames Street

1850

Large, John H .

65, New North Koad

1853

Lavers, Henry Kichard ..

28, Old Street Koad

1857

429

Lawrence, Henry .

49, High Street, Kensington

1855

Lawrence, Frederick .

383, Kentish Town Koad

1841

Lescher, Joseph S .

60, Bartholomew Close

1842

Lessey, John .

97, High Street, Marylebone

1853

Li dwell. Joshua E .

130, High Street, Notting Hill

1861

388

#Lomas, Joseph W .

5, Henry’s Place, Old Kent Koad

1853

260

Long, George .

42, St. George’s Koad, Battersea

1860

586

Long, Henry .

48, High Street. Notting Hill

1853

Lowe, William E .

8, Stafford Street, Bond Street

1841

Mmckombe, Charles .

86, Snow Hill

1863

Mackey, John Brunt .

15, Bouverie Street

1841

#Mackmurdo, Edward .

.100, Upper Thames Street

1849

McCulloch, Charles .

Covent Garden

1842

McCulloch, William .

5, Coleman Street

1853

McDougall, William .

8, Union Terrace, Notting Hill

1849

Maitland, Alexander .

8, Torrington Place, Torrington Sq

1841

Maitland, John .

10, Chester Place, Hyde Park

1853

Mansell, William .

Plough Court, Lombard Street

1853

Marris, Joseph .

37, Berners Street

1853

Marshall, Thomas .

2, Claylands Place, Clapham Koad

1853

Matland, George .

10, Nassau Place, Commercial Koad

1842

May, John .

Battersea

1857

#Medlock, Henry .

20, Great Marlborough Street

1842

Meggeson, George .

Wandsworth

1853

Merrell, James .

.1, Queen’s Terrace, Camden Villas

1857

485

#Michell, Frederic .

3, Kye Lane, Peckham

1863

Middleton, Francis .

338, Oxford Street

1855

Mitchell, John .

254, Upper Street, Islington

1842

Moodv, James .

24, Church Street, Camberwell

1846

Moore, J ames L .

1, Craven Place, Westbourne Ter.

Year of

Mem¬

bership.

1841

1864

1864

• 1853

1841

1841

1855

1855

1860

1853

1865

1855

1864

1841

1841

1853

1853

1842

1853

1841

1842

1853

1843

1854

1842

1858

1843

1841

1854

1842

1846

1842

1865

1855

1859

1853

1841

1861

1856

1865

1854

1845

1848

1843

1860

1863

1841

1842

1857

1859

1848

1841

1865

1843

THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

IX

NAME.

ADDRESS.

*Mordaunt, John .

^Morgan, David . Camden Town

^Morris, Henry . 2, Queen’s Terr., St. John’s Wood

Morson, Thomas . 19, Southampton Eow

#Morson, Thomas N. R. ...38, Queen Square, Bloomsbury

#Moscrop, Edward H . 140, Strand

Mould, Samuel . 21, Moorgate Street

Mumford, George . 5, Bathurst Street, Hyde Park

Nicholson, Frederick . 216, St. Paul’s Head, Highbury

Northway, John . 27, Great Tower Street

Nos worthy, Hobert . 207, Hollowaj^ Hoad

Oldfield, Henry . 88, Leadenhall Street

Orpe, Thomas N . 329, Old Kent Hoad

Orridge, Benjamin B. ......30, Bucldersbury

#Orridge, William . 22, Ludgate Hill

Palmer, Hobert . 35, Ovington Square

#Parnell, George William.. .11, Victoria Hoad, Pimlico

Pasmore, James . 5, Colville Terrace, Chelsea

Pattison, George . 126, St. John Street Hoad

Pedler, George S . 199, Fleet Street

#Penrose, Arthur W ellesley 7, Amwell Street, Clerkenwell

Pepper, John . 1, Bedford Street, Bedford Square

Peppin, Sydenham H . 25, Princes Street, Leicester Sq.

Phillips, John . 106, King’s Cross Hoad

Philpot, Henry . 32, Praed Street, Paddington

^Pidduck, John . Harrow Hoad

Plummer, George . High Street, Peckham

Pollock, Thomas . 129, Fenchurch Street

Porter, William Henry ...Loughborough Hoad, Brixton

Potts, Hobert U . 26, South Audley Street

Pratt, Edmund . 27, Bishopsgate Within

Preston, Joseph T. . 88, Leadenhall Street

Preston, Hichard . Fulham Road

Quiller, Charles H . 15, Sloane Square

Radermacher, Charles J....173,. Sloane Street

Headman, Henry . 18, Mortimer Street, Cavendish Sq.

Redwood, Theophilus . 19, Montague Street, Russell Sq.

*Reeve, Edward J . Kilburn

Reynolds, James John . 3, Hanover Street

Hhind, William W . Gloucester Hoad, Regent’s Park

Richards, James . 40, New Bridge Street, Blackfriars

Richardson, George . 12, Norland Place, Notting Hill

Ridsdale, James . 344, Caledonian Hoad

Roach, Pope . 8, St. James’s Street

^Robbins, John . 372, Oxford Street

Roberts, Hen. Constable.. 254, High Street, Southwark.

House, Benjamin R. C . 9, Wellington Street, Southwark

House, Frederick J . Clapham

Rowntree, Thomas . 1, Arundel Place, Islington

Howson, Henry . 18, Chichester Street

Sadler, William C . 13, Norton Folgate

Sainsbury, Samuel . 177, Strand

Salman, "Thomas . Cornwall Hoad, Westbourne Park

Sandford, George W . 47, Piccadilly

4

X

LONDON MEMBERS OF

Year of
Mem¬
bership.

No. of
Certi¬
ficate.

NAME.

1863

610

#Sanger, William Albert ..

1853

Schacht, William .

1843

#Sharpe, George Young ..

1841

#Shirley, John George .

1852

Simmons, Joseph .

1851

89

Sims, John F .

1854

Skidmore, John .

1842

Slipper, James .

1847

Smith, William F .

1854

Snell, Glanville A .

1842

Snelling, Francis .

1843

Solly, Stephen F .

1844

1

# Sparks, John .

1841

*Squire, Peter .

1841

Squire, William .

1863

46

Starkie, Pickard Stringer

1858

147

S fathers. John .

1849

Stead, John M .

1842

Steer, Philip P .

1854

97

Stocken, James .

1850

Stuart, John E .

1853

Summers, James P .

1854

Swire, George .

1841

Swire, Poger .

1853

Symons, William .

1854

Taylor, John .

1864

777

Taylor, Thomas .

1853

Thomas, Henry .

1851

Thomas, Pichard W .

1845

Thompson, Henry A .

1857

372

Tibbs, Frederick .

1860

Tilburn, Pobert James ...

1841

Tippett, Benjamin M .

1841

Tonge, George .

1842

Towerzey, Alfred .

1857

61

Trask, Thomas .

1853

Tupholme, John T .

1859

222

Turner, Charles E .

1853

Turner, Pichard .

1853

Tustin, Thomas H .

1842

Twinberrow, William .

1864

713

Umney, Charles . .

1852

90

Ur wick, William W .

1857

357

#Vizer, Edwin B .

1841

*W agstaff, John Henry .

1842

Walker, Alexander .

1842

WValker, Henry .

1845

Ward, Francis .

1846

^Warner, Charles Fleath ...

1856

110

Watts, Henry Thomas ...

1853

Watts, John .

1844

Watts, William .

1853

Watts, William M .

1841

W augh, George .

ADDRESS.

Barnsbury

.4, Strand

Bond Street

THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

XI

Year of
Mem¬
bership.

Ho. of
Certi¬
ficate.

NAME.

ADDRESS.

1853

Wegg, William .

..10, North Place, Ball’s Pond Road

1842

Westwood, Robert .

..16, Newgate Street

1842

Westwood, William H. . .

..16, Newgate Street

1854

321

Wheeler, Christopher . . . .

..56, Hackney Road

1846

Wheeler, James E .

. .Barnsbury

1853

* Whitburn, Augustus R. .

..174', Regent Street

1852

White, Daniel .

..19, Park Terrace, Regent’s Park

1841

White, Edmund .

..19, Park Terrace, Regent’s Park

1842

Wilkes, George .

. 1. Hayfield Place, Mile End

1853

Wilkinson, William .

..114, Lambeth Walk

1851

Williams, John .

..5, New Cavendish Street

1864

Williams, Joseph John

..Harrow Road

1854

329

Williams, Terrick J .

..13, Tichborne Street

1844

Willmott, William .

..83, High Street, Southwark

1857

Willows, John .

..101, High Holborn

1844

Wilson, Joseph .

..20, Sussex Street, Warwick Square

1S53

Wilson, Thomas .

..Upper Holloway

1853

Windle, William .

..48, Portman Place

1852

111

Wood, Edward .

1842

Wooldridge, John .

..290, Euston Road

1855

364

* W: ran gh am , John .

. .Stockwell

1859

Wright, George Henry .

..7, Poultry

1853

Wright, William V .

.11, Old Fish Street

1842

Wyman, John .

.122, Fore Street

1858

294

*Yarde, Giles .

..28, Lamb’s Conduit Street

1842

Yates, Benjamin .

.25, Budge Row, Cannon Street

1859

443

* Yates, Francis .

.100, Upper Thames Street

1852

Young, Frederick .

.137, Minories

1853

Young, George .

.12, Ebenezer Terrace, Mill Wall

1859

Young, William Herbert.

.35, Baker Street

Xll

COUNTRY MEMBERS.

Year of
Member- |
ship.

No. of
Certificate.

NAME.

RESIDENCE.

1846

Abbott, John Thomas .

Darlington

1853

Abraham, John .

Liverpool

1852

Ackerman, Theophilus .

Bristol

1845

Ackrill, George .

Abergavenny

1847

Acton, George .

Worcester

1853

9

Adams. John .

Loughborough

1853

Aclams, Jonathan Henry .

Stoke-on-Trent

1853

Adkins, Henry James .

Birmingham

1849

Ainslie, William .

Edinburgh

1852

Aitken, William .

Edinburgh

1849

Albright, Henry .

Liverpool

1853

Aldridge, Alexander John .

Brighton

1852

Alexander, James .

Greenock

1862

658

*Allan, Bruce .

Edinburgh

1861

620

* Allan, William .

Dumfries

1848

Allan son, Charles .

Harrogate

1853

Allen, Adam IT. . .

Lymington

1843

Allen, George .

Ampthill

1859

555

#Allen, James Hore .

Tottenham

1847

Allen, Thompson .

Boston

1853

Allis, Francis .

Teignmouth

1853

Alpass, Horace S. .

Liverpool

1842

Amooire, Charles .

Hastings

1858

400

Amos, Daniel .

Canterbury

1853

Anderson, Charles Thomas .

J ersey

1852

119

Anderson, James .

Musselburgh

1862

477

#Andrew, Leyshon .

Swansea

1853

Andrew, William .

Aberdeen

1841

Andrews, John Betts .

Clare

1853

Andrews, Thomas William Cox ..

N orwieh

1854

375

#Anness, Samuel Richard .

Ipswich

1841

Anthony, Jacob .

Bedford

1862

533

#Anthony, John Lilley .

Bedford

1865

753

Appleton, Robert .

.Hawthorn, Victoria

1853

Archer, Thomas .

Southam

1841

Argles, Henry .

Maidstone

1858

268

Argles, John .

Maidstone

1841

Armstrong, Henry .

Preston

1853

Arnold, Adolphus .

Guernsey

1841

Arnold, Edward .

N orwieh

1842

Arthy, Joseph .

Peterborough

1853

Ash, James Freer .

Wiveliscombe

1853

Ashton, John Swan .

.Leicester

1864

510

#Ashton, John .

Belper

1853

Ashton, William .

.Southport

1853

Aslin, John .

Sunderland

1846

Asling, Brelsford .

Spalding

1859

457

Atherton, John Henry .

Nottingham

1861

419

#Atkins, Ernest .

Deptford

1846

Atkins, Francis Thomas .

Woolwich

COUNTRY MEMBERS.

xm

Year of
Mem¬
bership.

No. of
Certificate.

NAME.

RESIDENCE.

1842

Atkins, Francis Thomas .

Deptford

1853

Atkins, Samuel Ralph .

. Salisbury

1855

420 *

"Atkinson, Matthew .

1853

Atkinson, Richard Marshall....

. Leeds

1842

p Atkinson, Stephen .

1850

Aubin, James .

1853

Backhouse, William .

....Leeds

1844

Badcock, John .

1841

Baildon, Henry C .

1852

Baildon, William .

1853

Bailey, Richard .

1858

431

Bailey, Richard .

1841

Bailey, William .

. W olverhampton

1845

Baines, Richard .

1850

Baker, Charles Patrick .

1861

Baker, Garrad .

1841

Baker, William .

. Chelmsford

1852

Baker, William .

. Twickenham Green

1842

Baker, William .

1864

768

Balkwill, Alfred P. .

. Plymouth

1855

391

*Balkwill, Frederick Pryor ....

. Plymouth

1844

Ball, George Vincent .

Banbury

1841

Ball, Joseph .

Oxton,nr. Birkenhd.

1842

Ballard, Edwin . , .

Farringdon

1842

Ballard, William .

Abingdon

1850

Balls, George .

Deptford

1845

Bally, Edward F .

Baldock

1859

295

Baly, James .

Warwick

1848

12

Bancroft, John James .

Ruthin

1859

509

Banfield, Harold .

Walthamstow

1841

Banks, Morris .

Birmingham

1859

484

^Banner, Samuel .

Liverpool

1853

Barber, George .

Liverpool

1845

Barclay, John . . .

Falmouth

1853

Barker, Joseph .

Sudbury

1846

Barling, Thomas .

W eymouth

1853

Barlow, Samuel .

.Darlington

1841

Barnes, James .

Preston

1850

Barnett, William .

Brighton

1853

Barnish, Edwin H .

.Wigan

1853

Barritt, George .

.Croydon

1849

Barron, William .

.Cheltenham

1853

Barry, Edwin .

.Northampton

1853

Barry, James .

.Northampton

1861

256

Barry, Thomas .

.Ealing

1853

Barstow, Charles H .

. S poifortli

1853

Barton, Charles .

. Brighton

1847

Barton, Henry .

.Brighton

1842

Bass, William Thomas .

.Enfield

1846

Bassett, Charles .

.Pontypridd

1853

Batchelor, Charles .

.Fareham

1853

Bateman, John Bird .

.Manchester

1861

243

Bates, James .

Wellington

1850

Bates, William I .

.Macclesfield

XIV

COUNTRY MEMBERS OF

Year of
Mem¬
bership.

No. of .
Certificate.

NAME.

RESIDENCE.

1853

Bath, Bichard C .

. Devonport

1842

Battle, John Bichard .

. Lincoln

1841

Baumbrougk, William .

. Wandsworth

1855

207

Baxter, William Walmisley ...

. Bromley

1841

Baynes, James .

. Hull

1858

402

Baylis, Thomas .

. Worcester

1801

Beach, James .

. Bridport

1847

Beadon, John .

. Taunton

1852

Beard, James .

. Manchester

1842

Beardsley, John .

. Nottingham

1853

Beaumont, William 41 .

1847

Beckett, John . . .

. Scarborough

1841

Beech, Joseph .

. Atherstone

1844

Beesley, Thomas .

. Banbury

1853

Bell, Edward C .

. Dudley

1857

280

Bell, Francis .

. Bradford

1857

168

Bell, James .

. Manchester

1862

Bell, William .

. Carlisle

1842

Bennett, George .

. Newark

1850

Bennett, John W .

. Leigh, Lancashire

1865

816

Berridge, Alfred .

. Leicester

1847

Berry, Edward .

. Gloucester

1853

Berry, Henry James .

. Worthing

1853

Bettison. Joseph .

. Chesterfield

1853

Betts, John .

. Woodbridge

1847

Bevan, Charles E .

. Harwich

1855

270

Biggs, Walter . . .

. Hampstead

1865

817

Bing, Edwin .

1865

760

Bingley, John..., .

....Northampton

1853

Binns, Samuel .

. Sheffield

1863

622

#Bircli, Henry Cooper .

. Upper Norwood

1842

Birch, Thomas Edwards .

. Mold

1842

Bird, Alfred .

. Birmingham

1841

Bishop, Robert .

. Eye

1849

Bishop, Thomas . . : .

. Woolwich

1853

Black, James .

. Leven

1842

Blackburn, Bailey .

. Bradford

1852

Blacklock, Henry .

....Bournemouth

1841

Blacklock, Joseph D .

1845

Blacksliaw, Thomas .

1842

Blades, Christopher .

1846

Blades, Holland .

1842

Blades, Sherriff .

1856

Blake, William E .

.... Stroud

1857

Bland, John Handel .

1852

#Blan shard, George .

1853

Blanshard, Thomas .

. Edinburgh

1848

Bloor, Joseph .

....Derby

1853

Blunt, Thomas .

....Shrewsbury

1842

Bolton, Thomas .

....Tenter den

1850

Bond, Charles .

. . . .Kidderminster

1842

Bond, John .

. . . .Great Yarmouth

1842

Bond, John .

....Minehead

1853

Bond, Laurence V .

THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

XV

Year of
Mem¬
bership.

No. of
Certificate

NAME.

RESIDENCE.

1848

Boocock, John .

. Leeds

1852

116

Boorne, Charles .

1853

Booth, James . .

. Blackburn

1841

Booth, James .

1842

Booth, John .

1853

Booth, Thomas Buckley .

. Eccles

1859

332

Borland, John . * .

1853

Bostock, William .

. Ashton-u. -Lyne

1855

304

Botham, William .

1842

Bottle, Alexander .

1863

495

^Boucher, John .

1849

Bowen, Henry F .

. Brighton

1853

Bowerbank, Fawcett .

. Cockermouth

1841

Bowerbank, Joseph .

1847

Bowers, James D .

. Chester

1843

Bowers, Thomas .

. Chester

1853

Bowker, James .

. Manchester

1853

Bowles, Charles A .

1858

29

Bowman, William .

. York

1863

209

Boyce, George .

. Chertsey

1853

257

#Boyce, John Pierce .

. Windsor

1841

Boyce, John Pierce .

. Chertsey

1842

Braddock, William .

. Oldham

1856

411

#Brady, Henry B .

. Hewcastle-on-Tyne

1853

Bragg, William B .

. M arket H arborough

1842

Brailey, Charles .

. Heavitree

1849

Bramwell, George .

. Liverpool

1863

683

*Bray. John .

. Sheerness

1842

Bray-shay, William Bolam .

. Stockton

1842

Brearejr, William A .

. Douglas

1846

Bremner, William .

. Thurso

2845

Brend, Thomas .

. Swansea

1-858

272

Breton, Walter .

. Brighton

1858

428

#Brevitt, William Y .

. Wol verhampton

1842

Brew, Thomas Archer .

. Brighton

1864

Brewster. Godfrey Watson ...

. Cambridge

1853

Brierley, Bichard .

. Stalybridge

1842

Briggs, James .

. Tipton

1863

611

Briggs, James Aston .

. Wolverhampton

1843

Bright, Philip .

. Brecon

1853

Bright, William .

. Bath

1842

Brocklehurst, James .

. Hyde

1853

Bromfield, Charles .

. Exeter

1853

Bromfield, William .

. Crewe

1848

Bromley, Charles .

. Liverpool

1842

Brown, Charles .

. Belper

1852

121

Brown, David B .

. Edinburgh

1864

707

Brown, George .

. Sandown, I. W.

1853

Brown, George .

. Selby

1853

Brown, Samuel .

. Coningsby

1853

Brown, Thomas Dudley .

. Coventry

1850

Brown, Thomas .

. Lutterworth

1853

Brown, Thomson .

. Glasgow

1846

Brown, William .

. Dunfermline

XVI

COUNTRY MEMBERS OF

Year of
Member¬
ship.

No. of
Certificate.

NAME.

RESIDENCE.

1862

612

#Brown, William Henry .

North Shields

1845

Brown, William Scott .

.Manchester

1847

Bryant, William . . .

.Huntingdon

1853

226

Bryce, James .

Dunfermline

1864

736

Buchanan, James .

Edinburgh

1864

739

Buck, Jonathan Marsden .

.Liverpool

1853

Buck, Bichard C .

.Dudley

1853

Bullus, William .

.West Bromwich

1853

Bunn, Charles .

.Colchester

1842

Burdon, John .

.Durham

1848

Burdwood, James .

.Plymouth

1851

Burgess, William .

.Northwich

1853

Burnett, Bobert .

F razerburgh

1853

Burrell, George .

Montrose

1853

Burrow, John Severn .

.Great Malvern

1852

Burrow, Walter B .

Great Malvern

1860

598

^Burton, John .

.Nottingham

1853

Bustin, William .

.Shotley Bridge

1852

Butcher, Thomas .

.Cheltenham

1841

Butler, Samuel .

.Bristol

1853

Butler, Thomas E .

Leicester

1861

627

Buzzard, Thomas Hardy .

.Leicester

1853

Caddick, John .

.Newcastle-u.-Lyne

1853

77

Caley, Albert Jarman .

.Norwich

1842

Calvert, James .

Belper

1849

Calvert, Eobert .

Stokesley

1865

828

Cameron, William .

Kelso

1852

122

Carmichael, Lauchlan .

Edinburgh

1842

Carr, William .

.Leicester

1841

Carr, William Graham .

.Berwick

1844

#Carran, Thomas .

.Peel, Isle of Man

1853

Carruthers, Bichard Birrell .

Dumfries

1850

Carter, William .

.Manchester

1844

Cartwright, William .

.Newcastle-u.-Lyne

1852

Cattle, James .

.Liverpool

1853

Chamberlin, William .

Downton

1846

Chaplin, Alfred .

.Brighton

1855

62

#Chaplin, John Lambert .

Colchester

1853

Chapman, William E .

.Hull

1853

Chapman, Henry .

.Clevedon

1853

Chapman, Henry .

.Ipswich

1853

Chapman, John .

.Tring

1849

Chapman, Bichard J .

.Chipping Ongar

1841

Cliater, Jonathan .

.Watford

1853

Chaundy, Thomas G .

. Oxford

1842

Chave, John Anstey .

.Uxbridge

1849

Cheshire, John .

.Grantham

1862

671

#Chessall, Bolwand . . .

. Sidmouth

1853

Childs, James L . .

.Southsea

1842

Chipperfield, Bobert .

.Southampton

1859

487

#Chrispin, William .

.Darlington

1842

Christopher, William .

.Crickhowell

1861

583

Church, Henry James .

.Cambridge

1853

Churchill, John .

Birmingham

THE PHAKMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

XVU

Year of
Member¬
ship.

No. of
Certificate.

NAME.

EESIDENCE.

1856

Churchouse, William B .

Chard

1863

547

*Clark, John .

Stockton-on-Tees

1845

Clark, John Webster .

Leicester

1853

Clark, Robert .

Devizes

1855

334

Clark, William W .

Dorking

1853

Clarke, Benjamin Joseph .

.Cheltenham

1841

Clarke, Joseph .

.York

1846

Clarke, Thomas Meadows .

.Richmond

1860

200

Clarke, William R .

Northampton

1853

Clater, Francis .

.Retford

1811

Clay, Robert . , .

.Liverpool

1864

599

#Clayton, Henry .

.Eastbourne

1854

201

Clayton, John O .

Leeds

1853

Clennell, John Morton .

N ewcastle-on-Ty ne

1849

Clift, Edward .

.Lewisham

1853

Clift, Joseph .

.Dorking

1858

Coates, John M .

.Newcastle-on-Tyne

1845

^Coates, William .

Leeds

1852

Cochrane, Thomas . .

.Falkirk

1842

Cocking, George .

Ludlow

1853

Cockton, John . . .

. Maryport

1841

Colbeck, George Royde .

.Leamington

1865

613

*Colby, John . . .

.Brighton

1848

Cole, Walter Thomas .

.Weymouth

1853

Collier, William .

.Sheffield

1846

Collier, William .

.York

1859

Collier, William Lindsey .

.Reading

1849

Codings, William Henry .

.Bristol

1852

Colton, Thomas .

.Selby

1853

Commans, Robert Dyer .

.Bath

1853

185

Conacher, David .

. Markinch

1842

Conway, William .

.Pontypool

1843

Cooke, William .

.Norwich

1841

Cooper, George .

.Exeter

1850

Cooper, George Brown . . .

.Brightlmgsea

1852

Cooper, J ames Robert .

.Ashbourne

1853

Cooper, Lewis .

.Reading

1845

Cooper, Mark Ward .

.Bridlington

1841

Cooper, Thomas . .

.Leicester

1845

Cooper, Thomas .

.York

1853

Corfield, Thomas J. T .

.St. Day

1843

Cornelius, Richard Bussell .

.Teignmoutk

1859

469

^Cornell, William .

.Ipswich

1845

Cornish, Henry Roberts .

.Penzance

1843

Cornish, William .

.Brighton

1841

Cortis, Charles .

.Worthing

1853

Cotterell, William Henry .

.Dover

1864

367

Cotton, John Lovering .

Barnstaple

1853

194

Coupland, Henry .

. Liverpool

1853

Coupland, Joseph .

. Harrogate

1842

Cousins, Thomas George .

.Oxford

1842

Coverley, John .

.Scarborough

1845

Cowell, Silas .

.Canterbury

1841

I Crafton, Ralph Caldwell .

. Croydon

b

xviii

COUNTRY MEMBERS OF

*

Year of
Member¬
ship.

No. of
Certificate.

NAME.

RESIDENCE.

1853

Crarer, Jolm .

.Blairgowrie

1853

228

Crick, George Edward .

.Mai cion

1853

Cripps, John .

.Hammersmith

1842

Critchley, John .

.Blackburn

1842

Crocker, Henry Radcliffe .

.Brighton

1853

Crofts, Holmes Cheney .

Chatham

1852

124

Croley, William .

.Edinburgh

1841

Crook, George .

.Farnham

1853

Croskell, Charles .

.York

1847

Cross, William Gower .

. Shrewsbury

1858

432

*Cross, William .

.Cardiff

1853

Crowder, Charles H .

Barton-on-Humber

1846

Crowther, Thomas .

Tickhill

1851

Cuff, Robert C .

Bristol

1853

Cumine, Frederick H .

Southport

1841

Cupiss, Francis .

Diss

1853

Currie, John .

Glasgow

1865

807 '

Currie, John .

Glasgow

1863

693

Curtis, William .

. Barnstaple

1854

273

Cuthbert, John Mason .

.Bedford

1863

470

Cutting, James .

.Leamington

1842

Cutting, James Bray .

.Leamington

1864

590

Cutting, Thomas John .

. Selby

1853

Cutts, Thomas .

.Basford

1865

351

Daines, Thomas .

Kaffraria

1842

Dale, George .

Chichester

1844

Dale, William James .

Portsea

1855

Dance, William D .

. Stourport

1853

Dandie, David .

Perth

1855

126

Danclie, Robert .

.Perth

1850

Davenport, Edward .

St. Albans

1853

Davidson, Charles .

Aberdeen

1846

#Davidson, John .

.Berwick

1861

552

Davies, David .

Cardigan

1853

Davies, John L .

Hay

1853

Davies, Peter Hughes .

.March

1842

Davies, Richard Morgan .

Carmarthen

3865

826

Davies, Moses Prosser .

Tenby

1853

Davies/William Henry .

North Petherton

1856

Davis, D. Frederick .

.Leominster

1841

Davis, Henry .

Leamington

1841

Davis, John .

Dorchester

1848

Davis, John Oliver .

St. Leonards

1859

282

Davis, Richard Hayton .

. Harrogate

1841

Davis, Robert .

.Dorchester

1845

Davison, Ralph .

.York

1854

Dawe, Sampson .

.Monmouth

1853

Dawson, Thomas .

Preston

1853

Day, George .

Blackheath

1853

194

Deck, Arthur .

Cambridge

1845

Dennison, Matthew .

Dudley

1860

523

#Deighton, Thomas Milner .

Bridgnorth

1863

564

*Delf, Frederick Daniel .

Liverpool

1852

Dewar, Peter James .

Dingwall, N.B.

THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

XIX

Year of
Member¬
ship.

No. of
Certificate.

NAME.

RESIDENCE.

1842

Dickerson, Henry .

Devonport

1845

Dickms, Howland .

Aylesbury

1847

Dingley, Eicliard Loxley .

.Evesham

1858

460

*Dixon, Henry .

.Eycle, Isle of Wight

1854

381

*Dixon, William .

.Southampton

1842

Dobinson, William .

. Sunderland

1865

791

Dobinson, William L .

Bi shopwearmoutk

1853

Dobson, James .

.Keswick

1858

Dobson, John .

.Newcastle-on-Tyne

1847

Dodman, Eobert .

.Tkorney

1842

Dodskon, Edward .

.Sunderland

1852

Done, John .

.Manchester

1846

Doubell, James .

.Broadstairs

1855

Doughty. Eichard .

.Bus hey Heath

1842

Dowell, William Cuming .

.Bristol

1845

Dowman, George . • .

.Southampton

1847

Down, Eichard Haydon .

.Torpoint

1853

Downes, Joseph .

.Lower Mitcham

1817

Downing, Joseph G .

. Braintree

1841

Drage, William F .

.Birmingham

1841

Dresser, Eichard .

.York

1841

Duck, Daniel .

. Guisborougk

1846

Dndden, Eichard M .

.Midsomer Norton

1852

^Dudgeon, George .

.Nottingham

1842

Duggan, Henry Stephen .

.Hereford

1863

Dulley, Joseph .

. W olverkampton

1842

Duncan, Frederick McEae .

.Sandwich

1841

Duncan, John .

.Edinburgh

1853

184

Duncan, William .

.Kotkesay

1842

D unhill, William .

.Doncaster

1861

539

*Dunkill, William Workman .

.Doncaster

1861

500

Dunn, James .

.Newcastle-on-Tyne

1853

Duprey, J ean A. B .

.Jersey

1853

Durant, Frederic .

.Dorking

1842

Dutton, George .

.Bolton

1847

Dutton, John .

.Hock Ferry

1853

Dyer, John .

. Margate

1853

Dyer, William .

.Halifax

1852

64

Dymond, George .

. Birmingham

1842

Dyson. John .

.Andover

1842

Earee, Thomas .

.Staines

1842

568

#Earle, Francis .

.Hull

1853

Eastes, Thomas Henley .

.Dover

1853

Edgar, James .

.Henley-on-Thames

1859

324

Edman, Bonner . .

.Henley-on-Thames

1853

Edmonds, Benjamin M .

Lowestoft

1842

Edwards, George .

.Dartford

1850

Edwards, Henry .

.Lincoln

1848

22

#Ed wards, John Baker .

.Liverpool

1853

Edwards, William .

.Denbigh

1861

628

^Edwards, William .

.Much Wenlock

1863

645

#Ekin, Charles .

.Bath

1853

Ekins, William .

.Huntingdon

1842

Eliot^S amuel .

.Liskeard

b 2

XX

COUNTRY MEMBERS OF

Member¬

ship.

No. of
Certificate.

NAME.

RESIDENCE.

1862

618

#Elliott, Bobert .

Gateshead

1842

Ellis, Benjamin. .

Shepton Mallett

1849

Ellis, Bicliard .

Thornbury

185:1

Ellis, William .

Abergele

1856

258

#Elsey, Charles .

Maldon

1845

Elsey, John .

Horncastle

1847

Ely, George .

Hockley

1843

^England, William Paul .

Huddersfield

1853

Ereaut, George .

J ersey

1848

Ereaut, J ohn ' . . .

Jersey

1860

553

#Ereaut, John, jun .

J ersey

1860

493

Essery, William .

Plymouth

1842

Evans, Edward .

Liverpool

1858

211

Evans, Evan .

Aberavon

1854

47

Evans, Henry S .

Liverpool

1853

Evans, Samuel .

Caerphilly

1847

Evans, Thomas .

Aberdare

1851

43

Evans, Thomas .

Liverpool

1853

Evans, William Luke .

.Cardiff

1842

Eyre, Beniamin A .

Ipswich

1862

462

Eyre, J oshua J .

Manchester

1849

Eyre, Thomas S .

Launceston

1844

Fairbank, James Hack .

Woolwich

1853

361

Fairbarn, George .

Liverpool

1853

Fairley, Thomas .

Sunderland

1853

Ealkner, Bichard .

Banbury

18 17

26

Farmer, James .

Castle Donnington

1812

Farmer, John .

Putney

1885

818

Farnsworth, Thomas .

Codnor

1853

Farnworlh, William .

Blackburn

L853

Farrage, Bobert .

Bothbury

1850

Farrant, Henry .

Ottery St. Mary

1842

Farrant, Bobert .

.Salisbury

1842

Fergusson, John .

Liverpool

1842

Finch, John .

Cheltenham

1852

Finlayson, Thomas .

Leitl*

1853

#Fisher, Henry Christopher .

Torquay

1863

652

#Fisher, Francis Dixon .

Eos ton

1853

Fiske, Charles .

Ipswich

1843

Fitch, Bobert .

IN orwich

1842

Fitt, Edward .

Barking

1865

770

Eitzhugh, Bichard .

Nottingham

1841

Fleeming, William .

Wolverhampton

1842

Fletcher, Francis .

Cheltenham

1841

Flockhart, William .

Edinburgh

1863

Flooks, Thomas Howse .

Sherborne

1853

•

Flower, Thomas S .

Cheshunt

1841

Forbes, William .

.Beigate

1858

445

Ford, Charles .

Blackheath Boad

1853

#Forge, Christopher .

Bridlington

1853

Forman, George .

Birmingham

1853

Forrest, Bichard William .

Gainsborough

1853

Forster, John .

Whitehaven

1845

Forster, Bobert .

Dover

Year of

Member¬

ship.

1853

1842

1855

1853

1842

1859

1853

1853

1849

1853

1857

1865

1853

1853

1853

1853

1844

1841

1853

1862

1851

1841

1849

1863

1853

1842

1853

1841

1853

1842

1841

1853

1841

1853

1851

1842

1856

1842

1842

1846

1842

1862

1861

1864

1841

1852

1851

1861

1853

1864

1841

1847

1859

1842

THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

XXI

NAME.

RESIDENCE.

Foster, Alfred Hood .

Foster, Edward .

Foster, G-eorge Pitt .

Foster, John .

Foulds, William . . .

Houracre, Robert .

Fowler, Edward .

Fowler, Henry .

Fox, Charles James .

Foxcroft, Elijah .

Francis, George .

Francis, John .

Franks, Alfred .

Fraser, Charles .

Frazer, Daniel .

Freeland, John .

Freestone, Thomas Morris

French, Gabriel .

Fresson, Lewis Francis . .

:Frost, George .

Frost, William Henry .

Fryer, Henry .

Furmston, Samuel C. .

Furze, Henry .

Gall, Benjamin D .

Gamble, Richard .

Gammidge, Samuel .

Garbutt, Cornelius .

Garbutt, Cornelius D .

Gardener, Charles .

Gardner, James .

Garland, William .

Garle, John .

Garlick, John . .

Garnham, Barrington .

Garratt, John Colpman .

Garratt, Samuel .

Garside, Francis Eurdett ...

Gay, George .

Geldard, John .

Geldard, Richard Eelly .

George, John Evan .

Gibbons, George .

Gibbons, Thomas G .

Gibbons, William .

Gibbs, William .

Gilbert, George .

Gilbert, George Fagge .

Gibson, Robert .

Giddings, William Henry C.

Giles, Richard Bobbett .

Giles, Richard William .

Gill, Hugh .

Gill, Samuel . .

.Birmingham

.Ludlow

.Tetbury

.Uckfield

.Chowbent

. Taunton

.Bedale

.Torrington

.Witney

. Skipton

.Great Malvern

.Wrexham

.Ramsgate

.Largs, N.B.

.Glasgow

.Barrhead

. Bristol

.Chatham

. Stevenage

.Derby

. Collumpton

.Huddersfield

.Wycombe

Forest Hill

.Woodbridge

.Grantham

.Leicester

.Gateshead

.Gateshead

.Tunbridge Wells

.Edinburgh

.Leeds

.Bromley, Kent

.Hollinwood

.Brighton

Rugby

Rugby

, Southport

.Stroud

St. Austell

.Plymouth

Hirwain

Weston-super-Mare

Manchester

Plymouth

Ryde

Portsea

Burwash

Salford

Luton

Clifton

.Clifton

Boston Spa

Pendleton

COUNTRY MEMBERS OF

xxii

Year of
Member¬
ship.

No. of
Certificate.

NAME.

— - - - - — - -

RESIDENCE. .

1842

Grill, William .

.Tavistock

1841

Gilkes, William .

.Leominster

1856

433

Gissing, Thomas W .

.Wakefield

1844

Glaisby, John .

York

1841

Glaisyer, Thomas .

Brighton

1852

71

Glanfield, George .

Torquay

1859

458

#Glass, John T .

Bournemouth

1853

Glew, William .

Selby

1850

Glover, Samuel .

Liverpool

1841

Gloyne, Thomas Hadfieid .

Dewsbury

1858

Glyde, John William .

Blandford

1845

Goddard, Henry Edward .

Yarmouth

1842

Goddard, Joseph .

Leicester

1865

784

Goldfinch, George .

Hendon

1850

Goodall, Henry .

Derby

1842

Goodall, Thomas .

Eynsham

1857

79

Goode, Charles .

Congleton

1857

^Goodwill, John .

.Lower Clapton

1842

Gordelier, Paul William Gibbs .

Sittingbourne

1853

Goss, Samuel .

Barnstaple

1853

Gostling, Thomas P .

Diss

1853

Gould, Frederick .

Kingston-on-Thames

1855

132

Govan, Alexander .

St. Andrews

1841

Gow, Alexander .

Wolverhampton

1857

Granger, Edwin John .

Upper Clapton

1852

130

Gray, Alexander F .

Edinburgh

1853

Gray, Charles .

Bilston

1848

Gray, William .

.Rothwell

1853

Greaves, Abraham .

Ironville

1844

Greaves, John .

Bakewell

1842

Greaves, Rickard .

Ripon

1854

245

Green, James .

Droitwich

1848

Green, John .

Birkenhead

1863

446

#Green, John .

Deal

1853

Green, Robert Poynton .

With am

1849

Greenwell, William C .

Gateshead

1848

Greenwood, John .

Harrogate

1861

609

#Gregory, George Henry .

Taunton

1853

Greig, William .

Glasgow

1846

Griffith, Richard .

Slough

1852

Griffith, Robert .

Carnarvon

1861

Griffiths, Benjamin .

Swansea

1853

Griffiths, William .

Swansea

1855

18

#Grindley, Robert D .

Wandsworth

1865

624

*Grindley, William .

. Chester

1853

Groom, William Bishop .

.Liverpool

1852

Grounds, George Field .

.Bishop Stortfcrd

1853

103

Groves, Thomas Bennett .

W eymouth

1854

95

Groves, Wellington E .

Blandford

1853

Gudgen, George B .

Kimbolton

1865

801

Guest, Edward P .

.Brentwood

1842

Gulliver, Walker Job .

. Chester

1860

369

Guyer, James Brett .

Torquay

1841

Gwatkin, James Thomas .

Brighton

THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

XX111

Year of
Member-
strip.

No. of
Certificate.

NAME.

RESIDENCE.

1852

Gwillim, John Cole .

Malvern Link

1853

Hackman, Leonard L .

Landport

1853

Hadfield, John .

.Congleton

1841

Hadfield, William .

Congleton

1853

Hadfield, William P .

N ewark

1852

Haigh, Joseph .

.Leeds

1842

Haines, John Jenkins .

Bromsgrove

1842

Hall, George .

Huddersfield

1853

Hall, Henry P. F .

Hull

1842

Hall, John Dean .

Wycombe

1852

4

Hall, John Pickard .

Canterbury

1843

Hail, Joseph .

Salford

1853

Hall, Pickard .

Brecon

1853

Hall, Bobert .

Camborne

1849

Hall, Thomas .

Grantham

1853

Hall, Thomas .

N ewcastle-on-Tyne

1849

Hallam, Edward .

Axb ridge

1859

536

Hallaway, John .

Carlisle

1860

434

#Halliday, William Jabez .

Manchester

1853

Ham, John .

Nether Sto wey

1857

Hambrook, John B .

Dover

1841

Hambrook, Odden .

Dover

1858

Hamilton, John T .

Dublin

1853

Hamilton, Julius .

Poole

1846

Hammon, Pichard .

Folkestone

1864

731

Hamp, John .

W olverliampton

1864

781

Hampson, Pobert .

Alderley Edge

1855

383

Handley, John .

.Wakefield

1853

Haunell, Edward W .

Eugby

1853

230

Hardie, James .

Dundee

1853

Harding, James John .

Sudbury

1853

Hardman, Thomas B .

Liverpool

1853

Hare, Josiali William .

Harleston

1852

Hargraves, Henry L .

.Oldham

1842

Harold, William .

.Battle

1842

Harper, Henry .

.Leamington

1852

Harrington, Arthur .

.Bochford

1853

Harrington, Pichard B .

.Bayleigh

1853

Harris, Daniel P .

Sydenham

1854

203

Harris, William Harry .

.Northampton

1842

Harrison, James Parker .

.Carlisle

1853

Harrison, Thomas .

.Leeds

1842

Harrison, Thomas .

.Bradford

1847

Harrison, Thomas .

.Nottingham

1842

Harsant, William .

.Epsom

]853

Hart, George William .

.Hull

1852

Hart, Hugh .

.Glasgow

1848

Hart, James .

Bolton

1841

Hartland, James . .

.Bristol

1863

563

#Hartley, William .

. YV arrmgton

1843

Harvey, John .

.Newark

1865

785

Harvey, Sidney .

.Canterbury

1841

Harvey, Thomas .

. Leeds

1842

Haselar, Albert .

.Cranbrook

XXIV

COUNTRY MEMBERS OF

Year of
Member¬
ship.

No. of
Certificate.

NAME.

RESIDENCE.

1861

632

#Hasselby, Thomas John .

Goole

1848

Hatfull, Robert .

Deptford

1853

Hatrick, Robert R .

Paisley

1853

Hatrick, William . t .

Paisley

1853

Hawkins, Henry Ford .

Rugeley

1847

Hay don, Frederick Walter .

Fordingbridge

1842

Hay don, William H .

Tiverton

1857

447

#Hayes, James .

Great Warley, Essex

1853

Hayman, Alfred .

Neath

1853

Hayward, Charles .

Manchester

1859

541

#Hayward, Charles John .

Lincoln

1845

Ha}7 ward, Edward .

.Ipswich

1853

Hayward, Samuel Henry .

Gloucester

1845

Hayward, William G .

.Reading

1842

Head, John .

.Lewes

1842

Headley, Morris .

.Bridlington Quay

1846

Heald, William .

Sleaford

1864

770

Heanley, Marshall .

.Peterborough

1845

Heathcote, Thomas Sari .

N ewcastle-under-Lyne

1847

Heaton, John Scholes .

Manchester

1842

Heliowell, Daniel .

.Leeds

1853

285

Heming, Robert .

Sunderland

1853

Henderson, John .

.Glasgow

1853

Henley, Henry .

.Lyme Regis

1853

Henshall, John .

.Congleton

1841

Henson, Matthew .

Dunstable

1853-

Henthorn, Joshua .

.Oldham

1853

Herington, Joseph .

.Leighton Buzzard

1845

Hern, William Henry .

.St. Austell

1853

Hewlins, Edward .

.Leatherhead

1842

Hibbert, Walter .

Neath

1846

Hick, Allan .

.Wath-upon-Dearne

1845

Hick, Joseph .

Bradford

1845

Hick, Matthew Bussey .

AVakefield

1842

Hickman, Joseph Frederick .

.Newbur}7-

1853

Hicks, George .

Rothesay

1864

716

Hicks, James Sellick .

.Looe

1853

Hifley, Richard James .

. Devonport

1853

96

Higgins, Thomas S .

.Huddersfield

1843

Higgins, William . .

. Chester

1842

Highway, Henry .

.Walsall

1841

Hill, John .

.Sheffield

1842

Hill, Richard .

. Bruton

1853

Hill, Simon .

.Plymouth

1854

246

Hill, Thomas .

.Norwood

1853

Hill, William . .

.Ardwick

1853

Hinchliffe, Ferrand G. U .

.Manchester

1853

Hinds, James .

. Coventry

1853

Hine, Alfred .

Beaminster

1858

Hingston, Andrew H .

Liverpool

1853

Hipkins, Matthew .

.Birmingham

1842

Hitchcock, Charles Edmund .

Oxford

1853

Hobson, Charles .

.Beverley

1864

762

#Hodder, Alfred .

.Clifton

THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

XXV

Year of
Member¬
ship.

Ho. of
Certificate.

NAME.

RESIDENCE.

1847

Hodder, Henry .

Bristol

1853

Hoddy, Benjamin .

Halstead

1852

133

Hodgeton, David .

Brechin

1841

Hodgson, Edward .

Hodkinson, Henry .

Stockton

1853

Macclesfield

1865

822

Hogarth, William .

Preston

1853

Hogg, Thomas .

Bideford

1853

Holden, Bichard .

York

1853

Holdsworth, Thomas W .

Birmingham

1865

673

Holgate, Walter .

Gateacre

1854

Holland, William .

Market Deeping

1841

Hollier, Elliott .

Dudley

1843

Holt, George Palmer .

Bexley Heath

1853

Holt, Bichard Wylde .

Seacombe

1865

802

#Holt, William H .

Altrincham

1853

13

Hooker, Thomas E .

Wellington

1842

Hooper, Henry . .

Hopper, Bichard .

Brighton

1853

Sunderland

1841

Hopwood, Henry J. S .

Biehmond, Surrey

1860

404

Hopwood, Thomas S .

Bichmond, Surrey

1841

Horncastle, Henry .

Sheffield

1841

Horner, Stephen .

Hartlepool

1857

174

Hornsby, George G .

Cheltenham

1845

Hornsby, John Harwood .

O diham

1853

Horsey, James .

Portsea

1851

Houghton, James .

Liverpool

1853

Houghton, Thomas .

Oxford

1859

448

#Houghton, William .

Preston

1856

214

Houlton, James .

. Wetherby

1853

Howard, John Eliot .

Stratford-le-Bow

1841

Howard, Bobert .

Stratford-le-Bow

1853

Howard, Bi chard .

Tonbridge Wells

1842

Howman, Philip .

. Winchcombe

1846

Howorth, James .

. Doncaster

1855

Howson, Thomas J .

Gateshead

1853

Hubbard, Bobert William . . .

. Kenilworth

1851

10

Huggins, George Thomas .

. Barnet

1849

Hughes, Edward .

. Altrincham

1864

694

^Hughes, Boger .

. Denbigh

1842

Hughes, Samuel .

Hulbert, Bobert Skeat .

Stourbridge

1842

. Basingstoke

1853

Hulme, John Hughes .

. Norwich

1842

Humphreys, Matthew .

. Nottingham

1812

Humphreys, Thomas .

. Birmingham

1855

104

#Hunt, Bichard .

. Winchester

1851

Hunt, Thomas .

. Stockport

1853

135

Hunter, David .

. Edinburgh

1853

Hunter, John .

. Gosport

1855

Hurdon, James .

. Torrington

1853

Hurman, John .

. Bridgewater

1842

Hurst, John .

. Louth

1844

1842

Hurst, William F. H .

Husband, Matthew .

. Exeter

1861

619

Hustwick, Thomas H .

. Hereford

XXVI

COUNTRY MEMBERS OF

Year of
Member¬
ship.

No. of
Certificate.

NAME.

RESIDENCE.

1853

Iliffe, Tliomas .

.Nuneaton

1853

Ingham, Henry .

.Wellingore

1853

Ingham, .Richard H .

.Manchester

1853

306

Isaac, George Washington .

.Clifton

1861

476

Mverach, John G .

.Kirkwall

1852

Iverach, William .

.Kirkwall

1854

136

Jaap, John .

.Glasgow

1853

Jackson, Henry .

.Liverpool

1841

Jackson, Thomas .

Manchester

1852

105

Jackson, William . .

.Crediton

1842

Jackson, William George .

.Hartlepool

1842

James, John .

.Truro

1864

653

* J ames, J ohn .

.East Dereham

1853

James, John Parry .

.Cardiff

1853

Jameson, Walter C .

.Bath

1865

819

Jarvis, William . .

.New Brighton

1855

298

Jefferson, Ebenezer W .

.Tottenham

1853

Jefferson, Peter .

.Leeds

1853

Jeffrey, Russell .

.Cheltenham

1853

Jenkins, John .

.Peterchurch

1862

Jenkins, Joseph .

.Nottingham

1859

Jenner, William M .

. Sandgate

1855

286

Jennings, John Edgell .

. Southampton

1844

Jennings, John E. H .

. Sheffield

1842

J ennings, Reginald .

.Hereford

1841

Jennings, William .

.Halifax

1853

Jessop, Jonathan .

.Halifax

1852

Jobson, William .

.Dundee

1858

390

Johnson, George .

.Birmingham

1853

Johnson, John B .

.Uttoxeter

1841

Johnson, John H .

.Liverpool

.1841

* Johnson, Samuel .

. Liverpool

1853

J ohnson, Thomas .

.Leek

1848

Jones, Charles .

..Birkenhead

1841

Jones, Charles .

.Hanley

1863

578

Jones, Charles William .

..Carmarthen

1853

Jones, David .

..Narbertli

1842

Jones, Edward Bowen .

..Carmarthen

1853

Jones, Ellis Powell .

..Rhyl

1859

465

Jones, Humphrey .

.Llangollen

1847

Jones, James .

. .N ewcastle-on-Tyne

1848

Jones, James .

.Salford

1853

Jones, John .

. .Aberdare

1845

Jones, John .

..Holywell

1853

Jones, Owen Lewis .

..Liverpool

1845

Jones, Samuel Urwick .

..Leamington

1853

Jones, Thomas .

..Welshpool

1853

Jones, Thomas J .

. .Newport

1842

Jones, William .

..Hastings

1842

Jones, William .

. .Liverpool

1841

Jones, William B .

. .Kingston-on-Thames

1853

Jones, William Thorpe .

. . South wrell

1863

340

*Jones, Williams Withers .

. .Bristol

. 1857

115

*Joy, Francis William .

..Cardiff

fear of

[ember-

ship.

1859

1842

1846

1853

1852

1841

1854

1848

1841

1844

1853

1853

1861

1863

1853

1843

1847

1842

1841

1853

1853

1842

1841

1853

1865

1853

1858

1853

1854

1853

1853

1847

1859

1842

1853

1843

1858

1854

1863

1841

1844

1853

1853

1853

1853

1842

1858

1843

1853

1853

1841

1842

1853

1859

THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

xxvii

No. of

ertificate

473

137

601

710

792

234

276

299

667

187

100

183

NAME.

Judd, William .

J udson, Thomas .

Jull, Thomas .

Keith, James .

Kemp, David .

Kemp, Grover . * .

Kemp, John .

Kemp, William .

Kendall, Frederick .

Kendall, George. 4 4 . 4 . 4 4 4 . 4 i

Kennedy, William .

Kent, Alfred .

*Kent, Frederick William

Kerfoot, Thomas .

Kernick, Samuel Penrose

Kernot, Joseph . .

Kershaw, James .

Kiddy, Samuel .

Kimbell, Henry .

King, Charles Montague

King, Ellis . .

King, J. Kaymond .

King, Thomas Simmons

King, William .

King, William .

King, William George ...
Kinninmont, Alexander...

Kirk, Charles .

Kirk, John .

Kirk, Thomas .

Kirkbride, William .

Kirkham, Thomas .

Kirkman, George B .

Kirton, Joseph B .

Knapman, John . .

Knight, Alfred .

Knight, John . .

Knight, Joseph . —

#Knights, J ohn Atmore . . .

*Knott, Thomas .

Knowles, Kichard John

Laird, William .

Lamotte, Thomas G .

Lancaster, Henry .

Lane, Joseph .

Langford, William .

.Langman, Peter .

Lansdale, Kalph .

Laen, William .

Lasham, John .

Lathbury, Kobert .

Lavers, Thomas Howard

Law, William .

*Lea, Charles Wheeley ..

RESIDENCE.

. Christchurch

.Kipon

. Horsham

.Aberdeen

.Portobello

.Brighton

.Brighton

.Horncastle

. Stratford-on-Avon

.Mas ham

.Glasgow

.Iffley

.Bath

.Manchester
.Cardiff
.Naples
. Southport
..Belper
.Knowle
.Southend
.Southend
. .Bath
. .[Rochester
..Soham
..Huddersfield
.Market Drayton
..Glasgow
..Hartley Bow
..Maidstone
..Liverpool
..Penrith

..Bury St. Edmunds

'.'.Hull
. .Exeter
..Margate
. . Cambridge
..Bath
..Norwich

Demerara

.Dundee

. Clifton

.Croydon

.Hampstead

.King’s Lynn

.Chatteris

.Wycombe

.Pembroke Dock

.Komford

.Liverpool

.Blackheath

.Forfar

.Worcester

Ill

COUNTRY MEMBERS OF

Year of
Member¬
ship.

No. of
Certificate.

NAME.

RESIDENCE.

1842

Lea, Henry Clairmont .

Hastings

1841

Lea, John Wkeeley .

Worcester

1853

Lea, Samuel . . .

Ellesmere

1853

Leach, John .

Crawley

1842

Leare, James .

S unbury

1855

Leadbetter, William Austin .

Melton Mowbray

1841

Leay, Joseph .

Chilcompton

1853

Leighton, John H .

Durham

1852

138

Leith, James .

Edinburgh

1853

83

Lever, William .

Brighton

1853

Lewin, Edward C .

Boston

1841

Lewin, William .

Plymouth

1856

310

Lewis, Thomas Cooper .

Rugby

1842

Lidington, George .

Bilston

1857

Limon, Henry .

Burgh

1847

#Lindo, Benjamin .

Dover

1841

Lindsay, Robert .

.Edinburgh

1864

Ling, Edwin .

Esher

1841

Lines, George .

Hertford

1849

Linsley, Thomas .

York

1844

Lister, George .

Cottingham

1854

215

Littlefield, James Wavell .

V entnor, isle of Wight

1853

Lloyd, Henry .

Deptford

1853

Lock, William .

.Boston

1846

Lockyer, George .

.Deptford

1853

Loggin, Charles Erederick .

Stratford-on-Avon

1862

585

Long, Alfred Thorby .

.Bognor

1858

479

Long, Henry .

. Croydon

1859

Long, William Elliot .

.Chichester

1853

Longfield, Joseph .

Leeds

1853

Longrigg, John .

.Appleby

1853

Lord, Charles .

.Todmorden

1853

Lord, Ellis .

Rockdale

1841

Lovett, John .

.Gloucester

1853

Lowe, Charles .

. Surbiton

1841

Lowe, Thomas .

.Liverpool

1842

Lowndes, Hervey .

. Stockport

1841

Loye, Philip .

.Plymouth

1865

786

Lucas, Joseph .

.Birmingham

1853

#Luff, William .

. Oxford

1853

Lumsden, James .

Peterhead

1842

Mabson, William .

.Great Yarmouth

1852

139

Macfarlane, Wardlaw .

.Edinburgh

1853

McDiarmid, John B .

.Deal

1864

737

Macdonald, John .

.Lasswade, IN’. B.

1864

738

Macfarlane, Andrew Yuile .

.Edinburgh

1852

Macintosh, Archibald .

.Rothesay

1841

Mack ay, John .

.Edinburgh

1863

557

#Madgwick, William Butler .

.Andover

1853

Madge, James C .

.Devizes

1848

#Maggs, Samuel Blount .

.St. Leonards

1845

Maggs, Thomas C .

.Yeovil

1845

Maleham, Henry .

. Sheffield

1862

Manby, George .

. Southampton

THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

XXIX

Year of
Member¬
ship.

No. of
Certificate

NAME.

RESIDENCE.

1842

Manfield, John W .

Salford

1853

Manifold, John J .

Weaverham

1859

Mann, Robert .

N ewcastle-on-Tyne

1841

Manthorp, Samuel .

Colchester

1850

March, William .

N e wark

1845

Marder, James Wood .

Lyme Regis

1857

481

#MariesjHenry Davies .

W atford

1840

Marks, George .

Bradford-on- Avon

1853

Marlor, Jabez . .

Lees, near Oldham

1819

Marrison, George O. R .

Tasmania

1845

Marsden, J oseph . . .

Middleton-on-Tees

1842

Marsh, William M . .

Sevenoaks

1842

Marshall, John Ferris .

Gainsborough

1853

311

Marshall, Robert .

Boston

1842

Marshall, James A .

Waltham Abbey

1841

Martin, John .

Bristol

1842

Martin, Edward W .

Guildford

1845

Martin, Thomas . . .

Lewes

1853

Martin, Thomas .

Liverpool

1851

Martin, Henry G . . .

St. “Albans

1853

Martyn, John Jones .

Brighton

1842

Maskery, Samuel .

Liverpool

1853

Mason, Joseph W .

Cirencester

1853

Mason, William' . . .

.Hastings

1842

#Mason, William W .

.Nailsworth

1853

Mather, William .

Manchester

1853

Maunder, Alexander .

. W eston-super-Mare

1848

Maunder, Frederick .

Sheffield

1853

Mawson, John .

N ewcastle-on-Tyne

1848

Maynard, Henry Robert .

.Brandon

1842

Mays, Robert James John .

.South Shields

1843

Meadows, John . . .

.Leicester

1842

Meatyard, Robert . . .

Basingstoke

1842

Medcalf, Benjamin .

.Ware

1843

Medcalf, .Ebenezer .

.Lower Tooting

1853

Medd, Joseph . . .

Gloucester

1857

215

Medley, William .

.Derby

1853

Melhuish, John .

. Crediton

1862

392

Mercer, Nathan . . .

Liverpool

1859

507

^Mercer, Nicholas .

.Fairfield

1865

787

Mercer, Thomas William .

Rochdale

1850

Merrick, Thomas J . .

.Northampton

1853

Merryweather, Charles .

.Leicester

1854

106

^Metcalfe, Christopher L .

.Hull

1861

^Metcalfe, John Sykes .

Rendal

1853

621

Millais, Thomas .

.Jersey

1843

Miller, Robert P .

.Reading

1853

Miller, John Thomas .

.Sheffield

1842

Miller, Charles .

.Oxford

1864

750

Mills, John .

.Chester

1847

Mitchell, John .

. Manchester

1862

605

*Mohun, Martin .

. Faversham

1842

Mole, William Tingey .

.St. Neots

1846

Monro, Henry L .

.Newcastle-on- Tyne

Fear of

[ember-

ship.

1863

1865

1853

1844

1865

1844

1844

1845

1853

1852

1849

1842

1853

1853

1847

1853

1853

1853

1852

1849

1841

1842

1844

1848

1865

1842

1853

1842

1864

3853

1853

1853

1854

1845

1853

1847

1853

1853

1861

1841

1852

1845

1853

1841

1858

1862

1846

1853

1842

1853

1853

1862

3842

1845

COUNTRY MEMBERS OF

No. of

M /-v -i on ro

NAME.

RESIDENCE.

579

820

829

63

659

513

522

580

637

#Moon, William Henry .

Morgan, Pickard .

Morgan, William .

Morris, Alfred Philip .

Morris, Thomas E .

#Morse, George .

Morton, George .

Morton, Henry . .

#Morton, Jamieson .

Morton, John .

Moss, William .

Mount, John .

Mount, William .

Mousley, William .

*Mumbray, Bobert Goodwin

Mumby, Charles .

Munday, Edward Smith ...

Murdoch, David .

Murdoch, George . .

Murdoch, James .

Muriel, Henry Brooke .

Muskett, James .

Musson, Telemackus G. ...

Naftel, Thomas P .

Napier, George L .

Napier, James .

Narracott, Henry .

*Negus, Samuel .

#Nesbit, John .

Newbery, Henry .

Newby, William Henry ...

Newcome, John .

Newman, Bobert . .

Newman, Thomas .

Newman, Walter F .

Newton, Christopher .

Newton, George .

Nicholas, John .

Nicholson, John Joseph ...

Nickolls, James .

Nicol, George .

Nind, George .

Nix, John K .

Noakes, Eichard .

Noble, Alexander . .

*Norrisli, James .

Northcroft, Jonathan .

Norwood, Thomas . .

Oakey, J oseph Malpas .

Oldham, William Thomas..,

Oliver, John .

*011iver, George Edward ..

Orange, John .

Owen, Griffith .

. Ilfracombe

. Newtown, Montgomery

. Pillgwinlly

. Stourbridge

. New Brighton

. Mortlake

. Stratford-le-Bow

. Eamsgate

. Eamsbottom

. Durham

. Carlisle

. Longsight

. Canterbury

. Eedditch

. Eichmond, Surrey

. Gosport

. Worthing

. Falkirk

. Glasgow

. Glasgow

. Brighton

. Harleston

. Birmingham

. Guernsey

. . Exeter

. Edinburgh

. . Torquay

. Northampton

. Portobello

. Biggleswade

. Perth

. . Grantham

. . Bewdley

. . Hartley Eow

. . Falmouth

. Eatho, N. B.

. . N ewcastle-on-Ty ne

. Narberth

. Sunderland

. Stourbridge

. Pulteney Town

. Wandsworth

. Billericay

. Brighton

. Edinburgh

. Wandsworth

. Plymouth

. Hastings

. Preston

. Wisbeach

Liverpool, 19, St. James’s PI.

. Cranley

. . Portsea

. Caernarvon

THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

XXXI

Year of
Member¬
ship.

Ho. of
Certificate.

NAME.

RESIDENCE.

1842

Owen, William .

N ewcastle-on-Ty ne

1863

520 *

^Owles, Edward John .

Aldeburgh

1845

Owles, James .

Bungay

1842

Owles, John .

Yarmouth

1842

Paine, William .

Canterbury

1841

Palk, Edward .

Southampton

1841

•

CPalk, John .

Exeter

1853

•

Palmer, Charles Fielding .

Birmingham

1847

Palmer, Faithful .

Cheltenham

1842

Palmer, Thomas J .

East Grinstead

1842

Parker, Edward .

Carlisle

1853

Parker, John .

Birmingham

1853

Parker, Matthew .

Bath

1841

Parker, Thomas .

Halifax

1853

Parker, William Henry .

Nottingham

1853

Parkes, John C .

W oolwich

1854

312

*Parkes, John P .

Manchester

1842

Parkes, Joseph .

Atherstone

1857

155

Parkinson, Robert .

.Bradford

1842

Parkinson, Thomas .

. Liverpool

1841

-^Parnell, J ohn .

. Peterborough

1843

Parr, Samuel .

.Nottingham

1842

Parsons, Edward .

.Barnstaple

1850

Parsons, William .

.Portsmouth

1853

Pasmore, George .

. Portsmouth

1853

Pate, Henry Thomas .

.Ely

1853

Paterson, William .

.Aberdeen

1858

453

^Patterson, Douglas John .

.Mansfield

1853

Patterson, George .

.Stamford

1853

Pattinson, Richard John .

.Carlisle

1853

#Paulden, William .

.Altrincham

1841

Payne, Reuben Craven .

.Bridgewater

1854

314

Peake, Henry .

.Dover

1855

313

Peake, James .

. Walmer

1842

Pearce, Thomas .

.Gloucester

1853

Pearman, Henry .

.Newport, Monmouth

1842

Pearson, Charles James .

.Swansea

1851

Pearson, Edward .

.Liverpool

1842

Peart, David .

.Epsom

1842

Peat, Walter .

.Fareham

1865

712

Peele, Henrv A .

..Durham

1853

Pegg, Herbert .

. .Birmingham

* 1852

Penney, William .

..Poole

1851

Peppercorn, Benjamin .

.Lincoln

1855

Perfect, George .

. Portsea

1841

Perrins, William .

..Worcester

1843

Perry, Solomon .

..Tavistock

1853

Pertwee, Alfred R .

..Chelmsford

1853

Pertwee, Edward .

. .Romford

1852

Phillips, Edward James .

..Newport, Monmouth

1853

Phillips, John .

..Newport, Monmouth

1853

Phillips, John .

..Birmingham

1856

326

Phillips, William Thomas .

. . Carmarthen

1853

Pickering, Atkinson .

..Hull

XXX11

COUNTRY MEMBERS OF

Year of
Member¬
ship.

No. of
Certificate

NAME.

RESIDENCE.

1842

Pickering, Henry .

Leicester

1845

Pickup, Thomas Hartley .

Blackburn

1848

Pickup, Varey .

Salford

1859

301

#Picnot, Charles .

Strood

1853

Pidgeon. John .

1841

Pierce, Edward Lloyd . .

Shelton

1853

Pilley, John .

. Boston

1853

Pilley , Samuel .

Boston

1853

♦Piquet, John .

1853

Pissey, William .

1853

Pitts, Pobert Christopher .

. Norwich

1859

289

Place, William Thomas .

1853

✓

Player, Edmund .

. Bristol

1842

Plomley, James Foulis .

. Rye

1864

473

Pochard, Ernest F. M. . .

. Mauritius

1842

Pocklington, James .

. Sydenham

1862

642

♦Poll, William Sheppard .

. Yarmouth

1852

Ponting, Thomas Cadby .

. Bristol

1845

Pooley, John Carpenter .

. Bath

1846

Port way, John .

1853

Potts, Thomas .

1855

Poulton, John .

. Newton Abbot

1842

Powell, Edward .

. Winchester

1852

Powell, Frederick W .

. Leith

1842

Powell, John .

. Shaftesbury

1852

Power, Edward .

1862

655

♦Pratt, Henry .

. Shipston-on-Stour

1841

Pratt, J ohn .

. Chichester

1846

Pratt, John .

. Bradford

1853

Pratt, Pickard Munton .

. Otley

1852

Prince, Henry .

. Taunton

1855

290

♦Pring, Walter .

. Taunton

1855

Prior, George T .

. Oxford

1842

Prockter, Pickard Edgcumbe .

. Cheltenham

1853

Procter, Joseph .

. Beverley

1841

♦Procter, William .

. Settle

1857

248

Proctor, Barnard S .

. . . .Newcastle-on-Tyne

1848

Proctor, William .

. . . .Newcastle-on-Tyne

1841

Proctor, William B .

. N ewcastle-on-Tyne

1859

384

♦Prosser, Thomas Evan .

. Colchester

1852

144

♦Prott, William .

....Huntly

1842

Prout, Pobert .

. Milton Abbot

1853

Pryer, William Symes .

. . . . Axminster

1852

Pullin, Edward .

....Northampton

1841

Purdue, Thomas . .

. Witney

1855

355

♦Pyne, Joseph J . . .

. Manchester

1852

Quested, George .

. . . .Margate

1841

Padley, William Valentine ....

. Sheffield

1842

Pairnes, Pickard .

.....Edinburgh

1854

302

Painey, Edward .

. Spilsby

1853

Pait, Pobert C .

. Parti ck

1853

Palfs, Henry Charles .

. Brentford

1841

Pandall, Edward Mayor .

. Southampton

1853

Eandall, Thomas .

. War eh am

TflE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

XXX.1U

Year of
Member¬
ship.

No. of
Certificate.

NAME.

BESIDENCE.

1845

Randall, William Brodribb . Southampton

1853

Ran dies on, William . Whitehaven

1853

Ranken, James Anderson . Forfar

1848

Rankin , William . Kilmarnock

1842

Ransford, Samuel . Clevedon

1853

Ransom, William . Hitchin

1853

Ransome, Thomas . Manchester

1851

Rastrick, George T .

Geelong

1842

Rastrick, John Alfred . . .

Woolwich

1842

Rastrick, Joseph Linington .

Southsea

1865

797

Rastrick, Robert J . Southsea

1853

Rastrick, William Ilenry .

Portsea

1853

Rawdin, Joseph .

J edburgh

1841

Rawle, William .

Melbourne

1854

206

Rayner, John . .

Nottingham

1852

Rayner, John .

Uxbridge

1859

543

^Rayner, J ohn Charles .

Uxbridge

1859

408

Rayner, William . Sheerness

1864

Read. James .

Salisbury

1842

Reading, Richard Grant . .

Warwick

1841

Readman, William . . .

.Leighton Buzzard

1842

Redfern, John .

Ashby-cle-la-Zoueh

1853

Redmavne, Christopher . . .

W arrington

1853

Rees. William Henry .

Dartmouth

1853

Reid, David .

Aberdeen

1853

Reid, John . . .

Montrose

1857

251

Reid. Neil .

Perth

1856

Reilly, William Charles .

Hampstead

1845

Reinhardt, Johann Christian .

Leeds

1848

Rendall, John M . . . . .

Torquay

1854

109

Reynolds, Richard .

Leeds

1842

Reynolds, William .

Hales worth

1849

^Rhodes, Frank .

.Spalding

1853

Rhodes, James .

Manchester

1853

Rich. Thomas .

Weston-super-Mare

1853

Richardson, Allen .

Manchester

1859

459

^Richardson, John George Frederick Leicester

1842

Richmond, Robert .

Leighton Buzzard

1865

783

Rickards, Edwin .

Portsmouth

1842

Rimmington, Felix M .

Bradford

1842

Ritson, John George .

.Sunderland

1842

Ritson. Thomas .

Sunderland

1841

Roberts, Albinus .

St. Albans

1858

483

^Roberts, Peter .

St. Asaph

1841

Roberts, Thomas .

Manchester

1853

Roberts, Thomas A .

Conway

1852

Robertson, J ames .

.Edinburgh

1853

331

^Robertson, Thomas B .

1855

193

Robinson, Benjamin .

Pendleton

1842

Robinson, James Mowld .

Beverley

1854

Robinson, Levi .

Alford

1855

249

Robinson. Ralph .

Lynn

1842

Robson, George .

Durham

C

XXXIV

COUNTRY MEMBERS OE

Year of
Member¬
ship.

No. of
Certificate.

NAME.

RESIDENCE.

1851

Robson, Thomas .

Brighton

1853

Rodgerson, "William .

Liverpool

1847

Roe, Septimus .

Salisbury

1843

Rogers, Henry .

Newcastle-on-Tyne

1853

5

Rogers, John Robinson .

Honiton

1853

Rogers, William .

Maidstone

1842

Rogerson, Michael .

Bradford

1863

250

Rolfe, William Adolphus .

Bath

1853

Rome, Robert M .

Langholm

1853

Rook, Edward .

Sittingbourne

1853

Rooker, Abel .

Bromsgrove

1851

Roose, Robert .

Flint

1853

Row, Charles .

Devonport

1843

Rowe, John .

Plymouth

1853

Rowland, Thomas .

Epping

1853

Rowlands, William S .

Devizes

1853

84

#Russell, Charles J. L .

Windsor

1853

Rust, James .

Thaxted

1865

734

Saer, David P .

Pembroke Dock

1853

Sagar, Henry .

Leeds

1858

219

Salisbury, William Bryan... .

Leicester

1842

Sanders, Henry Wotton .

Bristol

1847

Sandiland, Robert B .

Bicester

1853

Sangster, John .

Aberdeen

1865

463

Sarsfield, William .

Durham

1853

Satterley, William B .

Guernsey

1845

Saunders, David Price .

Haverfordwest

1853

Saunders, George J .

Oswestry

1841

Savage, William Dawson .

Brighton

1863

616

#Savage, William Wallace .

Brighton

1865

790

Saville, John .

Howden

1841

Sawer, William .

N ayland

1865

Sawver, Henry .

Ramsgate

1841

Sawyer, Thomas .

Ramsgate

1842

Sawyer, James .

Carlisle

1853

Saxby, Henry .

.Lewes

1852

Scarrow, William .

Sunderland

1846

2

Schacht, Frederick George .

.Clifton

1853

Scott, Edward .

Birmingham

1854

239

Seath, Alexander .

Dunfermline

1849

Seaton, George .

.Chelmsford

1847

Seaton, John Love .

.Hull

1865

798

Sells, Robert Janies .

Tunbridge Wells

1846

Sewell, James C... .

.Sheffield

1841

Seyde, John E .

. Willenhall

1853

Shadford, Major .

.Spalding

1853

Sharland, Edmund T .

Bristol

1853

Sharp, Benjamin .

.Ipswich

1847

Sharp, Henry .

.Christchurch

1843

Sharpies, George .

Preston

1853

Shattock, John.... .

.Taunton

1842

Shaw, Alexander Henry .

. Stockport

1848

Shaw, John . . . .

. Liverpool

THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

XXXV

Year of
Member¬
ship.

No. of
Certificate.

NAME.

RESIDENCE.

1854

Shenstone, James B . . .

.Colchester

1853

Shepherd, James .

.Aberdeen

1857

371

Shepherd, George Prentis .

.Guildford

1865

793

Shepperley, George .

Nottingham

1848

Shepperley, James .

.Nottingham

1852

Shield, George .

.Arbroath

1853

Shield, Spooner .

.Liverpool

1842

Shillcock, Joseph Bradley .

.Bromley, Kent

1853

Sidebottom, William .

.New Mills

1842

Silvester, Joseph .

. Knutsford

1853

Sim, James .

.Aberdeen

1865

639

^Simpson. Arthur L .

. Stowmarket

1843

Simpson, John .

Hull

1842

Simpson, Thomas .

.Stowmarket

1865

776

Sims, Joseph . . .

.Hirwain

1853

Sinclair, William .

Aberdeen

1852

Sircom, Bichard .

Bristol

1841

Sirett, George .

Buckingham

1863

277

Sirett, George B. . . .

.Buckingham

1843

Skoulding, William .

. Wymonclham

1865

805

Sloggett, Thomas C .

. Plymouth

1853

Smale, Bichard Bill . . .

Oswestry

1843

Smallwood, J ohn W right .

.Macclesfield

1853

Smart, Nevill .

.Littlehampton

1856

454

*Smeeton, William .

Leeds

1853

Smethurst, Bichard L .

.Salford

1842

Smith, Alfred . .

.Tenterden

1842

Smith, Henry .

Edinburgh

1853

Smith, James S. T. W .

Hexham

1860

603

*Smith, James Taylor .

.Kilmarnock

1843

31

Smith, John .

. Southampton

1841

Smith, Nathaniel .

.Cheltenham

1841

Smith, Thomas .

.Colchester

1853

#Smith, Thomas .

.Edinburgh

1856

416

*Smith, Thomas J. . . .

..Hull

1842

Smith, William .

..North Shields

1849

Smith, William .

..St. Andrews

1842

Smith, William .

. . Sutton Coldfield

1842

#Smith, William .

. .Abingdon

1853

Smith, William .

. Bridlington

1853

169

Smith, William . . .

.Brighton

1853

Smyth, Walter .

. Merthyr Tydfil

1842

Snape, Edward .

. Birmingham

1841

Snowclon, George Wrangham ....

. .Wimbledon

1841

Southall, William . . .

. .Birmingham

1850

Southall, William, jun .

. .Birmingham

1842

Sowerby, John .

. . Carlisle

1843

Spencer, Charles .

. . Gravesend

1853

Spencer, George .

. Lincoln

1853

Suencer, Thomas .

. . W okingham

1853

Spencer, William Henry .

..Burnham Market

1842

Spicer, Thomas .

. .East iVIoulsey

1853

Spokes, Peter . .

. .Beading

XXX VI

COUNTRY MEMBERS OF

Year of
Member¬
ship.

No. of
Certificate.

NAME.

RESIDENCE.

1845

Spong, Thomas Willsden .

Biggleswade

1842

Squire, William .

Hanwell

1S53

Squire, William .

Nottingham

1853

Squire, William .

Goole

1853

Stafford, William .

Gloucester

1842

Standring, Thomas .

Manchester

1860

4,80

^Stanford, Edward C. Cortis .

Worthing

1842

Stantial. John .

Corsham

1855

148

Steel, David . .

Edinburgh

1856

291

Steel, Henry .

Chatham

1853

Steel, Samuel .

Beccles

1853

Stephens, Thomas .

Merthyr Tydfil

1858

492

^Stephenson, John 13 .

Edinburgh

1853

Sterriker, John .

Driffield

1852

Stevens, George .

Strood

1849

Stevens, John .

Broseley

1846

Stevenson, Bichard .

Derbv

1854

278

Steward, Alfred .

Yarmouth

1842

Steward, Charles S. Dale .

Yarmouth

1853

Steward, 3'ohn .

Brierley Hill

1841

Steward, Josiah .

Kidderminster

1841

Steward, Theophilus .

Kidderminster

1847

Steward, William .

Bridgenorth

1858

Stewardson, Henry .

Bedford

1841

Stiell, Gavin .

Dunfermline

1858

491

* Stirling, George .

Dunoon

1853

Stoddart, William Walter .

Bristol

1853

Stone, John .

Exeter

1852

Stonham, Thomas G .

Maidstone

1841

Stott, William .

Sowerby Bridge

1847

Strawson, Henry .

Crewkerne

1862

550

^Street, Edward .

Cheltenham

1856

292

Stroud, John . .

Bristol

1841

Sturton, John .

Peterborough

1864

656

#Sturton, John Howland .

Peterborough

1853

Sturton, Joseph .

Cambridge

1855

394

#Sturton, Bichard .

Peterborough

1852

Sumner, John .

Birmingham

1852

Sumner, Bobert .

Liverpool

1856

170

Sumner, William .

Birmingham

1853

Sutherland, John .

Aberdeen

1853

Sutterby, Jonathan N .

Long Sutton

1860

573

#Sutton, Charles William .

Stowmarket

1853

Sutton, Erancis .

N orwich

1853

Swindells, Frederick M .

Blackpool

1864

606

■*Symes, Charles . Birkenhead

1852

149

Tait, William .

Edinburgh

1865

794

Taite, James .

Glasgow

1845

Talbot, John Hind .

Liverpool

1841

Tanner, Nicholas William .

Exeter

1853

Taplin, Joseph .

Bristol

1847

Tarzewell, Bichard .

Braintree

1841

Tatham, John Walkingame .

Barnstaple

THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

XXXVII

Year of
Member¬
ship.

No. of
Certificate.

NAME.

RESIDENCE.

1852

1845
1842
1842

1841

1852
1848
1854

1842
]850
1842

1841

1848

1842

1843

1853
1853
1853
1853
1842
18G5

1846

1852
1846
1862

1846

1853
1842
1853

1849

1841
1859
1864

1850
1853
1853
1853
1853
1853
1857

1842
1853
1853
1853
1841
1863

1843

1841

1847
1853
1853

1842
1841

362

778

559

502

417

522

Tatliam, Leonard F .

Tayler, William Henry .

Taylor, Edward .

Taylor, James .

Taylor, John .

Taylor, John .

Taylor, John Usher .

Taylor, Richard .

Taylor, Stephen .

Taylor, Sydney .

Taylor, Thomas H .

Taylor, William James .

Teasdale, Thomas B; .

Teear, John Manshaw .

Telfer, Frederick .

Templeton, John .

Thomas, James .

Thomas, James .

Thomas, John .

Thomas, John Holliday .

Thomas, Rees .

Thomas, Richard .

Thomas, Robert .

Thompson, Andrew .

^Thompson, Charles Henry .

Thompson, Edward .

Thompson, George .

Thompson, Henry .

Thompson, Henry .

Thompson, John .

Thompson, John .

Thompson, John Robert ....

Thompson, Morleyf .

Thompson, Thomas .

Thompson, William .

Thonger, Gilbert .

Thorne, J ohn .

Thornton, Edward .

Thornton, J ohn .

Thornton, John Barber .

| Thornton, Samuel .

J Thurland, Edward .

Tiernan, Robert .

Timothy, Thomas Norris ....
Titherington, Thomas A.

Tollinton, Richard B .

Tomlinson, Charles Knowles

Tonge, Charles .

Tonge, James Scawin .

Toone, Joseph Vidler .

Townsend, John H .

Tozer, Richard John .

Tribe, John .

Bradninch

Warminster

Rochdale

Manchester

Preston

Wakefield

Bedford

R.yde

. Westbury
Pendleton
Manchester
. Middlesborough
Darlington
Leicester
.Leytonstone
. Perth

Bridge, Kent
.Hythe
.Cowbridge
.Boston

.Merthyr Tydfil
Burnley
.East Looe
Carlisle
.Maidenhead
.Ofcley
.Alston

. Middlesborough
. N orwich
.Liverpool
. Thirsk

. Bishopwearmouth
.Lewisham

.Richmond, Yorkshire
. Sunderland
. Birmingham
. W ellingborou gh
.Lyme Regis
.Wedmore
.Dover
.Exmouth
. Oxford
.Liverpool
.Reading
Liverpool
.York
.Lincoln
.Oldbury
.York

.Warminster
.Bristol
. .Exeter
, . Chatham

X XXV111

COUNTRY MEMBERS OF

Year of
Member¬
ship.

No. of
Certificate.

NAME.

RESIDENCE.

1841

Iraeman, William .

. .Durham

1841

Tryon, William George .

. . Portsea

1857

342

Muck, Francis .

. . Oxford

1863

664

Muck, John .

...Wilton

1843

Tucker, Charles .

. . Bridport

1853

Tucker, James .

. . Gloucester

1853

Tuff, John .

. . Enfield

1865

813

Tugwell, William H .

. .Greenwich

1842

Tunley, John .

...West Bromwich

1851

Turner, Frederick E .

. . . Holywell

1848

Turner, John A .

. . .Liverpool

1853

Turner, Robert .

. . Oundle

1856

264

Turner, Walter .

..Mold

1854

265

Turner, William Henry .

. . Oswestry

1853

162

Turney, Samuel 11 .

. . .Plymouth

1853

Turton, Luke .

. . .Bradford

1853

Turton, Thomas J .

. . Ilowden

1859

516

Mwinberrow, John .

. . .Worcester

1841

Tylee, John P .

. . . Bath

1842

Uppleby, Henry .

. . .Leamington

1862

594

* U nclerdown, Frederick W iiliam

. . . Farnkam

1865

779

Upjohn, Henry C .

. . .Oxford

1853

Urquhart, James .

. . Aberdeen

1864

688

Utley, Alfred .

. .Liverpool

1853

Veitch, James .

. . .Dunse

1853

Veitch, William .

. . rShildon

1845

Vincent, Philip .

. . .Fulham

1853

Vose, Thomas .

. . .Liverpool

1842

Wain, William .

. . Ripley

1842

Wain wright, James .

. . .York

1842

Waite, Joseph .

. . . Cheltenham

1842

Walker, Edward IJawxby .

. . .Doncaster

1841

Walker, George Clarke .

. . Jersey

1842

Walker, Henry John .

. . . Bath

1853

Walker, John .

. . Bradford

1865

795

Walker, Joseph .

...Bootle, nr. Liverpool

1845

Walker, Robert .

. . .Maidenhead

1842

Walker, William .

. . . Malmesbury

1864

Walker, William, jun .

. . . Malmesbury

1846

Walker, William Henry .

. . . Southport

1842

Walkinton, William .

...Tenby

1848

Wall, William James .

. . . Tottenham

1857

75

Wall worth, David .

. . .Mai don

1860

266

Walmsley, Samuel .

. . .Kingston-on-Thames

1854

343

Walsh, Edward .

. . . Manchester

1861

595

* Walsh, Edward .

. . .Oxford

1853

Walter, .J oseph .

. . .Ilorncastle

1848

Walton, John .

. . .Sunderland

1842

W arburton, Thomas .

...Chowbent

1841

W ard, J ames .

...Falkingham

-1851

Ward, William .

. . . . Sheffield

1853

Wardie, William Henry .

....Slaty bridge

1842

W arrior, William .

....Northallerton

THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

XXXIX

Year of
Member¬
ship.

No. of
Certificate.

NAME.

RESIDENCE. -

1853

Waterall, George .

N ottingham

1853

W aterall, George Edwards . . . .

Nottingham

1853

Waterfall, William .

Gateshead

1812

Watkins, George H .

. Walsall

1859

517

* Watson, David .

1847

Watson, Edward M .

. ...Worle

1846

Watson, Henry .

. Cambridge

1862

660

WVatson, James .

1853

Watt, James .

1861

602

Watton, Edward .

1848

Watts, Henry .

. . . .Chatham

1853

Wavell, John .

. Hyde

1853

Wearing, William .

1853

Wearing, William Henry .

. Liskeard

1842

Weaver, Frederick .

1853

Webster, Edwin P .

1852

Webster, Samuel M .

. Warrington

1845

Weeks, Caleb .

. . . .Torquay

1853

Welch, Charles .

. Nottingham

1844

Weller, George .

. Windsor

1850

Wellington, Frederick G. N. .

. South Petherton

1842

Wellington, James Martin .

. . . .Oakham

1853

Wellman, William Richard ....

. Jersey

1862

607

Wells, Edwin .

. . . .Ludlow

1856

West, William .

. Hen field

1853

Westmacott, George .

Manchester

1854

180

Wharrie, Decimus .

. Liverpool

1854

156

* Wheeler, Francis .

. . . .Norwich

1847

Wheeler, John .

. Chipping Sodbury

1842

Whimpray, John .

. Lancaster

1853

Whitail, James .

. Chertsey

1853

White, Frank .

. . . .Nottingham

1846

White, George .

. Bavant

1864

723

White, James Walls .

. Glasgow

1850

White, Luke Pearson .

. . . .Pen is tone

1842

White, Robert Rowles .

. . . .Dursley

1842

White, Thomas • .

. . . .Bilston

1853

Whitehead, J ohn .

. . . .Rochdale

1865

814

Wliiteway, William H .

Torquay

1863

676

^Whitfield, John .

Scarborough

1847

16

Whitfield, John .

. . . .Worcester

1842

Whitfield, John Lockley .

. . . .Worcester

1846

Whitlock, Edwin .

....Salisbury

1852

Whittaker, Ellis .

. . . Salford

1853

Whittaker, William .

. . . .Runcorn

1853

Whittle, Samuel .

.... Leigh

1852

Whitwell, John .

Thirsk

1845

Whitwell, John .

. Peterborough

1853

Wibmer, Lewis Michael .

. Tunbridge

1853

Wice, Jonathan Haigh .

. Wakefield

1849

Wickham, William .

. Deptford

1842

Wigg, John Goddard .

Lynn

1815

Wiggin, John .

. Ipswich

xl

COUNTRY MEMBERS OF

Year of
Member¬
ship.

1853

1853

1858
1850

1852
1842
1850

1853

1857

1854
1853
1861
1853
1853

1859
1844
1853
1844
1865

1855
1864
1853
1853

1860

1853

1855
1842

1854

1841

1842

1856
1842
1853
1853
1842
1846
1853
1842

1853

1852
1842
1842
1844

1858

1854
1850
1856
1842
1842
1812
1846

1853
1853

No. of
Certificate.

73

474

399

531

809

171

670

152

303

254

360

521

255

NAME.

RESIDENCE.

Wild, David.... .

Wild, Joseph .

Wilkes, David .

Wilkes, Doctor Tyers .

Wilkes, Seth Martin .

Wilkes, William .

Wilkinson, William .

Williams, Edwin .

^Williams, Henry Levi ....

Williams, Joel D .

Williams, John . .

Williams, John Thompson

Williams, Philip .

Williams, Robert .

^Williams, Thomas Kemble

Williams, Walter .

Williams, William .

Williamson, James .

Williamson, James .

Wills, Thomas D .

*Willsher, Stephen H .

Wilshaw, James .

Wilson, Edward .

Wilson, James .

Wilson, John .

Wilson, Joseph .

Wilson, Thomas .

Wilson, William .

Wine, John .

Wing, Thomas N .

Wingate, Stephen . .

Witherington, Thomas ...
Withey, William Henry

VCood, Benjamin .

Wood, Henry .

Wood, Henry .

Wood, John Edward .

Wood, William Webb ...

Woodcock, Page D .

^Woodcock, Joseph .

Woods, William .

Wooldridge, Thomas .

Woolley, Daniel .

* Woolley, George Stephen

Woolrich, Thomas .

Wrootton, William .

Wortley, John .

Wreaks, George D .

Wreaks, Thomas Peacock

Wright, Charles .

Wright, George Warren. . .

Wright, James .

Wright, Joseph .

.Oldham
'.Hyde
. .Bredon

.Upton-on-Severn
. .Tewkesbury
. .Bromyard
. . Manchester
. .Manchester
.Newport, Monmouth
. .Bodmin
. .Leamington
. . Swansea
. .Horsham
. .Liverpool
. . Welchpool
..Hereford
. .Haverfordwest
. .Hunslet
..North Shields
..Barnstaple
. .Tenterden
. .Wordsley
..Sheffield
. .Edinburgh
..Harrogate
. . Penrith
. .Bradford
..York
. . Bristol

..Melton Mowbray
. . Gloucester
. .Worcester
. .Stroud
. .Halifax
..Abersychan
..Brentford
. .Plarlow
. .Pontypool
..Lincoln
..Leicester
..Worcester
..Windsor
. .Stockport
. .Manchester
..Stone

. .Wolverhampton
. .Durham
..Sheffield
. . Glossop
. .Manchester
. . .Macclesfield
..Chesterfield
. . . Ard wick

THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY.

xli

Year of
Member¬
ship.

No. of
Certificate.

NAME.

RESIDENCE

1853

Wright, William .

. Liverpool

1853

Wyatt, Samuel .

. Tottenham

1845

Wylde, John .

. Manchester

1841

Wyley, John .

. Coventry

1865

821

Yeoman, John .

Stockport.

1852

153

* Young, James R .

. Edinburgh

1844

Young, John .

. Sunderland

1865

778

Young, Robert F .

1853

Young, Tonkin .

St. Ives

1853

224

Youngman, Edward .

Bury St. Edmunds

1855

345

#Youngman, Robert .

. Cambridge

ASSOCIATES

ADMITTED .BEFORE THE 1st OF JULY, 1842.

NAME.

REGISTERED AT

Baigent, William H. . ,
Bannick, Henry Stokes
Barber, William Jas. .

Brown, Henry F .

Buss, Thomas .

Chadwick, Henry .

Charity, William .

Dallas, John .

Dunn, Edward . . ...

Hindsley, Henry .

Lee, James .

Morgan, William B. .
Peat, William Henry .
Ryder, William Henry
Scholefield, Henry ....

Selleck, Edward .

Steele, J ohn W .

Sylvester, Paul .

Townsend, Charles ....

Turner, George .

Walker, Henry .

Were, Ellis .

Wood, John .

London

London

London

London

London

.London

Alford

London

.London

.London

.London

.London

.Hyde

.Birmingham

.London

. London

.London

.Birmingham

. London

.Honiton

.London

.London

. London

ASSOCIATES QE THE SOCIETY

WHO KAYE PASSED THE MAJOR EXAMINATION, AND ARE
REGISTERED AS PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTS.

Year of
Admission.

No. of
Certificate.

NAME.

KEGTSTEKED AT

1862

698

Allcock, Christopher .

. . .Nottingham

1857

665

Argles, Robert .

Clapham

1859

562

Austin, Henry Felix .

London

1862

677

Bailey, John Bassatt .

Reading

1846

424

Barker, Matthew Mark .

York

1854

55 1

Barnes, Edwin .

Durham

1854

374

Barnsby, Robert David .

. . . . Tours

1861

810

Barrett, James .

....Leicester

1860

626

Bartlett, James .

Bath

1864

796

Barton, Henry . . .

. . .Newark

1857

597

Bearcroft, Richard James .

Cheltenham

1860

589

Bell, William Henry .

. ...Whitehaven

1859

644

Benger, Frederick Baden .

Harlow

1853

576

Bennett, George .

. . . .Blandford

1863

823

Bennett, George .

Chesterfield

1853

346

Bennett, Robert .

Lincoln

1855

496

Berger, Yolcy .

. . . .Clapham

1852

208

Blackburn, Francis .

Ramsgate

1857

577

Blackman, Thomas .

. . . .Woolwich

1862

692

Bond, Purnell .

. . . .Bristol

1863

706

Borchert, Heinrich Theodor G.

.. Berlin

1859

699

Bourdas, John .

. . . London

1856

715

Bray shay, Thomas .

. . . . Stockton-on-Tees

1862

700

Broughton, Samuel R .

. . . Wrexham

1861

674

Brown, Francis James .

. . .Weston-super-Mare

1861

630

Browne, Henry Robert .

. . .Deptford

1864

761

Chambers, James .

. . .Belper

1853

376

Chappie, Edwin .

. . .Bideford

1853

527

Chater, Edward Mitchell .

. . . .Watford

1862

749

Chave, Francis William .

. . .Uxbridge

1854

380

Christopher, James .

. . Crickhowell

1859

648

Coles, John William .

. . .Camberwell

1853

281

Cleave, Charles T .

. . Chudleigh

1853

547

Cook, William .

. . . Grantham

1856

617

Cornish, William .

. . . . Brighton

1858

743

Davenport, John Metcalf .

. . . London

1859

566

Delves, George .

Tunbridge Weils

1861

640

Duffin, Thomas .

...Wakefield

1853

229

Duncanson, William .

. . .Glasgow

1856

766

Eminson, John M. O .

...Gainsborough

1853

368

Evans, William II .

. . .Haverfordwest

1856

464

Featherstone, John P .

. . .London

1859

649

Ferneley, John William. .

...Grantham

I

ASSOCIATES WHO HAVE PASSED THE MAJOR EXAMINATION. xlili

Year of
Admission.

No. of
Certificate.

NAME.

REGISTERED AT

1853

336

Fisher, William F .

London

1856

554

Fleetwood, Thomas .

Stratford-on-Avon

1855

690

Fletcher, John .

Camberwell

1860

657

Francis, Robert I) .

Bishop’s Castle

1858

511

Francis, Thomas Harper .

Dulwich

1861

631

Garland, Alfred Philip .

Hereford

1853

614

Getliing, William B .

Lincoln

1863

782

Gilling. John .

Lincoln

1863

754

Gowland, George R .

Sunderland

1858

525

Gray, Frederick .

London

1859

720

Greaves, William Samuel .

Ironville

1860

591

Grieves, Austin Stirling .

Ludlow

1851

529

Griffiths, Alfred William .

London

1861

755

Griffith, William H .

Bristol

1856

584

Hall, Thomas Howard .

Southampton

1860

684

Hardy, Samuel Croft .

Birmingham

1859

756

Hickman, William .

Maidstone

1856

574

Hill, William .

Edinburgh

1860

600

Hodges, William .

Ramsgate

1861

633

Holloway, Thomas Henry .

Sydenham

1859

746

Holmes, Edward Morel 1 .

Chelsea

1859

615

Hooper, Frank .

London

1858

720

Hopgood, Richard Cooper .

Chipping Norton

1860

724

Hoskin, Montague John Roberts ...

Southampton

1859

827

Hudson, John William .

Bradford

1858

675

Hughes, Hugh Griffith .

Holyhead

1859

811

1 sherwood, James .

London

1853

472

Johnson, Joseph .

London

1818

382

Jones, Hugh Lloyd .

Chester

1861

686

Jones, John Edwards .

Cardigan

1861

635

Jones, Walter William .

Brecon

1856

489

Jones, Peter Cooke .

London

1859

593

Jones, Robert William .

Greenwich

1849

490

Jones, Thomas .

Chester

1855

572

Keene, J ohn .

Brighton

1862

679

Kitckin, William Henry .

Whitehaven

1859

629

Laurens, Frederic Lempriere .

Jersey

1856

587

Lawrence, Henry .

Stratford, Essex

1857

478

Lee, J ohn William .

Liverpool

1856

300

Linford, John . Canterbury

1853

330

MTntyre, Peter S .

Wark worth

1864

732

Magor, Martin .

Truro

1856

451

Marks, Nelson S .

Cardiff

1852

680

Marrack, Philip .

Crediton

1853

247

Matterson, Edward H .

York

1863

758

Mayfield, John Thomas .

Wolverhampton

1860

615

Meadows, Henry .

Gloucester

1857

512

Mee, George .

Woolwich

1859

717

Miller, Thomas Henry . Crediton

1853

216

Morgan, William .

Richmond

1863

711

Neve, Francis Charles .

London

1860

860

Norrish, Henry .

Crediton

1857

482

Oliver, J ohn Hamer .

Salop

Xliv ASSOCIATES WHO HAVE PASSED THE MAJOR EXAMINATION.

Year of
Admission.

No. of
Certificate.

NAME.

REGISTERED AT

1857

581

Orton, Thomas J .

Nuneaton

1852

530

Paine, Stanclen . . .

Brighton

1853

354

Parrott, John S .

Birmingham

1859

764

Pasmore, Frederic R . . .

Chelsea

1859

748

Payne, Sidney .

Stratford-on-Avon

1860

666

Pearson, Henry Jackson .

Louth

1853

413

Penton, Charles W .

Maidstone

1858

582

Pertwee, Frederic .

London

1859

751

Phillips, Jonathan .

Godaiming

1859

565

Powers, Edward .

Stourbridge

1860

812

Preston, Joseph C .

London

1863

733

Reece, John .

.Rotherham

1855

440

Richards, Charles .

W eymouth

1858

514

Richardson, Robert .

Ipswich

1853

545

Roberts, Albinus J .

Horsham

1860

830

Rose, Alfred .

London

1862

668

Sampson, Robert George .

London

1860

647

Sanders, Albert John .

Sandgate

1864

856

Sargent, George W .

Liskeard

1854

638

Saxbv, Henry .

Lewes

1853

316

Scott, Thomas .

.Birmingham

1859

744

Scruby, William Yuli .

.Romford

1861

798

Sells, Robert James .

. Canterbury

1858

799

Shaw, Benjamin .

.Wakefield

1860

825

Shephard, Thomas F .

.Brighton

1853

188

Sidley, Thomas Insall .

.Edinburgh

1853

356

Smith, Joseph .

Birmingham

1857

475

Smith, William .

Glasgow

1853

349

Smith, Richard .

.Reigate

1855

651

Spearing, James .

. Southampton

1863

752

Squire, Alfred Rook .

.London

1853

509

Steevens, Joseph G .

. Guildford

1853

687

Stevens, Henry William .

.Colchester

1861

662

Strawson, George Frederick .

.Crewkerne

1862

735

Swenden, James .

.Darlington

1855

409

Taplin, Frederick .

.Bristol

1857

691

Tayler, George Spratt .

.Harrogate

1860

575

Taylor, Herbert 1) .

.Manchester

1853

221

Taylor, John Nunwick .

.Lincoln

1853

320

Thompson, Henry .

.Leatherhead

1856

498

Tiplady, Frederick .

.York

1860

705

Trollope, William Thomas . .

.Yarmouth.

1855

560

Videon, Charles .

.London

1862

681

Ward, Joseph .

.Nuneaton

1860

727

Warren, George Robert .

.AVare

1860

765

Watts, John .

. London

1856

596

Waugh, Alexander . .

. Southampton

1860

682

Welborne, George .

.Grantham

1853

456

West, Robert G .

.Liverpool

1856

455

Weston, Charles .

.Lincoln

1857

503

Wheldon, Henry William .

.London

1862

714

Wilson, Thomas .

. Stowmarket

1851

114

Whitfield, Henry .

.Worcester

ASSOCIATES "WHO IIAYE PASSED THE MINOR EXAMINATION. xlv

Year of
Admission.

No. of
Certificate.

NAME.

REGISTERED AT

1S55

442

Williams, David Martin .

Truro

1854

359

Willmott, William .

Bristol

1863

696

Wink, John Adam .

Edinburgh

1859

643

Young, William .

Banbury

ASSOCIATES OF THE SOCIETY

WHO HAYE PASSED THE MINOR EXAMINATION, AND ARE
REGISTERED AS ASSISTANTS.

Year of
Admission.

No. of
Certificate.

NAME.

REGISTERED AT

1853

704

Ambrosse, John D. L .

Putney

1865

895

Amoore, Charles .

Hastings

1853

441

Allingham, George Samuel .

London

1862

908

Applegate, Sidney .

London

1856

424

Arnold, Spencer .

Maidstone

1857

710

Baker, Thomas". .

Blandford

1861

722

Barlow, John .

Birmingham

1861

711

Barnitt, John .

Leeds

1862

758

Barton, Frederick George .

Leicester

1861

888

Bateman, Thos. Henry .

Salisbury

1850

393

Baxter, George .

Chester

1862

767

Beal, Edmund John .

Harlow

1857

691

Bell, William .

Bedford

1857

437

Bell, William M .

Stonehouse

1857

712

Bell, J allies Alfred .

Brighton

1862

772

Bisset, George M .

Edinburgh

1861

692

Blane, Gilbert .

Mauritius

1859

601

Brett, Robert .

Bath

1856

681

Brew, John A .

Brighton

1860

626

Brooks, Frederick .

Tunbridge Wells

1862

889

Brough, Henry J .

Windsor

1858

536

Brown, Charles Hills . Devonport

1855

461

Brown, John .

London

1862

799

Browne, Thomas Llewelyn .

Chester

1860

912

Brownen, Geerge .

Christchurch

1858

729

Capern, Alfred .

Bedford

1860

670

Capner, William M .

Birmingham

1853

636

Christian, John O .

Douglas

1865

902

Chubb, Osborn .

Taunton

1860

660

Churchyard, Robert L .

Bungay

1859

582

Clapham, Edward .

Leeds

1860

890

Clayton, Francis C .

Leeds

I860'

655

Cleave, Samuel W .

Bodmin

Xlvi ASSOCIATES WHO HAVE PASSED THE MINOR EXAMINATION.

Year of
Admission.

No. of
Certificate.

NAME.

REGISTERED AT

1854

344

Clingan, William M .

Edinburgh

1853

543

Cocking, Thomas .

Maldon

1848

226

Coles, Ferdinand .

London

1859

762

Conder, George .

W alworth

1865

879

Cornelius, Richard B .

Clapham

1865

882

Cox, Samuel G .

.Leicester

1865

880

Cruse, Thomas II .

Warminster

1864

867

Daggers, Frederick .

Preston

1861

724

Dale, George William .

Chichester

1856

531

Dallas, Clement .

Woodbridge

1857

413

Dakin, John .

Chester

1862

756

Davis, Frank Pratt .

Hew bury

1855

487

Davis, Richard .

Walworth

1859

800

Dawson, Oliver Robert .

Southampton

1862

912

Brownen, George .

Christchurch

1853

761

Earland, William .

Hay

1864

913

Ellinor, George .

Rotherham

1859

914

Ellis, Henry B . .

Bristol

1859

627

Evans, John James .

London

1856

418

Farr, Archer .

Lambeth

1865

915

Fisher, John Albert .

Liverpool

1861

849

Fitt, Francis E .

Barking

1856

698

Fox, Edward M .

Falmouth

1858

773

Fuller, Thomas Gilbert .

Burntisland

1864

850

Garside, Thomas .

Southport

1853

511

Gill, Levi John .

Bridport

1862

845

Goulden, Edward Baker .

London

1856

512

Green, James .

Bath

1856

455

Grim wood, William . .

Ipswich

I860

809

Haddock, George John .

JN orwich

1857

569

Haines, John Jenkins .

Bromsgrove

D55

404

Harden, Charles .

Bristol

1860

896

Harper, George .

Cambridge

1860

891

Harris, Henry YV .

Reading

1857

493

Hawkes, James .

Birmingham

1864

883

Heald, Benjamin .

. Sleaford

1862

754

Heathorn, Alfred .

Reading

1857

658

Hill, Francis .

Leeds

1865

868

Hill, Henry .

Kendal

1865

897

Hitchcock, Alfred W .

Oxford

1860

648

Hodgkinson, Charles .

Leicester

1857

597

Holmes, William C .

London

1853

353

Holroyde, William II .

Bradford

1861

815

Hooper, Leonard .

London

1864

841

Hunt, Charles . • .

Bristol

1847

56

Huskisson, William J .

London

1858

532

Ingall, Joseph .

W ath -upon-De arn e

1860

629

Ismay, John George Y .

Bristol

1856

666

Jackson, Warwick .

Colchester

1852

184

Jamie, Robert . .

Edinburgh

1854

479

Jefferson, Thomns .

Cambridge

1860

903

Jelley, Stephen J .

Hull

1855

1 380

J olley, Horace .

London

ASSOCIATES WHO HAVE PASSED THE MINOR EXAMINATION. xlvii

Year of
Admission.

No. of
Certificate.

NAME.

REGISTERED AT

1853

338

Keeling, Thomas G .

Howden

1861

842

Kinch, Charles James .

H enley-on-Thames

L859

589

King, James .

Bristol

1865

904

Kirkman, Chas. J .

London

1860

869

Lacey, Bichard .

Norwich

1853

544

Laming, Welberry .

Market Basen

1861

821

La sham, John William .

Stratford-on-Avon

1854

345

Leighton, Thomas .

Edinburgh

1859

708

Lescher, Frank H. .: .

London

1855

399

Lloyd, David L . Carnarvon

1861

701

Long, Frank .

Brighton

1859

795

Lucas, John Philip .

Guildford

1848

265

Luff, Henry Thomas .

Poplar

1864

870

Mansell, Thomas .

East Betford

1860

638

Marriott, Frederick T .

Bugby

1860

618

Marten, Henry Oake .

N ewfoundland

1856

734

Martin, James .

Southampton

1860

853

Martindale, William .

Carlisle

1862

881

Matthews, John H .

Beading

1847

148

Matthews, William .

London

1858

533

Medwin, Aaron George .

Greenwich

1859

631

Merrick, Charles James . Manchester

1858

545

Moore, Francis Samuel .

Bristol

1858

506

Muskett, Edwin Burrell .

Holt

1855

391

Nooten, Ernest Van .

Edinburgh

1861

855

Oldfield, Francis .

Dover

1860

643

Oliver, John Gerry .

Holsworthy

1859

579

Paris, Thomas .

Salisbury

1858

623

Partridge, William .

Dudley

1858

824

Parry, William .

Crickhowell

1865

886

Payne, Martin H .

Bridgwater

1856

452

Pearson, Edward Smith .

Liverpool

1855

611

Potts, Bobert Alfred .

London

1862

792

Preston, Joseph Classon .

London

1864

843

Pugh, George .

Cheltenham

1858

892

Bayner, Gilmour G .

Swansea

1856

524

Kees, Thomas George .

Pembroke Dock

1856

613

Beynolds, Freshfield .

Guildford

1859

703

Bichardson, Bobert .

Dumfries

1860

893

Richardson, Joseph H .

Plymouth

1859

659

Bidding, William .

London

1860

838

Bider, Frederick .

London

1857

430

Bobinson, John .

Woolwich

1853

514

Bobinson, William P .

.Liverpool

1855

388

Bnutledge,- Henry .

.London

1863

810

Bowe, Robert .

Yeovil

1857

481

Scott, Joseph Bobinson .

Sheffield

1862

905

Selfe, William G .

London

1861

508

Seymour, George .

Oldbury

1863

797

Sharp, David Biakey .

York

1853

321

Simpson, Thomas .

Walsall

1860

644

Sims, Francis M. B .

.Colchester

1858

509

Slack, John Lawrence .

. Ormskirk

xlvdii ASSOCIATES WIIO HAVE passed the minor examination.

Year of
Admission.

No. of
Certificate.

NAME.

registered at

1856

735

Slator, Thomas .

Boston

1853

268

Speeehly, George .

Peterborough

1862

906

Starkey, Ebenezer B .

. London

1856

423

Stewart, James .

. Kirkcaldy

1853

281

Stonekam, Philip .

. London

1855

383

Taplin, George .

. Bath

1861

894

Thomas, John A .

1854

346

Thomson, John .

. Edinburgh

1862

898

Thorn, John James .

Crediton

1862

901

Thurston, Frederick . ■. .

. Ipswich

1857

473

Tieftrunk, Julius .

. London

1858

744

Tilden, Wm. Augustus .

. London

1853

333

Todd, Thomas .

. Edinburgh

1858

736

Tolbort, Thomas W. Id .

1864

919

Tunley, John .

. West Bromwich

1859

828

Warland, Francis William...

. Poole

1860

625

Watson. Frederick .

. Fakenham

1857

696

Watts, John Newton .

. London

1859

857

Wearing, Iti chard 11 .

. Liverpool

1858

553

W eller, J antes William .

. Bloxwich

1858

529

Weston, Samuel John .

. Leicester

1865

887

Whysall, William .

. Belper

1857

500

VVigg, Henry John .

. Lynn

1861

719

Wilson, Walter Wm .

1860

771

Wilson, William .

Slough

1858

566

Wilkinson, George .

. Manchester

1864

899

Wilkinson, Joshua H .

. Blackheath

1856

432

Williams, Thomas .

. Carmarthen

1860

715

Wills, Douglas .

. Lewisham

1858

541

Wilson, Charles Wallace ...

. . London

1861

709

Winterbottom, James .

. Oldham

1858

798

Wootton, Alfred Charles ...

. Luton

1862

782

Wyman, John Sanderson ...

. Alcester

xlix

Date of
Regis¬
tration.

1864

1857

1859

1860
1860

1857
1864

1858
1864

1855

1863
L860

1856
1853
1858
1858
1862
1858

1858

1857

1859
1862

1853

1854

1864
1857
1861

1860
1863
1851
1856
1863
1862

1854
1856
1860

1855

1854
1860
1860

1855
1861
1860
1850
1853
1859
1862
1861

REGISTERED APPRENTICES OF THE SOCIETY.

NAME.

RESIDING WITH

TOWN.

Adams, Frank . Mr. Adams . Stoke-on-Trent

Alderson, Frederick H. ...Mr. Hempsted . St. Leonards

Allanson, George . Mr. Allanson . Harrogate

Allen, E. Eansome . Messrs. Chapman, Bros. Ipswich

Allen, Samuel Stafford ...Mr. Beale . . . Hemel Hempstead

Allison, Richard R . Mr. Howorth . Doncaster

Allkins, Thomas B . Mr. Ruffe . Tamwortk

Allott, Frederick . .Mr. Greaves . Bake well

Anderson, John Brown ...Mr. Rogerson . Bradford

Andrews, Enos . Mr. Cropper . Long Sutton

Andrews, George IT . Mr. Smith . Walworth

Aplin, Benj. D’Oyley . Mr. Hill . Norwood

Atkinson, Edward F . Mr. Kirton . Hull

Atkinson, George John ...Mr. Wilson . Harrogate

Atkinson, John P . Messrs. Hurst & Morton. Louth

Atwood, John Charles . Mr. Cracknell . London

Autton, John Ry don . Mr. Hall . London

Backhouse, Noah . Mr. Rowntree . London

Badcock, Henry . Mr. Peat . Lymington

Bagshaw, James . Mr. Handley . Wakefield

Bamber, John K . Messrs. Savory & Moore... London

Barber, Harry . Ward and Co . Richmond, Yorks.

Barber, Tom . Mr. King . Rochester

Barber, William . Mr. Nunn . Bury St. Edmund

Bardsley, William . Mr. Nicholson . Highbury

Barlow, John Podmore ...Mr. Barlow . Manchester

Barnett, Elijah Wm . Mr. Wood . Worcester

Barnett, Thos. James . Mr. Golding . London

Barry, Henry . Messrs. Ritson & Sons... Sunderland

Bartlett, Ebenezer . Mr. Mather . Reading

Barton, Frederick . Mr. Wilson . Bradford

Basker, John Perkin . Air. Heald . Sleaford

Bass, Charles William . Mr. Lovett . Gloucester

Batchelor, George II. W....Mr. Watts . Chatham

Bate, Henry . Mr. Davies . Chester

Battman, Thomas . Mr. Wright . Manchester

Beach, Tom Clarke . Messrs. Lea & Co. ...Great Malvern

Beach, Wesley . Mr. Beach . Bridport

Beale, Chas. George . Mr. Atkins . Salisbury

Beale, Fred. Wilson . Mr. Atkins . Salisbury

Beaton, Walter . Mr. Beaton . London

Beattie, James . Mr. Gordelier . Sittingbourne

Beattie, John . Mr. Mackay . Edinburgh

Beavan, Alfred James . Mr. Matthews . London

Beddard, John . Mr. Cross . Shrewsbury

Bedford, Joseph . Mr. Bolton . Dover

Beilby, Michael . Messrs. Goode & Son Congleton

Bell, Rich. Edward . Mr. Noakes . Brighton

d

1

REGISTERED APPRENTICES OF THE SOCIETY.

Date of
Regis¬
tration.

1864

1855

1859

1855
1859
1854

1863
1861
1854
1854
1862
1859
1858

1858

1859
1861

1860
1860

1856
1860
1854
1858
3857
1858
1850
1862
1856

1856

1864

1857
1860

1865
1860
1862
1861
1860

1863

1853
1860

1856

1854
1865

1858

1859

1857

1864

1859
1861

1860
1861
1857

1855
1859

NAME.

RESIDING WITH

TOWN.

Bingley, Frederick B.
Bingley, Rickard .

Bishop, William

Bowen, J okn Thomas

Brereton, Matthew B.
Bridges, Charles Wm.

Brown, James

Burton, John

Carre, Joseph .

Carre, Louis C. A .

Carrington, Ebenezer T
Carter, Thomas .

...Mr. Young .

...Liverpool

...Mr. Mortimer .

. . . Sidmouth-

...Mr. Dal wood .

...Sherborne

...Mr. Pryer .

. . . Axminster

...Mr. Farmer .

...London

...Mr. Tanner .

...Exeter

...Mr. Tanner .

...Exeter

...Mr. Bird .

...Worcester

...Mr. Wilson .

. . . Canterbury

...Mr. Gay .

. . . Stroud

...Mr. Bird .

. . .Worcester

...Mr. Jeffery .

...Horncastle

...Mr. Fox .

. . .London

...Mr. Groves .

. . .Weymouth

. . .Mr. Fair bank .

. . . YV oolwich

...Mr. Claremont .

...London

...Mr. Price .

. . .Bridgend

...Mr. Parker .

...Bath

...Mr. Hitchcock .

, . . Colchester

...Mr. Cornish .

...Brighton

...Mr. Parker . . .

...Derby

...Mr. Parker .

...Birmingham

...Mr. Mabson .

, . .Yarmouth

...Mr. Biscoe .

, . . London

...Mr. Burgess .

..Dover

...Mr. Fowler .

. . Torrington

. . .Mr. Fairbank .

. .Woolwich

...Mr. Lawton .

..Wakefield

...Mr. Swift .

...Spalding

...Mr. Dutton .

. .Birkenhead

•s. Gardner and Ainslie .

..Edinburgh

...Mr. Pipes .

. .Beverley

...Mr. West .

. .Coventry

7. Mr. Bucklee .

. . London

. . .Mr. Groves .

. .Blaudford

...Mr. Parkes .

. .Manchester

. . .Mr. Maitland .

..London

...Mr. Beading .

. .Warwick

...Mr. Johnson .

...Mr. Parker .

..Derby

...Mr. Wick .

..Sheffield

...Mr. Botham .

..Sheffield

...Mr. Penney .

..Poole

...Mr. Dowman .

..Southampton

...Mr. Mackay .

. .Galashiels

...Mr. Commans .

. . Bath

...Mr. Keene .

. .Leamington

...Mr. Tylee .

..Bath

...Mr. Scarrow .

. . Sunderland

...Mr. Tylee .

. .Bath

...Mr. Tylee .

. .Bath

. Mr. Toone .

..Warminster

...Mr. Dresser .

..York

Date o;

Regis¬

tration,

1855

1863

1854

1855

1865

1862

1865

1862

1855

1858

1857

1864

1862

1858

1861

1860

1855

1865

1859

1861

1864

1853

1854

1855

1862

1858

1854

1854

1865

1853

1858

1860

1860

1854

1863

1863

1865

1861

1857

1858

1856

1858

1855

1855

1858

1861

1858

1862

1857

1860

1856

1858

1859

REGISTERED APPRENTICES OF THE SOCIETY.

li

NAME.

RESIDING WITH

TOWN.

Cartner, David . . . Mr. Bell . Carlisle

Cave, Alfred . Messrs. T. &E. Anderson London

Ckerrington, Artliur O.

Coulthard, Christopher

Cozens, William

Dalrymple, William

Dawson, James Henry

Dean, Samuel

...Mr. Dresser .

. ..York

...Mr. Green .

. ..Droit wich

...Mr. Pearman .

. ..Newport.

...Mr. Thomas .

.. .Boston

...Mr. Geldard .

...Plymouth

...Mr. Tanner .

. . .Exeter

...Mr. Brown .

. . .Oxford

. . . Mr. Macarthy ......

. . .Bomford

. . .Mr. Groves .

..Hammersmith

...Messrs. Ereaut & Son Jersey

...Mr. Collier .

...Sheffield

...Mr. Collier .

..Sheffield

...Mr. Kershaw .

..Southport

...Mr. Blandford .

. .London

...Mr. Cooper .

...Leicester

...Air. Banks .

. .Birmingham

...Mr. White .

. .Nottingham

...Mr. Anthony .

. .Bedford

...Mr. Corner .

..West Hartlepool

...Air. Cornish .

. .Penzance

...Mr. Coulson .

..Scarborough

...Mr. Harrison .

. .Carlisle

...Mr. Beading .

. .Warwick

...Air. Butler .

. .Pontefract

...Mr. Alay .

..Beading

...Mr. Mackay .

. .Edinburgh

...Mr. Cross .

. . Shrewsbury

...Air. Cooper .

. .London

...Air. Churchouse .

. .Chard

...Mr. Hughes .

. .Altrincham

. . . Mr. Chapman .

..Bristol

...Mr. Luff .

. . Oxford

...Mr. Williams .

. . Cardigan

...Mr. Phillips .

. .Carmarthen

...Mr. Wade .

..Oldham

...Messrs. Southall .

. .Birmingham

...Mr. Boberts .

..London

...Mr. Coleman .

..Cardiff

...Mr. Greaves .

. .Bakewell

...Mr. Teller .

. .Oxford

...Mr. Goddard .

..Yarmouth

...Mr. Eos .

..London

...Mr. Kingdon .

. .London

, ..Mr. Banfield .

..Bury St. Edmund

...Mr. Dodshon .

. . Sunderland

..Mr. Wagstaff .

..London

, ..Mr. Doughty .

..London

..Messrs. Angles & Co..

..Maidstone

...Mr. Arnold .

. . N orwich

..Mr. Parker .

. .Birmingham

...Alessrs. Garratt .

..Bugby

lii

REGISTERED APPRENTICES OF THE SOCIETY.

Date of
Regis-
ration.

NAME.

RESIDING WITH

TOWN.

1856

Eason, John .

Mr. Gilkes .

Leominster

1858

Eastman, Jabez .

Mr. Clark .

Hackney

1861

Edwards, Charles R .

Mr. Gunn .

Harrow

1857

Edwards, Frederick IE... Mr. Medcalf .

Lower Tooting

1854

Eland, Edward F .

Mr. Telfer .

Oxford

1853

Elliot, Robert John .

Mr. Steward .

Yarmouth

1863

Ellis, Henry .

Mr. Roberts .

London

1862

Emerson, John .

Mr. Emerson .

Hartlepool

1864

Emsley, Joseph .

Mr. Pratt .

Bradford

1860

Epps, Franklin .

Mr. Epps .

London

1857

Evans, Alfred Paget .

Mr. Cutting .

Leamington

1853

Evans, Edward .

Mr. Bancroft .

Ruthin

1857

Eve, Charles .

Mr. Wilson .

Holloway

1864

Ewens, Frederick Thomas Mr. Morris .

Cheltenham

1854

Fairley, Robert .

Mr. Mackay .

Edinburgh

1860

Fancourt, John .

Mi;. Lavers .

Blackheath

1865

Farries, Thomas .

.Mr. Forge .

Driffield

1864

Farthing, Thomas .

Mr. Morton .

Durham

1856

Farrar, William .

Mr. Heming .

Sunderland

1862

Fenn, Charles Draper ...Messrs.Ferris and Co...

Bristol

1863

Finlay, James L .

Mr. Aitken .

Edinburgh

1861

Finch, Thomas .

Mr. Aitkin .

Edinburgh

1845

Flood, William .

Mr. Goodman .

Exeter

1857

Foggitt, Thomas .

Mr. Smeeton .

Leeds

1862

Forbes, William T .

Mr. Forbes .

Reigate

1853

Forth, William W .

Mr. Headley .

Bridlington

1861

Fosbrooke, Fred. J. R...

Mr. Eickley .

London

1854

Foster, Thomas U .

Mr. Weston .

Sleaford

1863

Fox, William E .

.Mr. Fox .

London

1862

Franklin, Alfred .

.Mr. Hunt .

Winchester

1853

Fresson, William .

.Mr. Fresson .

.Stevenage

1865

Fripp, Percival Iv .

.Mr. Constance .

.London

1857

Gibbs, Thomas .

.Mr. Steward .

Yarmouth

1851

Gilliat, William .

.Mr. Gamble .

Grantham

1864

Gillies, John Whitfield..

.Messrs. Ritson & Sons Sunderland

1859

Gillies, Wm. Jonathan ..

.Mr. Dunn .

.St. Austell

1855

Goodchild, Nathaniel ..

Mr. Wood .

Brighton

1859

Goodwin, Medmer .

. Mr. Telfer .

Oxford

1863

Gorton, Charles .

.Mr. Gorton .

London

1860

Gray, Thomas .

.Mr. Banks .

Birmingham

1861

Gray, William .

.Mr. Banks .

Birmingham

1861

Greatrex, Thomas Jas. ..

.Mr. Andrews .

London

1860

Green, Edwin G .

.Mr. Greaves .

.Bakewell

1862

Green, Isaac .

Mr. Phillips .

Coventry

1855

Gregory, Richard .

.Mr. Lavers .

.London

1858

Greig, Francis .

.Mr. Mackay .

.Edinburgh

1855

Grigor, William .

.Mr. Macfarlan .

.Edinburgh

1859

Haclley, Thomas .

.Mr. Harris .

.Hereford

1863

Hall, Alfred Richard .

. Mr. Lawrence .

.Kensington

1856

Halsey, Bennet .

.Mr. Husband .

.Exeter

1854

Ham, Charles .

.Mr. Foster .

.Collumpton

1860

Hamilton, Herbert B. .

..Mr. Savage .

.Brighton

1862

Hankin, Frederick .

.Mr. Horncastle .

.London

REGISTERED APPRENTICES OE THE SOCIETY.

liii

Date of
Regis¬
tration.

NAME.

RESIDING WITH

TOWN.

1860

Harland, Richard Thos. ...Mr. Dresser .

York

1854

Harley, Edward .

Mr. Foster .

Ludlow

1858

Harper, Wm. James .

Mr. Gent .

Macclesfield

1861

Harrison, George .

Mr. Harrison .

Sheffield

1856

Harrison, Stephen .

Mr. Breary .

Douglas

1865

Hart, James .

Mr. Williams . .

Manchester

1856

Hatch, Richard M .

Mr. James .

Bognor

1857

Hatchard, Stephen .

Mr. Huggins .

Aires ford

1859

Hatchett, Thomas .

Mr. Hemingway .

London

1856

Head, John T .

Mr. Head .

Lewes

1857

Heald, Alfred John .

Mr. Barley .

Wisbeach

1864

Heald, John Aulsebrook

Mr. Sinimberglii .

Rome

1865

Hearne, Frederick .

Mr. Stevens .

Strood

1857

Highway, Matthew H. ..

Mr. Caddick .

N ewcastle-u.-Lyne

1843

Hill, William .

Mr. Rowe .

Plymouth

1857

Hoare, James Raper .

Mr. Gigner .

Chelsea

1852

Hodgkinson, John S .

Mr. Brook er .

Macclesfield

1861

Holden, Abraham HobsonMr. Handley .

Wakefield

1856

Holland, William .

Mr. Sibary .

Longton

1864

Holder, Edward R .

Mr. Hollier .

Dudley

1863

Holmes, Walter Murton..

Mr. Mohun .

Ramsgate

1855

Holmwood, William C. ...

Mr. Coppock .

Bridport

1855

Holt, George F. W .

Mr. Obbinson .

Sleaford

1863

Hopper, Charles B .

Mr. Brearey .

Douglas

1854

Horn, William .

Mr. Longrigg .

Appleby

1862

Howes, Thomas M.... Messrs. Greville & Taylor

IN ortkampton

1864

Howlett, Henry J .

Mr. Rastrick .

Southsea

1859

Hughes, Thomas Jones ..

Mr. Hughes .

Holyhead

1862

Hutchinson, Marshall II.

Messrs. Macfarlan ...Edinburgh

1858

Ive, William .

Mr. Lawrence .

Kensington

1863

Jackson, Charles Fred. ..

Mr. Codings .

Bristol

1856

Jackson, John .

Messrs. Wilson & Co. Bradford

1861

Jackson, John E .

Messrs. Argles & Co.

Maidstone

1855

Jakins, George S .

Mr. Golding .

London

1864

Jeffery, George J. C .

Mr. Gulliver .

Lutterworth

1861

Jeffery, Henry .

Mr. Sharland .

Bristol

1862

Johnson, Eli .

Mr. Harrison .

Nottingham

1862

Jones, Frederick Wm. ..

Mr. Jones .

London

1860

Jones, Hugh H .

Mr. Bancroft .

Ruthin

1859

Jones, Jas. Davenport ...Mr, Marston .

Ludlow

1859

Jones, John Reed . •..

Messrs. Garratt .

Rugby

1861

Jones, Richard Edward ..

Mr. Jones .

Carmarthen

1865

Jones, Elias Richard .

Mr. Brearey . Douglas

1861

Jordan, Edmund H .

Mr. Chubb .

London

1865

Joseph, Arthur .

.Mr. Joseph .

St. Leonards

1860

Judson, Charles W .

.Mr. Judson .

. Ripon

1861

Keen, John .

.Mr. Stocken .

.London

1856

Kemp, Francis .

Mr. Smeeton .

.Leeds

1862

Kent, Thomas R .

.Mr. Kent .

.London

1863

Kinch, Edward .

.Mr. Kinch .

.Henley-on-Thames

1860

King, James Hurman

.Mr. Stroud .

Bristol

1864

Kingerley, William S. ..

.Messrs. Shadford & Co. Spalding

1861

Kite, John C .

.Mr. King .

o

Rochester

liv

REGISTERED APPRENTICES OF THE SOCIETY.

Date of
Regis¬
tration.

1861

1858

1857

1863

1855

1863
1857

1857
.1853

1858
1860
1865
1860
1865
1860
1862

1859

1859

1857
1861
1862

1864
1855

1858
1857
1861

1860
1855

1859
1847
1857

1859
1857

1857
1853

1860

1864

1858

1855

1865

1859
1864
1858
1858

1857

1856
1863

1858

1857
1862
1856
1856

1860

NAME.

RESIDING WITH

TOWN.

Kniglit, Benjamin . Mr. Maggs . Yeovil

Knowles, John Hiles . Mr. Anthony . Bedford

Lacey, Walter . Mr. Meredith . Bristol

Lake, John Hinton . Mr. Tighe . Exeter

Lamplougli, John . Mr. Stevenson . Derby

Lane, Eli B . Mr. Judd . Christchurch

Langley, William . Mr. Tylee . Bath

Lavers, Thomas E . Mr. Lavers . Lewisham

Lawrence, George . Mr. Wright . London

Leppard, James . Mr. Williams . Horsham

Lightfoot, John . Mr. Shepheard . Chester

Limb, Thomas . Mr. Patterson . Stamford

Lindley, Wm. Walker ...Mr. Evans . Swansea

Lindsay, Robert . Mr. Macdonald . Lasswade

Livermore, George . Mr. Goodger . London

Llewelyn, John . Mr. Lister . Cowbridge

Llewellyn, Peter . Mr. Phillips . Carmarthen

Lock, Edward . Mr. Hay don . Eordingbridge

Lovatt, John Hammond Mr. Wilshaw . . . Wordsley

Ludgater, Alfred . Mr. Gordelier . Sittingbourne

Luff, William . Mr. Luff . Oxford

Lynn, Samuel . Mr. Wellington . Oakham

McCabe, Dunbar . Mr. Macfarlan . Edinburgh

McGeorge, William . Mr. Carruthers . Dumfries

Machon, Edward . Mr. Parkes . Manchester

Mackmurdo, Edwd. L. ...Mr. Mackmurdo . Edmonton

Maine, Phillip B . Mr. Wills . Barnstaple

Malin, Edmund C. M. ...Mr. Huggins . Barnet

Manby, Thomas . Mr. Chenery . Ipswich

Marrack, George . Mr. Searle . Crediton

Martin, Benjamin . Mr. Handley . Wakefield

Martin, Erederic . Mr. Chandler . Margate

Mason, John . Mr. Mason . Hastings

Mathias, Thomas . Mr. Jones . Narberth

Matthews, Charles . Mr. Gostling . Diss

Matthews, Frederick W. Mr. Baker . Islington

Matthews, Henry . Mr. Biggs . Hampstead

Maudson, Joseph W. ...Mr. Maunder . Sheffield

May, Augustus S . Mr. Greenwell . London

Mepsted, Edward J . Mr. Chigwell . Wingham

Metcalfe, Chas. J . Mr. Maitland . London

Metcalfe, Wilson . Mr. Davis . Harrogate

Midgley, Charles . Mr. Kimmington . Bradford, York

Midgley, J. E . Messrs. Lynch & Wilkinson... Man Chester

Midgley, John James ...Mr. Keinhardt . Hull

Miller, Duncan S . Mr. Pooley . Bath

Moir, Alexander . Messrs. Macfarlan ...Edinburgh

Monkhouse, Joshua . Mr. Davies . Gainsborough

Moore, Abraham . Mr. White . Birmingham

Moore, Geo. James . Mr. Stroud . Bristol

Morley, Edward . Mr. Asling . Spalding

Morley, George . Mr. Wheeler . Hackney

Morris, William . Mr. Hardman . Kirkkam

REGISTERED APPRENTICES OF THE SOCIETY.

Date of
Regis¬
tration.

1864

1865
1859

1857
1862
1856
1861
1862
1864
1862
1864

1859

1856
1852
1862
1864
1864
1863
1862
1863

1860

1863

1858

1859

1864

1858

1859

1858

1857
1855
1862

1859

1854

1859

1860

1865
1857
1861
1864

1863
1860

1857

1858
1858

1864

1855
1858

1865
1863

1856
1863

1857
1863

iv

NAME.

TOWN.

Moss, John . Mr. Hulme . Oldham

Mountain, Robert . Mr. Pullan . Harrogate

Moysey, William . Mr. Moon . Ilfracombe

Murrell, John Friday ...Mr. Maynard . Brandon

Nelson, William . Mr. Atherton . Nottingham

Newby, John . Mr. Hughes . Altrincham

Newcombe, Henry A. ...Mr. Baker . Lewisham

Nix, John Beard . Mr. Nix . Billericay

Noakes, Edward T . Mr. Noakes . Brighton

Oakes, George . Mr. Paulden . Altrincham

Ockley, Frederick . Mr. Hallaway . ..Carlisle

Oliver, Robert Dawson ...Mr. Smith . Southampton

Overton, William . Mr. Fowke . Stafford

Owles, James John . Mr. Owles . Yarmouth

Padwick, John . Mr. Sharp . Christchurch

Palmer, Alfred Neobard Mr. Coleman . Bury St. Edmunds

Palmer, Robert FrederickMr. Salisbury . Leicester

Palmer, William Francis Mr. Woodward . Nottingham

Park, John . Mr. Pratt . . Bradford, Yorks.

Parker, Henry Walter ...Mr. Binge . London

Parkes, Robert . ..Mr. Townsend . Burton-upon-Trent

Parrott, Edward John ...Mr. Towle . Ardwick

Pearcey, Herbert A . Mr. Biggs . London

Philpot, Arthur Walter... Mr. Wimble . Maidstone

Pickering, Samuel W. ...Mr. Higgins . Chester

Pickup, Robt. Lansdale.. .Mr. Pickup . . Manchester

Picton, John T . Messrs. Picton & Hatton... Warrington

Pissey, William F . Mr. Pissey . Rayleigh

Pistrucci, Filippo . Mr. Ring . London

Pitman, John . Mr. Fendick . Bristol

Poore, James E . Mr. Brew . Brighton

Postans, Arthur Wm. ...Mr. Banfield . Bury St. Edmunds

Power, Thomas M . Mr. Williams . Nottingham

Pratt, Albert Edward ...Mr. Smith . Bury St. Edmunds

Pratt, Joseph . Mr. Loggin . Stratford-on-Avon

Preston, Alfred . .Mr. Smith . Abingdon

Price, Thomas.. . Mr. Laen . Pembroke Dock

Priestley, Henry . Mr. Priestley . Sheffield

Prime, Thomas Robert ...Mr. Cupiss . Diss

Prockter, Alfred E . Mr. Wellington . Oakham

Provost, John Arthur ...Mr. Chaston . Lowestoft

Prust, Richard . Mr. Brend . Swansea

Pryce, Alfred C . Messrs. Picton & Hatton... Warrington

Pullen, William H . Mr. Parkes . Atherstone

Quibell, Thos. O. . . .Messrs. Mountain & Taylor. . . W akefield

Rae, John Inglis . Mr. Mackay . Edinburgh

Rainnie, Alexander . Mr. Stewart . Edinburgh

Raworth, Harrison W. ...Mr. Sharland . Bristol

Ray, William Herbert ...Mr. Holman . Barnet

Rea, James Parker . Mr. Rea . . London

Redford, Edward A . Mr. Nicol . Edinburgh

Reed, Alfred . Mr. Gordelier . Sittingbourne

Rees, Joseph . ...Mr. Williams . . .Cardigan

lvi

Date of
Regis¬
tration.

1862

1864

1858

1852

1856

1859

1860
1859

1857

1859
1862
1864

1858
1864

1856

1853
1862
1863

1860
1860

1863
1860

1857
1857

1864
1861

1859
1864

1863
1855

1854

1857
1862

1855
1854

1856
1862

1853

1854

1864

1859

1860

1858
1854
1860
1862
1860
1864
1864

1859
1864
1858

1860

REGISTERED APPRENTICES OF THE SOCIETY.

NAME.

TOWN.

Bkodes, Francis . Mr. Ogden . Manchester

Fichardson, John H . Mr. Fastrick . Southsea

Fitcliie, John Moffat . Mr. Medley . Derby

Fivers, Henry . Mr. Hornsby . Odiham

Foberts, John L . Mr. Sibary . Longton

Foberts, Charles . Mr. Handley . Wakefield

Foberts, Thomas E . Mr. Jones . Fkyl

Fobertson, A. G- . Messrs. Macfarlan & Co. Edinburgh

Fobinson, James F. ...Messrs. Picton & Hatton Warrington

Fockford, Percy . , . Mr. Burden . London

Pogerson, Herbert G. ...Mr. Fogerson . Bradford, Yorks.

Fogerson, William J. ...Mr. Fogerson . Bradford, ,,

Fomans, Thomas . Mr. Cutting . Selby

Foss, Lewis B . Mr. Ombler ....' . Driffield

Fosselloty, John C . Mr. Couch . Islington

Salmon, Henry L . Mr. Moore . Brighton

Samuel, James Burck. ...Mr. Herington . Leighton Buzzard

Sartin, Samuel Fob ert ...Mr. Anderson . London

Saul, William Benjamin Mr. Bring . Tauuton

Saul, William W . Mr. Prior . Oxford

Sawdon, Frederick John Mr. Coulson . Scarborough

Saxby, Fobert . Mr. Saxby . Lewes

Scott, James Furness . Mr. Smith . Dunstable

Seaton, Charles A . Mr. Hill . Sherborne

Selkirk, James . Mr. Mackay . Edinburgh

Severs, Joseph . Messrs. Harvey & Feynolds Leeds

Smith, George Henry

Mr. Skadford .

. . . Spalding

Mr. Sharpe .

...iNotting Hill

Mr. Wellington .

...Oakham

Mr. Lof’thouse .

...Hull

Mr. Claugkton .

...Chesterfield

Mr. Macfarlan .

. . .Edinburgh

Mr. Halliday .

...Manchester

Mr. Allen .

Mr. Asling .

...Spalding

.Messrs. Lea & Co....

Mr. Savage .

. . .Brighton

Mr. Wright .

. . .London

Mr. Foster .

...Ludlow

.Mr. Halliday .

. . .Manchester

Mr. Tonge .

...York

Mr. Witkerington. . .

Worcester

Mr. Luff .

...Oxford

.Mr. Coulson .

, ...Scarborough

Mr. Davis .

. . . . High Harrogate

.Mr. Hemming .

. . .Biskopwearmoulh

Mr. Fook .

. ...Sittingbourne

Mr. Burden .

...London

Mr. Buck .

. . . Dudley

Mr. Sims .

. ...Barnsbury

Mr. Lampiough .

. . . London

Mr. Jessopp .

.Mr. Parker .

...Derby

Date of

Kegis-

t ration

1861

1862

1860

1858

1854

1857

1864

1864

1862

1862

1865

1853

1856

1859

1858

1860

1864

1862

1857

1859

1856

1864

1861

1865

1862

1855

1865

1854

1865

1856

1858

1860

1856

1857

1864

1856

1857

1853

1864

1856

1859

1855

1846

1861

1849

1857

1854

1861

1861

1859

REGISTERED APPRENTICES OP THE SOCIETY.

lvii

NAME.

RESIDING WITH

TOWN.

Steward, John Alfred

Stevens, Alfred Felix

Twinberrow, James K.

.Mr. Watts .

. Chatham

.Mr. Asling .

.Spalding

.Mr. Squire .

London

Mr. Wortley .

. Durham

.Mr. Blandford .

.London

.Mr. Collins .

..London

Mr. Skinner .

.Cirencester

Mr. Davis .

.Leominster

.Mr. Stewart .

.Edinburgh

, .Mr. Forbes .

. Beigate

..Mr. Stevens .

. .Strood

Messrs. Garratt .

■Bugby

, .Messrs. Lea & Co .

..Malvern

.Mr. Boully .

.London

..Mr. Parker .

.Derby

..Mr. Hill .

.Sheffield

.Mr. Swift .

.Spalding

, .Mr. Greaves .

, .Bakewell

, .Mr. King . .

. Soham

..Mr. Stracban .

.Barnsley

..Mr. Dickinson .

, .London

Mr. Chaston .

..Lowestoft

..Mr. Blades .

.London

,.Mr. Williamson .

. Scarborough

.Mr. Taylor .

Middlesborough

..Mr. Pasmore .

.Exeter

,.Mr. Walker .

.Bath

..Mr. Outhwaite .

..Bradford

.Mr. Thompson .

. .Bichmond, Yorks

. .Mr. Witherington .

. . W orcester

..Messrs. Macfarlan .

..Edinburgh

..Mr, Brearey .

..Douglas

.Mr. Towerzey .

..London

..Mr. Job .

..Truro

..Mr. Turney .

.Plymouth

..Mr. Brown .

. .York

..Air. Wellington .

. Oakham

Mr. Payne .

. .Alesbury

gsMr. Beading .

. .Warwick

...Mr. Twinberrow ....

. London

i. Bullock & Beynolds..

. .London

.Mr. Twinberrow _

. . London

.Messrs. Lea & Co .

. .Worcester

..Messrs. Durant .

.Dorking

.Mr. Walker .

. .Hogthorpe

..Mr. Goodall .

. .Derby

..Mr. Witherington .

..Worcester

..Mr. Wilson .

..Sheffield

..Mr. T. Hazell .

. .Maidstone

..Mr. Headley .

..Bridlington Qua]

lviii

REGISTERED APPRENTICES OF THE SOCIETY.

Date of
Regis¬
tration.

1857

1853

1855

1865

1857
1865

1858
1860
1857
1861

1857

1859

1858
1861
1853

1855

1859
1862

1856
1861
1856

1853
1862
1864

1858

1860
1860

1859
1852
1864

1856

1857
1862

1854
1861
1864
1863

1858

1855
1857

NAME.

RESIDING WITH

TOWN.

W all, J ohn Thomas . Mr. Butcher . Cheltenham

Walls, Thomas . Mr. Barber . Liverpool

Walton, Ralph . Mr. Ritson . Sunderland

Ward, John S . Mr. Brayshay . Stockton-on-Tees

Warren, Thomas P. B. ...Mr. Pasmore . Exeter

Warrior, Henry . Messrs. Maud & Wilson ...Bradford, Yorks.

Waters, Alexander . Mr. Corrie . Bedford

Watkins, Richard . Mr. Fowler . London

Watson, Thomas D. Messrs. Martindale& Son Carlisle

Watts, Charles C . Mr. Clarke . Richmond, S.W.

Webber, Charles F . Mr. Edwards . Sidmouth

Webster, George O . Mr. Seddon . Manchester

Webster, George W . Mr. Webster . Warrington

Welch, Thomas Kemp ...Messrs. Randall & Son Southampton

Wheeler, James . Mr. Payne . Aylesbury

Wheeler, Joseph W . Mr. Owen . London

White, Alfred . Mr. Mount . Canterbury

White, James Walter ...Mr. Groves . Weymouth

White, John G . Mr. Ransome . Hitchin

White, William . Mr. Bottle . Dover

Whitehouse, George H.... Mr. Tonge . York

Whitworth, John . Mr. Lowe . Liverpool

Wilkinson, James . Mr. Bartlett . Chelsea

Wilkinson, Thomas . Mr. Wilson . Sheffield

Willan, James R . Mr. Pratt . Wolverhampton

Williams, Robert H . Mr. Jones . Rhyl

Williams, W. P. Messrs. Williams & Fitzhugh Nottingham

Wilson, Francis . Mr. Lord . Rochdale

Wilson, William . Mr. Rainey . Spilsby

Wilson, Thos. Davison Messrs. Dobinson & Son Sunderland

Witherington, Henry ...Mr. Witherington . Worcester

Wood, Albert . Mr. Watkins . Walsall

Wood, Frederick . Mr. Glass . Cheltenham

Wood, John Robert . Mr. Simmonds . Boston

Woodcock, James . Mr. Cutting . Leamington

Woodstock, Charles Edmund... Mr. Hawkins ...Southampton

Wylde, Samuel . Mr. Heaton . Manchester

Wvman, John . Mr. Gulliver . .-...Lutterworth

Yerworth, Edmund . Mr. Binge . Pimlico

Young, John . Mr. Mackay . Galashiels

lix

LOCAL SECRETARIES, 1865-66 *

Aberdeen . Davidson, Charles

Abingdon . Ballard, William

Andover . Dyson, John

Anglesea . Jones, Henry

Ashton-under-Lyne Bostock, William

Aylesbury . Dickins, Rowland

Banbury . Beesley, Thomas

Barnstaple . Cotton, Gilbert K.

Basingstoke . Hulbert, Robt. S.

Rath . Pooley, John C.

Bedford . Cuthbert, John M.

Belper . Brown, Charles

Berwick . Carr, William G.

Beverley . Hobson, Charles

Bewdley . Newman, Robert

Bilston . Lidington, George

Birkenhead . Jones, Charles

Birmingham . Southall, William, jun.

Blackburn . Booth, J ames

Bodmin . Williams, Joseph D.

Bolton . Dutton, George

Boston . Thomas, John H.

Bradford (Yorks.)... Pratt, John

Bridgewater . Payne, Reuben C.

Bridgnorth . Deighton, Thomas M.

Bridlington . Headley, Morris

Bridport . Beach, Thomas

Brighton . Gwatkin, James T.

Bristol . Stoddart, William W.

Buckingham . Sirett, George

Burnley . Thomas, Richard

Bury St. Edmunds Portway, John

Cambridge . Deck, Arthur

Canterbury . Harvey, Sidney

Cardiff . Joy, Francis W.

Cardigan . Davies, David

Carlisle . Moss, William

Carmarthen . Davies, Richard M.

Carnarvon . Owen, Griffith

Chatham . French, Gabriel

Chelmsford . Baker, Charles P.

Cheltenham . Smith, Nathaniel

Chertsey . . Boyce, John P.

Chester . Grindley, William

Chichester . Pratt, John

Christchurch . Judd, William

Cirencester . Mason, Joseph W.

Cockermouth . Bowerbank, Joseph

Colchester . Man thorp, Samuel

Congleton . Goode, Charles

Coventry . Wyley, John

Croydon . Crafton, Ralph

Darlington . Abbott, John T.

Dartmouth .

... Rees, William H.

Deptford .

... Atkins, Ernest

Derby .

Devizes .

... Madge, James C.

Devon port .

... R.ow, Charles

Doncaster .

... Dunhill, William

Dorchester .

... Davis, John

Dorking .

... Clark, William W.

Dover .

. . . Bottle, Alexander

Droitwich .

... Green. John

Dudley .

... Hollier, Elliot

Dundee .

. . . Hardie, J ames

Dunfermline . . .

... Brown, William

Durham .

... Robson, George

Edinburgh .

... Mackay, John

Evesham .

. . . Dingley, Richard L.

Exeter .

... Palk, John

Rye .

... Bishop, Robert

Falmouth .

... Newman, Walter

Fareham .

... Peat, Walter

Flint .

... Roose, Robert

Forfar .

... Rankin, James A.

Glasgow .

... Kininmont, Alexr.

Gloucester .

. .. Pearce, Thomas

Goole .

... Hasselby, Thos. J.

Grantham .

. .. Hall, Thomas

Guernsey .

.. Arnold, Adolphus

Guildford .

. . Martin, E. W .

Halifax .

. .. Jennings, William

Harrogate .

.. Coupland. Joseph

Harwich .

... Bevan, Charles F.

Hastings .

.. Amoore, Charles

Haverfordwest

.. Saunders, David P.

Helston .

.. Guy, Guy

Hereford .

.. Jennings, Reginald

Hertford .

. . Lines, George

Honiton .

.. Rogers, J. R.

Horncastle .

.. Elsey, John

Horsham .

.. Williams, Philip

Huddersfield ....

.. Higgins, Thomas S.

Hull .

.. Earle, Francis

Huntingdon ....

.. Bryant, William

Hyde (Cheshire)

Brocklehurst, James

Hythe .

.. Thomas. James

Ipswich .

. . Wiggin, John

Jersey .

.. Ereaut, John

Kendal .

.. Metcalfe, John Sykes

Kidderminster .

. Steward, Josiali

Kilmarnock .

.. Rankin, William

King’s Lynn ....

. . Wigg, John G.

Kingston on Thames Gould, Frederick

Lancaster .

. . Wearing, William

Launceston .

. Eyre, Thomas S.

* Local Secretaries are appointed in all Towns in Great Britain which return a Member
or Members to Parliament ; and in such other Towns as contain not less than Three M em¬
bers of the Society.

lx

LOCAL SECRETARIES.

Leamington . Colbeck, Geo. R.

Leeds . Reynolds, Riclid.

Leicester . . Cooper, Thomas

Leighton Buzzard Readman, William

Leominster . Davis, D. Frederick

Lewes . Martin, Thomas

Lincoln . Peppercorn, Benj.

Liskeard . Eliott, Samuel

Liverpool . Edwards, John B.

Ludlow . Wells, Edwin

Lyme Regis . Thornton, Edward

Lymington . Allen, Adam U.

Macclesfield . Wright, George W.

Maidenhead . Thompson, Chas. H.

Maidstone . Argles, Henry

Maldon . Wall worth. David

Malmesbury . Walker, William

Manchester & Salford Wilkinson, William

Margate . Dyer, John

Melton Mowbray ... Wing, Thomas N.

Merthyr Tydfil . Smyth, Walter

Monmouth . Dawe, Sampson

Narberth . Jones, David

Newark . Harvey, John

Newcastle-un.-Lyne Cartwright, William
Newcastle-on-Tyne Brady, Henry B.
Newport (Monm,)... Jones, Thomas J.

Northallerton . Warrior, William

Northampton . Barry, Edwin

Norwich . Sutton, Francis

Nottingham . Atherton, J. H.

Oldham . Hargraves, II. L.

Oswestry . Smale, Richard B.

Oxford . Walsh, Edward

Penrith . Kirkbride, William

Penzance . Cornish, Henry R.

Perth . Dandie, David

Peterborough . Parnell, John

Plymouth . Gibbons, William

Poole . Penney, William

Portsmouth . Rastrick, James L.

Preston . Houghton, William

Ramsgate . Morton, Henry

Reading . Cooper, Lewis

Reigate . Forbes, William

Retford . Baker, William

Richmond (Surrey) Hopwood, Henry S.
Richmond (Yorks.) Thompson, Thomas

Ripon . Judson, Thomas

Rochdale . . Taylor, Edward

Rochester . Ring, Thomas S.

Rothesay . . Duncan, William

Rugby . Garratt, John C.

Ruthin . Bancroft, John J.

Ryde . Wavell, John

Rye . Plomley, J. F.

Salisbury . Atkins, Samuel R.

Sandwich . Duncan, F. M.

Scarborough . Covex-ley, John

Selby . Colton, Thomas

Shaftesbury . Powell, John

Sheffield . Radley, William Y.

Shields, North . Brown, William H.

Shields, South . Mays, Robert J. J.

Shrewsbury . Cross, William G.

Southampton . Palk, Edward

Southport . Garside, Burdett

St. Albans . Davenport, Edward

St. Leonards . Davis, John 0.

Stalybridge . Brierley, Richard

Stamford . Patterson, George

Stockport . Shaw, A. H.

Stockton . Brayshay, Wm. B.

Stoke-on-Trent . Adams, J. H.

Stourbridge . Bland, John H.

Stowmarket . Simpson, Thomas

Stroud . Blake, William F.

Sunderland . Ritson, John G.

Swansea . Brend, Thomas

Taunton . Prince, Henry

Tavistock . Gill, William

Tewkesbury . Wilkes, Seth M.

Tliirsk . Thompson, John

Tiverton . Bond, L. V.

Torquay . Glanfield, George

Truro . James, John

Tunbridge Wells ... Gardener, Charles.

Uxbridge . Chave, John

Wakefield . Gissing, Thomas W.

Wallingford . Payne, Sidney

Walsall . Watkins, George H.

Wandsworth . Nind, George

Wareham . Randall, Thomas

Warminster . Toone, J. Y.

Warrington . Redmayne, Christr.

Warwick . Reading, R. G.

Wenlock, Much ... Edwards; William

Westbury . Taylor, Stephen

Weston-super-Mare Rich, Thomas

Weymouth . Groves, Thomas B.

Whitehaven . Randleson, William

Wigan . . Barnisli, E. PI.

Wilton . Tuck, John

Winchester' . Powell, Edward

Windsor . ' . Russell, C. J. L.

Wolverhampton ... Brevitt, W. Y.

Woolwich . Rastrick, John A.

Worcester . Witherington, T.

Worthing . Cortis, Charles

Wycombe . . . Hall, John B.

Yarmouth . Poll, William S.

York . Davison, Ralph

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